The USDA and USDI have undertaken several steps to initiate the implementation of the ecosystem approach, having participated in broader interagency efforts in this regard. These initiatives include assessing current organizational and budget structures to encourage interdisciplinary management and the establishment of interagency committees to address concerns such as data integration and the inter-agency programme coordination of activities, e.g. in the Pacific Northwest and the Florida Everglades. An example of the implementation of the ecosystem approach is the USDA National Resources Conservation Service's incorporation of ecological principles into its conservation planning assistance with non-federal land owners. All resources, (soil, water, air, plant and animal), as well as social, cultural and economics concerns are integrated into a planning approach to better recognize and avoid any negative environmental, social and economic consequences as a result of inappropriate land management applications.

When natural resource conflicts go beyond the scope of non-private landowners, mechanisms are available to facilitate the intervention of federal, state and local governments. It is common for non-government organizations such as The Nature Conservancy, Native Plant Society, Society for Range Management and others to be involved in the planning process. Coordinated Resource Management Planning (CRMP) is a decision-making process that is designed to improve and maintain natural resources via means that are congruent with the objectives of landowners, interest groups, and land management agencies. CRMP is a process which encourages people within a defined geographical area (such as a watershed), to identify mutual problems, needs, and opportunities. With the assistance of technical advisors, they develop a written action plan. This process has been embraced by several land management and technology transfer agencies in areas where natural resource conflicts have occurred.

State and local governments serve as direct land managers for numerous wildlife management areas, forests, parks, and water recharge areas through networking and coordination with federal, state and local agencies and as well as non-governmental organizations. In watersheds outside of New York City, federal, state, local, and non governmental organizations have implemented initiatives to encourage farmers to voluntarily establish conservation practices that will result in cleaner drinking water.

Another example of such activities is found in a 3,000 square mile watershed in South Dakota where poor grazing management practices on adjacent rangelands were identified as the primary cause of sedimentation in the Bad River (which empties into Lake Sharpe and the Missouri River). The state water board and the Governor identified the sedimentation of the Bad River as one of the state's most serious water quality problems which adversely impacts the quality of life of inhabitants of the city of Fort Pierre while concurrently causing diminishing hydrologic power generation in the area. Through a joint effort of local Soil and Water Conservation Districts, funding from a water quality programme of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was obtained to assist local landowners in creating grazing management and soil conservation programmes to reduce sedimentation in the river. As a result, the restoration of native prairie ecosystems is occurring.

Private special interest groups such as The Nature Conservancy, Ducks Unlimited and Trout Unlimited have taken a pro-active role in assuring that the conservation and improvement of the natural resource base is being achieved on federal and non-federal lands. A good example of this kind of activity is the Malpai-Borderlands Project in southeastern Arizona and neighbouring New Mexico. This project revolves around a ranch purchased by The Nature Conservancy and a non-profit organization of 36 local ranchers, called the "Malpai Borderlands Group". This project covers approximately 1 million acres of an native grasslands (a rangeland ecosystem). The Malpai Borderlands Group and TNC have combined efforts to strive towards the common goal of long-term sustainability of fragile and native grasslands. To effectively sustain these grasslands and the endangered species present, coordinated grazing management and strict adherence to forage allocations is necessary so that ranchers have an opportunity to develop ecologically sound and sustainable ranching enterprises. Federal agencies have joined state and local agencies to help develop this project. TNC has also helped establish a network of "Heritage Programmes" which are in place in all fifty states. These programmes inventory endangered and threatened species and provide the scientific basis for prioritizing and guiding development away from critical habitat areas.

The National Crop Residue Management Alliance is a partnership of government agencies, agribusiness, and concerned citizens which helps farmers obtain information about crop residue management. State alliances and local conservation groups are working together at the local level in providing this information exchange. Private industry, the farm media, and USDA agencies are working together to promote responsible independent farming. The National CRM Alliance was established to assist local farmers in planning conferences on conservation systems installation, field demonstrations, and one-on-one consultations. By sharing resources and expertise, state and local organizations have organized farmer-to-farmer meetings designed to help implement sustainable farmland management practices.

Forests in the U.S. range from the dry chaparral "forests" of the Pacific, the oak-hickory forest of the east to the old growth Douglas fir and Sitka spruce forests of the Pacific Coast rain forest. The U.S. has numerous organized advocates for forest conservation and use, having a profound effect on American forestry and forest policy. Forest legislation has recently been revised to help combat deforestation envisaged under chapter 11 of Agenda 21 and includes The Forest Stewardship Act of 1990, the Cooperative Forestry Assistance Act of (1990), America the Beautiful (1990), National Indian Forest Resources and the Management Act. The U.S. has experienced a net growth in the area covered by forests since the 1920's. Although there have been areas of local concern with respect to deforestation, nationally, deforestation in not perceived as a problem, for natural and artificial reforestation overcompensates for forest loss. Therefore, reforestation is not an issue. However, the reforestation of marginal forest lands, the large number of private landowners and competing agricultural uses presents an obstacle to localized reforestation. In the U.S., the term "deforestation" is used to refer to the conversion of forest land to other uses or to a permanent non-forest condition. All USDA- Forest Service programme results are reported locally to national levels. Projects are evaluated at the local level. The real challenge to forestry management is monitoring the cumulative landscape effects of site-specific activities. This "outcome" perspective addresses the effects of human activities and government intervention on biological diversity and forest health. The extension function of the USDA Forest Service and the USDA Agricultural Extension Service is to educate, train and assist private forest owners and the States in conservation and sustainable management of forest lands.

Current assessments of the health and conditions of U.S. forests show that in many cases resource conditions are not satisfactory. For example, tree mortality as a result of exotic forest disease is so extensive that the composition of forest ecosystem across the U.S. has changed. Acid forming air born chemicals are having observable impacts on tree health. Large forested landscapes have an unnatural distribution of trees of different ages because of previous harvesting practices. Although older age forests are important to the biodiversity of forest ecosystems, the growing number of aging and over stocked forest landscapes are becoming vulnerable to insects and disease. The list of threatened and endangered species is increasing and some fish habitat and populations are limited by problems of water quality and quantity. The focus of U.S. forest conservation strategy is to concentrate on being sensitive to ecosystem needs, reducing demand for wood fiber through recycling, efficient harvesting and utilization and increasing the productivity of managed forests. This will reduce the impacts on forest ecosystems, decrease the area impacted and increase the value of all forest related resources.

The U.S. is moving forward to enforce its commitment to sustainable forestry by several measures, including: establishing an ecosystem approach to sustainable forest management, inventorying forest area by ecosystem, and adjusting the balance between environmental and commercial use of publicly owned lands. It also includes developing domestic criteria and indicators for sustainable management of U.S. forests and participating in the development of internationally agreed criteria and indicators for the conservation and sustainable management of temperate and boreal forests. The development of criteria and indicators for temperate and boreal forests was undertaken in partnership with those countries and non-governmental groups that have a stake in temperate and boreal forests.

The best example of policy following UNCED Forest Principles is the ecosystem management approach to the stewardship of public forest lands. The President's office has established an interagency coordinating committee for ecosystem management. By using this approach, concerted efforts have been made over the last 18 months in the Pacific Northwest to resolve issues centred on forest protection and timber harvest, the preservation of old growth ecosystems, scenic values, and the livelihoods of local communities. In April 1994, following a process of participation with all stakeholders and the completion of an environmental impact statement, the President's Forest Plan was adopted for all federal lands in the Pacific Northwest region.

The President's Forest Plan has three components: An Aquatic Conservation Strategy aimed at restoring and maintaining the ecological health of the region's watersheds, a Terrestrial Conservation Strategy aimed at maintaining late successional and old growth species habitat and the biological diversity associated with such ecosystems, and an initiative to help local communities adjust to new forest ecosystem protection management. The Fish and Wildlife Service is involved in the implementation of conservation and management programmes for forest dwelling neotropical birds. The Fish and Wildlife Service has developed partnerships with dozens of federal and State agencies, private conservation organizations and local governments to restore and manage forest habitats for these migratory species. The Texas Gulf Coast Wood Lot Initiative (important to migrating birds crossing the Gulf of Mexico) and the 12 million hectare Tennessee Valley Project are examples.

In October of 1994, the American Forest and Paper Association, which represents 95% of the industrial forest land in the U.S., approved a set of Sustainable Forestry Principles and Guidelines. Through these guidelines and measures, the aggregate performance of member companies will establish new standards for the entire industry and industrial forest landowners. The initiative includes performance measures for reforestation, and the protection of water quality, wildlife, visual quality, biological diversity and areas of special significance. The State Foresters are responsible for the establishment of State Stewardship Committees in every state which will include representation from a range of natural resource disciplines as well as the public and private sectors. Each State has also developed and is implementing state resource plans which will ultimately bring millions of hectares of nonindustrial private forest lands under stewardship management.

The Stewardship Incentives Programme, a companion programme to the Forest Stewardship Programme, began in 1992 and provides cost-share assistance for private landowners to implement a broad range of practices recommended under their Stewardship Management plans. Landowners with approved plans are eligible to receive up to 75 percent cost-share assistance for practices that include wildlife, fish habitat improvement, soil and water improvement, forest recreation enhancement, riparian and wetlands protection, reforestation, among other activities. During the first two years of implementation (through FY 1993), more than 16,200 hectares were planted in trees, windbreaks and shelterbelts were established or improved on approximately 3,200 hectares and wildlife habitat enhancement activities took place on an area encompassing 7,300 hectares.

The U.S. Forest Service, in partnership with 13 other Federal agencies, is leading the development of scientific protocols for implementing national and regional scale ecological assessments. The protocols will be tested in 1995 in the Columbia River Basin, the Southern Appalachian Mountains and the Mid-Atlantic states. This will augment the current forest inventory system of over 100,000 plots that are sampled on a 11 year cycle.

The U.S. Forest Service, the Environmental Protection Agency, the Bureau of Land Management and the States have begun an annual assessment of the health and vitality of the Nation's forests, which will serve as an early warning system for the broad areas effected by insects and diseases, atmospheric deposition, meterological events, human activities and climate change. The current programme includes 14 states.

International Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Drought and/or Desertification

Particularly in Africa

Convention: Signed in 1994; but not yet ratified

Additional comments relevant to this chapter: Significant areas susceptible to desertification comprise approximately 37% of the United States. Numerous federal, state and local land use plans have been prepared for areas susceptible to desertification. These plans generally fall into three broad categories: functional or sector-specific plans, such as highway construction plans; resource specific plans, such as plans to manage fishery resources or plans to reduce soil erosion; and local comprehensive land use plans. The U.S. has only begun to undertake planning on an ecosystem-wide basis. There are no national or regional plans or strategies to combat desertification.

In August 1993, Legislation was revised to combat desertification and drought. In order to raise the overall level of knowledge of the causes and effects of drought and desertification, the Departments of Interior, Commerce (NOAA), and Agriculture, in coordination with other appropriate U.S. agencies, agreed to explore the feasibility of a domestic demonstration programme aimed at the optimum management of drylands for sustainable use.

The impact of improper farming, land use, natural causes and water withdrawals on desertification are rated as "modest"by the Government. Grazing has a "moderate" impact while fuel wood collection is rated "insignificant or none". Improper grazing practices in the 1800's and early 1900's resulted in the degradation of large areas of the western part of the United States. These areas have been slow to recover.

In order to address identified problems associated with desertification, Federal natural resource agencies, in cooperation with State, Tribal and local governments, non-governmental organizations and private land owners are gradually developing ecosystem based approaches to restore degraded areas. Social, economic and cultural incentives exist so that farmers undertake conservation and regenerative measures. Rangeland Reform '95 reduced grazing fees for good stewardship on federally-owned grazing lands.

The U.S. Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, and Interior, in coordination with other U.S. agencies, actively participated in activities to negotiate an International Convention to Combat Desertification in those countries experiencing serious drought and/or desertification (particularly in Africa) and co-sponsored an International Symposium and Workshop on Desertification in Developed Countries in October of 1994. The departments are currently developing a number of ecosystem based demonstration projects in the arid and semi-arid areas of the United States.

The Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC) was established in 1965 pursuant to the Appalachian Regional Development Act of 1965. Its purpose was to help build a better economy and better quality of life for the people in the Appalachian Mountain region. An important element of the program is its unique partnership of federal, state and local governments. This structure helps put responsibility in the hands of citizens at the local level. In this process, initiatives from local citizens become part of each state's annual overall plan that is then approved by the ARC. This results in a "from the bottom up" approach to addressing local needs, rather than from the top down. Funds that have been distributed through ARC programs have been used for improving water and sewer systems, work force training programs, adult literacy programs, improving access to health care, and in construction of the Appalachian highway system. Since 1965, the 13-state region within the ARC has received $6.5 billion in special federal funding, which in turned has leveraged funds from state and municipal sources. In 1965, one in three people living in Appalachian Mountains were considered impoverished. Since then, the overall poverty rate has diminished to closer to that of the federal average. The number of adults who have received high school educations in the area has risen from one in 3 in 1965, to two in three; and the infant death rate has been cut in half over that same time period.

1. Decision-Making Structure: Most all decision-making is taken at state and local levels.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No unique technology situations in the Appalachian mountain area.

3. Major Groups: Major groups generally involved at local and state levels.

4. Finance: About $6.5 billion of federal funds provided through the ARC since 1965 in the Appalachian region.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information

The U.S. government continuously reviews policy, research programmes, extension programmes and other activities related to food production, marketing and consumption. The most recent national legislation on agricultural and rural development is the "Federal Agricultural and Improvement Act of 1996", more commonly referred to as the 1996 Farm Bill. This bill extended the Conservation Reserve Program until the year 2002. It also established the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) which combines functions of four other conservation programs, and a new Farmland Protection Program to purchase conservation easements om 68,800 - 137,600 ha to limit non-agricultural uses of land. To encourage the economic development of rural communities, the U.S. Government has an alternative Agricultural Research and Commercialization Programme. This programme seeks to enhance farm income by developing and commercializing non-food, non-feed uses of traditional and non-traditional agricultural products. A revolving loan fund, established to encourage this work has granted loans for purposes as diverse as the establishment of standards and common terminology for biofuels, the manufacture of paper from straw, the manufacture of high quality furniture from low-quality and small diameter logs, the use of kenaf as a mat for seeding lawn grass and making newsprint and fiberboard, and the use of milkweed as a filler for pillows and comforters.

Under the USDA's Sustainable Agriculture Research Extension (SARE) programme, research and education projects are funded that facilitate scientific investigation and education. Over 100 producer grants have been awarded through this programme to date. Farmers and ranchers must initiate and conduct these research grants. In one programme, feed savings of $233 per dairy cow was achieved with rotational grazing as compared to confinement feeding the Northeast Region. In addition, labor has been reduced by 59% and profits increased 32%. Monthly meetings and pasture walks helped participating dairy producers and neighbours make a smooth transition to pasture-based dairying, which required a small fraction of the chemical inputs used to produce grain for confinement dairy systems.

One example of the U.S. Government's effort to establish land reclamation programmes for degraded land is the Conservation Reserve Programme. The purpose of the programme is to assist land owners in the conservation and improvement of highly erodible land, fragile lands (including land with associated ground or surface water that may be vulnerable to contamination) and wetlands from annual cropping. Through long-term contracts and easements, approximately 36 million acres are incorporated in this programme.

The National Plant Germplasm Advisory Committee has been in operation for over 20 years. The U.S. Government, maintains the world's most extensive germplasm storage network. The base collection is housed in the National Seed Storage Laboratory. Active genebanks are located in more than 20 locations around the country.

Compared to plant germplasm initiatives, the conservation and sustainable utilization of animal genetic resources for sustainable agriculture is in its infancy. The U.S., however, has begun collecting a national inventory of available animal genetic resources.

The U.S. Government's research and education on Integrated Pest Management (IPM) includes research on pests, pesticide resistance, biological controls, cultural controls and sterile insect release programmes. IPM involves the exploration and utilization of biological cycles and genetic diversity of agricultural pests, host resistance, naturally occurring pathogens and parasites. It also includes the study and use of reduced toxicity pesticides. IPM involves training and education to foster a variety of pest control techniques in order to keep pesticide intervention to a minimum.

The U.S. Government has many programmes that collect data, establish databases, and provide network access to these databases. Databases are developed and maintained for germplasm information, pests, pesticide and fertilize use, production practices, soil types, forest types, insect infestations, and crop coverage/production. Economists analyze the data to compare input use and profitability of different production practices. These databases are accessed by research scientists, extension agents, farmers, and others through the National Agricultural Library's computer system through SANET (Sustainable Agriculture Network) over the INTERNET. The National Agricultural Library supports the Alternative Farming Systems Information Center, which provides information in print and other media in response to thousands of inquires on numerous subjects related to sustainable agricultural practices. A National Soil Survey and the Natural Resources Inventory contain information on soil types and conditions and land degradation.

Convention on Biological Diversity

Signed in 1993; but not yet ratified

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

Convention signed in 1993 and already ratified.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter: Post-UNCED domestic policy has focused on promoting partnerships among Federal, state and private programmes concerned with biological diversity, coordinating government-wide research, data systems, and technology development, and demonstrating ecosystem-based management approaches, while concurrently establishing protected areas, maintaining ex situ repositories for genetic resources and improving public education. Federal systems of national parks, forests, grasslands, wildlife refuges, marine sanctuaries, wilderness areas, and other management categories and special designations play a major role in situ conservation of biodiversity. Federal programmes and facilities also play a major role in collection and ex situ preservation of crop germplasm and other genetic resources of potential or actual economic importance.

In 1993, the Federal Government established the National Biological Service (NBS) to provide information and technology for managing biological diversity. NBS is a catalyst for developing methods and protocols for biological inventory, monitoring, research and data management. Through partnerships with other agencies and private organizations, the NBS will coordinate access to biological information by Federal, state and other land managers and other sectors of society, document diversity trends, and feature the causes of biological impoverishment. In 1994, the NBS began to develop and synthesize biological information to support cooperative management of 10 ecosystems and initiated a review of national and regional biodiversity issues and trends based on existing data sources. Under the auspices of the interagency Committee on the Environment and Natural Resources established by the White House in 1993, a Subcommittee on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics has been charged with developing an integrated government-wide strategy and implementation plan for R&D on biodiversity and ecological dynamics to support management and conservation of renewable resources. The Federal government launched an interagency effort in 1993 to develop a baseline synthesis of the current knowledge of major eco-regions in the U.S. In 1993, the White House Office of Environmental Policy established the Interagency Ecosystem Management Task Force to coordinate the implementation of a comprehensive Ecosystem Management scheme. The Task force seeks to promote a consistent approach to environmental management by learning from large scale ecosystem-based management efforts, and strengthening the ongoing development of an ecosystem management approach for federal lands and federally managed programmes. This approach entails involving multiple agencies within larger ecological boundaries. It also relies on finding ways to increase voluntary participation of state, tribal, and local governments as well as nongovernmental organizations and the public. Through the Ecosystem Management Initiative, multi-agency Ecosystem Management Teams are being established to work with local and regional stakeholders in developing "New Initiatives Laboratories" as cooperative demonstrations of ecosystem management in areas where such management is not well developed, yet where significant opportunities for demonstrating integrated management exist. Ecosystem management strategies have been adopted in the Departments of the Interior, Agriculture, Defense and Energy, as well as in the USEPA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. In some cases, broad-scale organizational frameworks are being implemented. For example, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in the Department of the Interior has defined approximately 50 ecosystem "units" across the country as a basis for future planning related to sustainable management and endangered species conservation.

The U.S. believes that an area of particular interest to countries in the field of biotechnology relates to the agricultural sector. Both research and potential commercial use of biotechnology for plants in the environment can be obtained from the database for permits and deregulation developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). Most of the 48 species of plants, including trees, have been engineered for pest and disease resistance, and some for tolerance to environmental conditions. The database also allows researchers, governments, and industry to identify work of common interest. This information is available in the Internet.

The U.S. has a comprehensive system to review the food, agricultural, and environmental safety of transgenic organisms and products. This is effected by the USDA/APHIS, USEPA, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Animal vaccines are also reviewed for human and environmental safety and licenses by USDA/APHIS.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The Biotechnology Research Subcommittee (BRS) of the Committee on Fundamental Science under the White House's National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) serves as a federal agency coordinating function on biotechnology issues among the 13 federal departments and agencies involved in biotechnology issues applicable to broad and diverse government missions and goals in this area. The Federal Government is one of three partners, along with the industrial and academic communities, in the collaborative venture that is biotechnology research and development.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: Available information in the report highlighted on the previous page.

3. Major Groups: Of all the major groups identified in Agenda 21, the U.S. scientific and technological community plays the largest role in biotechnology issues. U.S. NGOs also are involved in the debate of biotechnology issues that has occurred with respect to certain biotechnology issues.

4. Finance: Federal investment in biotechnology research was estimated at nearly $4.3 billion in fiscal year 1994.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: The U.S. has cooperated and intends to continue to cooperate in numerous international organizations and fora that address biotechnology issues, including the FAO, UNEP, OECD, and the North American Plant Protection Organization (NAPPO). USAID has implemented a model program for international technology transfer that helps developing countries gain access to the benefits of agricultural biotechnology. The six-year Agricultural Biotechnology for Sustainable Development (ABSP) project features unique research collaborations targetting domestic and tropical varieties of a wide-range of crops. U.S. participants include the Federal Government, four universities, a law school, two companies, an international research institute, and a biotechnology trade association. Training and expert consultation in intellectual property and biosafety regulations are offered to micro-propagation companies from Indonesia and Costa Rica and public institutions in those countries as well as Egypt and Kenya. To ensure that mutual benefits ensue, legal agreements for ownership, product distribution, and royalties are established early in the process.

The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea: Signed but not yet ratified by the U.S.

See also the attached tables on the next pages.

The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea continues to serve as a comprehensive framework with respect to the uses of the oceans. It creates the structure for the governance and protection of all marine areas, including the air space above and the seabed and sub-soil below. The U.S. signed the accompanying Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the Convention on July 29, 1994, and intends to apply the Agreement provisionally pending ratification.

The U.S. has a national policy on oceans as well as an integrated coastal area management programme. Existing coastal zone and area management plans encompass all marine activities within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Prior assessment of the impact of major activities on oceans is required under the National Environmental Policy Act and the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act. Under the programme area of marine environmental protection, a tradeable permits programme for SO2 emissions and a cradle-to-grave hazardous waste management scheme has been introduced. Activities under this programme area are rated "very important" or "important". The Government has access to technologies that serve to identify the major types of pollution of the marine environment from land-based sources.

The Government participates in the development of socio-economic and environmental indicators, systematic observation systems, mussel watch programmes and clearing-houses, as well as capacity building and training programs. There are several databases (National Estuarine Inventory, National Coastal Discharge Inventory, National Status and Trends Programme, etc.) used by the U.S. Government, private sector or universities. These databases cover all relevant issues in coastal zones and are rated as "adequate". Since the 1972 enactment of the Coastal Zone Management Act, environmental assessments of coastal and marine areas are undertaken at least every two years. The U.S. is able to measure improvements and changes in the coastal and marine environment primarily through the National Status and Trends Programme.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The National Security Council (NSC) Interagency Working Group on Global Environmental Affairs, including but not limited to all U.S. maritime and coastal agencies, has primary responsibility for ensuring the integrated planning and implementation of costal management policy. The NSC is fully integrated in the President's Council on Sustainable Development.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration is working on a number of indices of nutrient enrichment, including an algae index. The U.S. noted, however, that an algae index alone, without other indices, is not very useful.

3. Major Groups: Major Groups have an advisory role in the national and local agenda-setting processes. These groups include the private sector, small-scale artisanal fishermen and indigenous people.

4. Finance: Bilateral and multilateral financial assistance has been provided by the U.S. Government since 1992 to implement activities to address the sustanable development of small islands and developing states (SIDS).

5. Regional/International Cooperation: The U.S. supports the Clearinghouse Concept in the Global Plan of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from land-based activities. Adoption of a UNGA resolution would facilitate coordination among the UN agencies and international organizations. The ratification and implementation of IMO treaties also requires international cooperation. The U.S. Mineral Management Service coordinates with counterpart agencies abroad with respect to offshore oil and gas operations. The United States fully supports the Agreement for the Implementation of the Provision of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, as well as the 1993 Agreement to promote Compliance with International Conservation and Management Measures by Fishing Vessels on the High Seas. The U.S. also fully supports the Code of Conduct of Responsible Fishing which impacts the conservation and management of marine fisheries within the U.S. EEZ. The Government recently helped launch a process to establish a multinational initiative for an International Research Institute (IRI) and network dedicated to world-class scientific research and education on forecasting on year-to-year climate variability. The U.S. took the lead on developing the clearinghouse activity called for in the Global Programme of Action (GPA) on land-based activities and hosted the conference in 1995 which developed and adopted the GPA. The U.S. plays a significant role in the IOC, IPCC, World Weather Watch, Earth Watch, and International Mussel Watch. The U.S. notes the importance of para. 17.118 of Agenda 21 that calls for the UNGA to provide for regular consideration within the UN system on general marine and coastal issues, including environment and development items. The U.S. Government participates in the Global Ocean Observing System. USAID's Water and Coastal Resources Program addresses the vital and strategic interests in promoting the sustainable development of freshwater, coastal, and marine resources. USAID is playing a leadership role in providing direction and impetus to international efforts to address the needs for integrated coastal and freshwater resources management, preservation of aquatic biodiversity and reduction of pollution from land-based activities. As part of its strategy, USAID is actively supporting the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI), which stems in part from a U.S. initiative. In addition USAID actively supports the sustainable management of mangrove and other coastal ecosystems.

Despite droughts and chronic water shortages in some locales and record floods in others, the U.S. has an abundance of high-quality fresh surface water and groundwater. Protection of both surface water and groundwater supplies are addressed at both local and state levels, as well as at the federal level. Federal statutes that provide protection for both surface and/or groundwater include the Clean Water Act, the Safe Drinking Water Act, the Resource Conservation and Management Act, and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act.

The Clean Water Act has as its goal the "restoration and maintenance of the chemical, physical and biological integrity of the Nation's waters." Under this Act, it is illegal to discharge pollutants from a point source into any surface water without a National Pollution Discharge Elimination System permit. Most states have legal authority to implement and enforce the provisions of the Clean Water Act, while USEPA retains oversight responsibilities for most state water programs. Water quality standards, criteria to assure that streams are "fishable and swimmable", are set by each state, with USEPA oversight and approval. The Safe Drinking Water Act, which was reauthorized in 1996, has been established to protect the quality of drinking water in the U.S. This law focuses on all waters actually or potentially designated for drinking use, whether from above ground or underground sources. The Act authorizes USEPA to establish safe standards of purity and requires all owners or operators of public water systems to comply with primary (health-related) standards. While at the federal level, USEPA has primary responsibilities under both the Clean Water and Safe Drinking Water Acts, many agencies of the federal government are involved in water resource management activities, including the U.S. Geological Survey, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the USDA's Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). State and local governments are also involved in water resource issues.

1. Decision-Making Structure: Most decision-making on allocation and administration of freshwater resources rests with states and local governments. However, federal statutes pertaining to environmental protection of surface water and groundwater supplies are principally under USEPA oversight.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: Not a significant issues in the United States. The U.S. is a major world leader in the development and use of state of the art technology pertaining to water management and use. The U.S. Geological Service (USGS) usually produces a major water use report for the country approximately every five years.

3. Major Groups: Most interaction of major groups with respect to water allocation and administration is done at state and local levels. USEPA and the Congress also interact with major groups in the development and implementation of federal programs dealing with freshwater issues.

4. Finance: USEPA expended approximately $47 million in implementing the Safe Drinking Water and Clean Drinking Water Acts in 1994. However, billions are spent each year in the United States at federal, state and local levels with regard to protecting, allocating and administering U.S. water supplies.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: The U.S. has longstanding cooperative programs with Canada and Mexico on water issues in border areas. The U.S. has also participated at international meetings dealing with freshwater issues (most recently at the Dublin and Noordwijk conferences several years ago). USAID's Water and Coastal Resources Program includes support for freshwater resources management, wetlands protection, and agricultural water use efficiency activities. USAID is providing technical assistance/expertise to promote the integrated, equitable, and participatory management of water resources in developing countries and countries with economies in transition.

The most significant innovations in chemical management in past 10 years have been the result of the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA) and the Pollution Prevention Act. EPCRA set up networks of local and state-level committees with the mission to develop plans to prevent, prepare for and respond to chemical accidents. EPCRA also established the toxics release inventory (TRI), which is a publicly available national database of routine annual emissions of over 300 toxic chemicals to air, water, land and off-site disposal. Early in 1993, the President ordered previously exempted federal facilities, including military installations, to report TRI emissions as well as stockpiles of chemicals stored on-site. EPCRA, complemented by related voluntary programs, has, in many instances, resulted in greater reductions in environmental risk than more traditional command-and-control approaches. A significant change in the FHSA since UNCED has been the inclusion of guidelines for evaluating chronic hazards from the exposure to carcinogenic, neurotoxic and reproductive/developmental toxic substances. These guidelines facilitate better interagency and international coordination of policies regarding exposure to such substances. The Pollution Prevention Act established a bold national objective that "Pollution should be prevented or reduced at the source whenever feasible." The USEPA Administrator has made this ethic a central consideration of all EPA programs.

In 1996, the Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) was adopted which amended FIFRA. The new law establishes stronger health-based safety standards for pesticide residues in all foods. It uses a "reasonable certainty of no harm" as a general safety standard. The single, health-based standard eliminates long-standing problems posed by multiple standards for pesticides in raw and processed foods. It requires USEPA to consider all non-occupational sources of exposure, including drinking water, and exposure to other pesticides with a common mechanism of toxicity when setting standards.

1. Decision-Making Structure: In response to growing public awareness and concern over environmental threats to human health posed by toxic chemicals and substances, the U.S. Congress has established over the past 25 years a number of agencies to address different aspects of environmental health issues. The network of federal agencies, moreover, involves numerous constituent and participating groups. At the national level, the federal agencies - including USEPA, the Department of Labor's Occupational and Health Administration and 7 different agencies within the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), USDA, and the Department of Transportation -- play a large role in defining and pursuing environmental health goals pertaining to toxic chemicals and substances through research, administration and service programs, as well as via regulation and enforcement activities. These agencies also provide valuable assistance to state and local environmental departments and health agencies. State and local agencies must address many of the same environmental health issues as the federal government. The scope and responsibilities of state agencies are extremely diverse and vary from state to state.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: By-and large, the United States is a world leader in development and utilizing the latest state-of-the-art technology related to administering toxic chemicals and substances.

3. Major Groups: Non-government entities, predominately from the science and technological community as represented by colleges and universities, address a range of environmental health research and policy issues related to toxic chemicals and substances. Environmental NGOs are also actively involved in national and local debates involved in governmental efforts aimed at addressing problems posed by toxics.

4. Finance: Total amount of federal financing related to research, administration and regulation of is not available at this time, but increasing resource constraints are of concern.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: The United States has been successful in having fundamental democratic principles accepted as part of the foundation for international toxic chemical work in numerous fora, including OECD, UNEP, UNECE, IFCS, etc. In contributing to the CSD process, the United States co-hosted with Mexico a workshop on lead. The results of that workshop were instrumental in getting the CSD to call for governments to phase-out the use of leaded gasoline.

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal: signed in 1990, but not yet ratified.

At the federal level, the United States continues to pursue the environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes under key laws, including the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) also known as the "Superfund" Act. RCRA is a nation-wide program to protect human health and the environment from the risks of improper management of hazardous and solid waste, and it provides a "cradle-to-grave" system of regulations for hazardous waste to promote the cleanup of sites that have been contaminated with hazardous substances while ensuring that, to the extent possible, the polluter pays principle is adhered to. This program is, to a large extent, administered by State governments with federal oversight. CERCLA is designed to promote clean-up of sites and other areas where past disposal practices of hazardous substances may now pose a threat to the environment and/or human health. Under this law, a large portion of the cleanups are conducted by the polluters; States participates in the cleanups as well, but there is no delegation of authority in CERCLA that permits States to administer the program. Most States and many localities also have their own laws and regulations concerning hazardous and solid waste disposal.

Since UNCED, the Clinton Administration has made pollution prevention, including waste minimization one of its highest priorities for the USEPA. To further this goal, USEPA has pursued several policies, including issuing new guidelines for hazardous waste reduction programs that include community right-to-know features; convening a task force of USEPA and State officials to develop economically sound source reduction strategies and technical controls; and restructuring hazardous waste recycling programs.

USEPA has also focused RCRA initiatives since UNCED on environmental justice through siting, permitting, public involvement, corrective action, disproportionate impacts and Native American tribal issues. For example, the USEPA expanded public involvement and improving its own ability to include environmental justice in public health considerations and to assure that priority-setting methods adequately address environmental justice concerns. Much of the USEPA action related to environmental justice are done in line with the Executive Order issued by President Clinton in February 1994 on "Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and Low-Income Populations".

Current disposal capacity is sufficient to handle expected amounts of hazardous waste safely until at least 2013. Combustion rules for hazardous waste were considerably tightened in 1994.

The U.S. still records the largest per capita generation of municipal solid waste among OECD countries. Municipal solid waste is expected to decline slightly on a per capita basis by 2000 mostly as a result of source reduction efforts. The pursuit of the RCRA goal of promoting waste reduction, reuse and recycling is succeeding in gradually reducing quantities of municipal waste being incinerated and landfilled: the proportion of waste recovered tripled between 1970 and 1993 and now stands at about 22 percent. Despite the fact that 38 States have enacted more than 140 recycling laws, with some having also established tax incentive programs for recycling, overall U.S. recycling rates are lower than those seen in other OECD countries. For example, nationwide about 34 percent of paper and 22 percent of glass were recycled in 1993 as compared to other OECD countries who have reached 40 percent and more in their paper and glass recycling efforts. The RCRA goal of cradle-to-grave management of waste is broadly being met. In spite of some slow efforts in some localities, most municipal waste is now disposed of in lined landfills, incinerated, or composted. Unsound disposal operations have been shut down. The share of incineration is not expected to grow and is likely to remain at about 16 percent, while landfilling is projected to decrease by about 10 percent between 1993 and 2000. With respect to sewerage issues, the federal response continues to focus on implementation of the Clean Water Act. Under this Act, federal funding contributed about three-quarters of the investment cost of local waste water treatment facilities. Over the past two decades, the Clean Water Act's "Construction Grants Program" provided a total of nearly $60 billion in federal assistance for the construction of municipal sewage treatment works, while states and local governments contributed over $20 billion. This has resulted in the U.S. as a leader among OECD countries with respect to state-of-the-art sewerage treatment. In 1991, the U.S. ceased dumping sewerage sludge in coastal waters.

1. Decision-Making Structure: State and local governments in the United States continue to have the primary responsibility for municipal solid waste management. Invariably, based on the strong democratic system of government in the U.S., various stakeholders are included in the decision-making structure at the State and local levels. Solid waste management is typically provided or regulated by local governments with funding from general tax revenues. The federal government, through USEPA, establishes performance standards for State and local efforts to ensure protection of human health and the environment.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: USEPA cooperates with State and local communities in a number of programs to improve solid waste management and prevent pollution. One example of technology cooperation deals with Underground Storage Tanks.

3. Major Groups: Business and industry, the scientific and technological community, and environmental NGOs tend to be the most active of the major groups on solid waste management issues in the United States.

4. Finance: Under current policy, it is estimated that the RCRA program will cost $234 billion between 1990 and 2020.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: The United States cooperates with its neighbors, Canada and Mexico, in addressing solid waste and sewage-related issues as they may arise. USAID strives to alleviate problems arising from poor sanitation and contaminated drinking water by assisting local governments in developing countries and in countries with economies in transition to improve and expand urban environmental services and related infrastructure, primarily water supply, sanitation and drainage, and solid waste management. USAID programs are aimed at increasing the volume of wastewater collected and treated from poor neighborhoods; introducing municipal and industrial performance standards for disposal of waste; and increasing capacity for compliance and enforcement of pollution standards. USAID activities have resulted in improved access to waste collection services and supported private-public cooperation in solid waste management. These activities have resulted in better sanitation, particularly for the urban poor. The United States adheres to the OECD Council Decision governing trade in recyclable waste with other OECD countries.

1. Decision-Making Structure: Federal agencies involved: DOE, NRC and the USEPA.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: U.S. considered a world leader in radwaste technology development.

3. Major Groups: Mostly, environment NGOs, business and industry and scientific and technological community involved at various levels of debate (i.e., local, state and national)

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: The U.S. cooperates in the IAEA, the London Convention, the NEA, and under numerous bilateral cooperation agreements.

USAID spending represents .5 per cent of the Federal budget and the US has the lowest ODA/GNP ratio among DAC members. As is the case with other DAC Members, public expenditure constraints and new claims on aid funds are the chief determinants of the US aid budget. Aid appropriations managed by USAID amount to approximately $7.5 billion and compete with the other $250 billion in discretionary programmes. In terms of ODA, US aid disbursements fell in 1993 by some $2 billion or 19 percent in real terms to $9.7 billion, reflecting a downcycle in multilateral payments. In terms of geographical and functional allocation, the most dramatic changes in the appropriations for 1995/96 are the increases in emergency and humanitarian aid and the cuts to Asia and Latin America. Official aid to the countries of Central and Eastern Europe has begun to decline. New economic instruments: Pursuant to the 1993 Budget Law, the U.S. increased the federal tax by 4.3 cents to 18.4 cents per gallon of gasoline and 24.4 cents on diesel fuel on 1 October 1993. The tax was estimated to help reduce the U.S. budget deficit by 32.2 billion over a 5-year period. Elimination of environmentally unfriendly subsidies: The phasing out of environmentally unfriendly subsidies is currently under review in the United States.

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MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION: During 1995, the federal government, in collaboration with the private sector and state and local governments, updated research, development and demonstration priorities for environmental technologies. The federal government continues to work with the private sector to establish a market-based verification process for environmental technologies. This process will be available nationally for environmental technologies within three years. In addition, the federal government recently launched the Rapid Commercialization Initiative (RCI), which is intended to accelerate the commercialization of near-commercial environmental technologies. Over the coming years, ten technologies will be commercialized through this new programme. Another priority of U.S. environmental technology is to increase its export to support and create new high-paying U.S. jobs and to contribute to the achievement of sustainable development.

In 1995, the White House National Science and Technology Council, and key federal agencies, released a 90-page "National Environmental Technology Strategy". The Administration's plan is a blueprint working with indsutry, states, communities and workers to help drive U.S. economic growth while solving environmental problems. To carry out this strategy, the federal government is implementing plans to, among other things, do the following: promote innovation by providing federal sites where U.S. companies can test and demonstrate the effectiveness of promising new environmental technologies; reinvent environmental regulations to allow businesses to develop and use the most efficient and effective technologies to meet high environmental standards, improve information and education for potential users throughout the U.S. and abroad; and provide assistance to U.S. environmental businesses so they can succeed in the global marketplace and assist developing countries in building capacity for addressing critical environmental challenges.

There are over fifty federal programs involved with environmental technologies among 10 different federal agencies.

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Provide information on the adoption of environmental management systems. National reaction to environmental management system standards such as the ISO 14000 Series and others. Please note efforts made at the national level to promote their adoption and the creation of certification infrastructure in order to facilitate access to these standards to local industry.

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List and describe programs or work under way to facilitate the transfer of ESTs to small and medium sized enterprises. Please note efforts to facilitate access to financial resources and other transfer strategies.

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In March 1995, the NSTC, through its Committee on Environment and Natural Resources (CENR), released a 75-page interagency strategy plan, "Preparing for the Future through Science and Technology: An Agenda for Environmental and Natural Resource Research". The interagency plan focuses the federal R&D dollars on the most pressing societal needs of the United States. As a result of the process of developing strategic and implementation plans for the CENR, the following areas of research have been identified for enhanced emphasis in the research and budget planning cycles of the CENR federal agencies with environment and natural resources research: Ecosystem Research--to promote the efficient use of natural resources while sustaining ecosystem integrity for future generations; Observations and data management to ensure that the necessary measurements are made efficiently and that the data are widely available to all stakeholders in easily usable forms; Socioeconomic dimensions of environmental change to understand the underlying human influences on the environment and the potential responses of society to change; Environmental Technology to protect the environment while stimulating economic growth and capturing emerging global markets; and, Science Policy Tools to improve integrated assessment and risk models so policymakers can make informed decisions on complex environmental and societal issues.

To meet the challenge for sound and cost-effective management of the environment and natural resources of the U.S., the Administration has undertaken significant changes in how we plan and fund federal research in support of sustainable development. The traditional single agency and single discipline approach to problem solving is being replaced by a coordinated, multiagency interdisciplinary approach. The NSTC, through the CENR, is coordinating decentralized agency programs to address environmental issues in an integrated manner. The CENR has seven sub-committees: Air Quality; Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics; Global Change; Natural Disaster Reduction; Resource Use and Management; Toxic Substances and Hazardous and Solid Wastes; and Water Resources and Coastal and Marine Environments. These sub-committees coordinate the federal agency programs within their particular environmental area. In addition, there are three crosscutting methodological issue sub-committees: Environmental Technology; Social and Economic Sciences;, and, Risk Assessment. Advice has been, and will continue to be, sought from a wide range of stakeholders from academia, industry, other private-sector groups, Congress, and state and local governments.

The Global Learning and Observation to Benefit the Environment (GLOBE) program also attempts to encourage greater scientific education on environment issues at pre-college levels (see chapter 36 summary).

a) Reorientation of education towards sustainable development: The Biodiversity and Ecosystems Network (BENI) was launched in October 1994 to utilize electronic communication networks to foster collaboration among partners in ecosystem management. The Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment (GLOBE) was initiated to enable elementary and secondary school students to collect environmental data, report the data through the Internet, and receive synthesized reports from national environmental centers. As of mid-1994, 14 nations had agreed to collaborate with the U.S. on this initiative.

According to the PCSD Task Force on Public Linkage, Dialogue and Education "an educated public is our most powerful resource to meet the challenges created by increasing environmental, economic and social demands." Recognizing the importance of education, the Council created the Public Linkage, Dialogue and Education Task Force to serve as the vehicle through which the work of the Council is accessible to the public for information, review and comment. In addition to information dissemination on sustainable development, the PCSD and its activities, the Public Linkage Task Force promotes dialogue and outreach between the PCSD and community networks. Through its efforts, the Task Force hopes to foster national understanding of sustainable development.

To meet its mandate, the Task Force seeks to engage the business, environmental, labor, civil rights, educational and religious communities in the PCSD process. The Task Force is identifying and creating outreach opportunities for the Council through the use of print, audio and visual media, as well as via satellite. Once key communications networks are identified, they can be used to disseminate a variety of information pieces, including a newly developed Spanish/English brochure highlighting the work of the Council and Task forces.

The national strategy on education is prepared by the Department of Education and includes such programmes as Goals 2000 and School to Work. Although there is no single network for either schools or universities, there are many examples of national programmes at both levels. At the primary school level, school curricula has already been reviewed and revised, and at the secondary school level, the revision of school curricula is being undertaken currently to address environment and development as a cross cutting issue. There are no plans to revise school curricula in vocational schools. The topics of "environmental health", "safe drinking water", "sanitation", "food", "ecosystems", "recycling" and "energy saving" are taught on an ad hoc basis at all school levels.

b) Increasing public awareness: The U.S. has been involved in several awareness raising programmes and activities aimed at the population at large (Earth Day, industry supported campaigns, Ad Council, Program KAB, Arbor Day, GLOBE Program, Discovery Channel, National Geographic programmes, CNN, ZooQ, As it Happens, water clean-up programmes, etc.).

The acquisition of economically valuable skills plays a central role in the empowerment of individuals. Education increases social mobility and thus serves as a formidable mechanism of conflict resolution. Moreover, rising education levels are critical to democratic governance and peaceful political discourse. USAID's education programs give particular emphasis to the quality and availability of primary education, especially for the poor, women and girls, and minorities. USAID capacity-building programs also support targeted, market-oriented interventions, aimed at technical and vocational training, the free flow of technology and technical information; and training in business skills.