The Montreal Protocol (1987), the London Amendment (1990) and the Copenhagen Amendment were signed in September 1995.

The latest report(s) to the Montreal Protocol Secretariat were prepared in 1995

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

The UNFCCC was signed 30 September, 1993.

The latest report to the UNFCCC Secretariat was submitted 30 September, 1993.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter

No information.

In general, land cover in Mongolia can be broken down as follows: 75.8 percent used for agricultural land (of which approximately 0.8 percent is cultivated; 1.6 percent used for hay-making, 97.6 is pastureland); 0.4 percent occupied by city and settlements; 7.4 percent for state special need (which includes land allocated for the state security and defense purposes, special protected areas, roads, and communication networks of national importance); 9.7 percent forest and shrubland; 1.0 percent area covered by water, and 5.7 percent state reserved land.

Mongolian land territory has been divided into six broad vegetation zones, which include : desert 22%, desert-steppe 19%, steppe 21% forest-steppe 26%, taiga%, and alpine 4%.

The Land Law was enacted by Parliament in 1994. Today, all Mongolian land is owned by the state. Under the land law, entities such as political, state, non-governmental, and religious organizations and citizens may posses and use land. Land is classified by its basic purpose and type, and the responsibility for land management lies with central or local government. The Constitution declares that private land shall be owned by citizens of Mongolia. A law concerning land ownership by citizens and land use fees is in the pipeline.

a) The Khentii mountain's pine forest zone includes forest area of Khentii, Dornod, Tuv, Selenge, Bulgan aimags and the green zone of the Capital city of Ulaanbaatar. In this particular forest zone, the dominant tree species are Scotch pine, Siberian larch, and Siberian pine.

b) The Khangai mountain's larch forest zone includes the forest areas of Khuvsgul, Arkhangai, Uvurkhangai, Zabkhan, Uvs, Khovd, Bayan-Ulgii and Bayankongor aimags. The main tree species in this zone are Siberian larch and Siberian pine.

c) The Altai mountain's forest vegetation zone includes Govi-Altai, Khovd and Uvurkhangai aimags. In this zone, saxaual trees and others such as Gobi poplars predominate.

Compared to other Asian counties, Mongolian forests are very vulnerable to anthropological effects and have a very low growth capacity equal to a 1.5-2.0 m3/ha year.

Trees in Mongolia have great importance beyond their commercial value. Almost all rivers of the country, including the inflow to lake Bail, the largest fresh water lake in the world, come from forested watersheds of the Northern and Central part of Mongolia. In addition, trees serve as wind breaks to combat desertification and help stabilize agricultural lands.

The International Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Drought and/or Desertification

Particularly in Africa was signed 15 October 1994 and ratified 3 September 1996.

The latest report to the Secretariat of the Convention was prepared in 1996.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter

The process of desertification is affecting Mongolia. This process can easily be noticed with the naked eye. Land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas is the result of various factors, including climatic variation and human activities.

Following this definition, 90% of Mongolia is vulnerable to desertification. These areas are, in the case of Mongolia, almost exclusively used as range lands, supporting about 28 million head of livestock.

Land degradation is not wide-spread, but also not uncommon. Especially around centres of socio-economic activities like roads and wells, or district (Sum) and province (Aimag) centres, degradation, and in the drier areas desertification have become apparent.

Anthropogenic causes of desertification include: overgrazing, inappropriate agricultural practices, deforestation, ill-planning and inappropriate use of the road network.

Keeping in view the adverse impact of desertification on socio-economic conditions as well as its ecological implications on natural resources, the Government of Mongolia, in collaboration with UNEP and ESCAP, embarked upon the preparation of a National Plan of Action to Combat Desertification (NPACD).

Before an approach for the sustainable management of Mongolia's land and water resources at a larger scale can be launched in the field, a number of activities are needed in the short run to develop and test potential tools that create an enabling institutional environment. Such activities include:

- Public awareness raising,

- The mobilization of existing knowledge on ecosystems and their uses: Traditional knowledge of resource users, results of research by Mongolian institutes,

- Review of Policies and Formulation of Action Plans at different government levels,

- Development of Appropriate Technologies and Methodologies (sustainable at the different actors' levels: resource users, national and local governments),

- Training of government staff,

- Instalment of monitoring facilities,

- Pilot projects in the field of integrated, participatory management of renewable natural resources.

The existing basic agricultural resource is grazing lands which support more than 28,000 animals used for food and transport, although irrigated and dryland farming have expanded up until the last few years. Unlike many southern Asian countries, Mongolia's cold, long winter, low rainfall, and short growing season reduces the productivity and the resiliency of grazing and cultivated lands to respond and recover from severe winters, droughts, wild fires, and poor cultivation practices. In addition, the weather pattern is not favorable for most cultivation, since the early spring, when crops are planted, is the dry season, with very strong winds which aggravate desiccation.

As in other sectors and activities, the distribution of agricultural resources is not even and is seriously and adversely affected by concentrations along transportation routes, market centers, water sources and supporting winter grazing grounds. These factors lead to severe overgrazing and desertification in marginal areas and rapidly declining productivity of grazing lands. Similarly, cultivation practices in both dry and irrigated areas tend to destroy the natural fertility and productivity of the soils and reduce productivity. Increasing losses of productivity in all agricultural sectors is further exaggerated by a lack of equipment and parts, fuels, electricity, skilled technicians, and immediate needs for sustenance and sales equipment and materials for scrap values.

Poor irrigation practices reduce the fertility of the soil and increase salinization in the upper horizons. At the same time, irrigation from groundwater lowers groundwater tables which reduces the recharge of rivers and lakes. Direct irrigation from rivers and streams further reduces river flows and recharge of surrounding local groundwater tables. These trends reduce both the quality and yield of water resources for irrigation and adversely affect soils. Salt-related soil losses are further increased by poor irrigation efficiencies for supply and application rates, while little concern is expressed for leaching water for salt removal through drainage. Where drainage is employed, drainage water returns to channels, rivers, and lakes.

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora was signed in 1995.

The Latest report was submitted in 19__ : No information.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter

Biodiversity protection and its rational use have been given very high priority by the Mongolian Government from the beginning of 1990 due to the appearance of various organizations. The Ministry of Nature and Environment has been focusing on including basic principles for the conservation of biodiversity in Mongolia in the National Development Concept of Mongolia and the National Ecological Plan and Protected Areas Programme. The forests of Mongolia, which cover 10% of the land area, are not dedicated to industrial uses. The Government has ratified the CITES Convention and is paying attention to the issues of selling rare and very rare species. Training sessions on this issue has been organized.

The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea: No information.

In the central region there is substantial water, partly in the form of large, fast flowing streams. However, in the desert south, western and eastern provinces, the water resources are much scarcer and are generally of poorer quality with increasing salts and diminishing water levels in groundwater tables, streams and lakes.

In the Gobi and nearby southern areas the ground water is hard and contains a high degree of minerals. These conditions have serious effects on the health of the human population there. More than 80 sums (villages) in 16 aimags have severe problems with water quality, with the water containing calcium, magnesium, chlorine, and sulphate which exceed safe limits for drinking.

There is an urgent need to improve water management, coordination, research and monitoring activities throughout the country. For example, chemical analyses have been conducted for water in only about 14 percent of the country's 20,000 bored wells. Chemical analyses have not been conducted for the water in about 20,000 dug wells. It is believed that water has been contaminated in 70 to 80 of these dug wells. In addition, inadequate bacteriological analyses have been conducted for the water in engineering wells in the settlement areas.

Water resources management, monitoring and controls have not been effective in maintaining water quality and supply, and generally have only documented the loss of resource reserves and quality.

Many urban water supply projects include much leakage and wastage from the distribution system while inefficient supply systems generate higher flows which overwhelm sewage treatment systems. It is estimated that in Ulaanbaatar, water wastage in high rise apartments amounts to 60 percent of the total used. In addition to loss of the water resources, this waste also overloads the sewage system and more than doubles the electricity requirements for operating the water supply pumps. Agricultural, rural residential and industrial uses of groundwater in Gobi, western and eastern Mongolia are contributing to low water table levels and increasing salinization.

The Mongolian Law on Water and relevant legislation act became effective in 1995. Implementation of this act will play an important role in water management and the protection of water resources.

- Complete and maintain an up-to-date inventory of toxic chemicals used within the country;

- Develop and implement a registration procedure for the import and handling of toxic chemicals;

- Establish related training programmes, for the handling, transportation, use and disposal of radioactive materials and toxic chemicals;

- Develop a master plan for the disposal of hazardous wastes; establish standards and identify location or locations for disposal.

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal was signed 22 March 1989.

The latest information was provided to the Basel Convention Secretariat in August 1996.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter

The available monitoring data on hazardous wastes in Mongolia is limited. Industries and some clinics are major sources of hazardous waste generation in Mongolia.

Waste disposal usually involves dumping at sites without properly defined boundaries, where there are no arrangements for fee collection with consequent low revenues for companies involved. Where there is inadequate

containment, no adequate groundwater protection exists, nor usually, burial, and no control or management of dumping. Wastes are commonly burned, and in those sites which are close to settlements, the burning contributes to air pollution. The sites pose a serious risk to health and to the contamination of surface and groundwater resources. The present procedures also represent an economic loss since analyses of the waste indicates that 70 to 80 percent of the waste contents are potentially recyclable.

The immediate actions required include : the maintenance, reconditioning and where necessary, the strengthening of the existing solid waste collection vehicle fleet; review and development of opportunities for enhanced recovery of recyclable wastes of the waste stream; and evaluation of disposal options, including the question of economic incentives; and the development of sanitary disposal sites to handle domestic and industrial solid wastes, incorporating appropriate environmental controls. There is also a need to develop master plans for waste collection and disposal for each metropolitan area.

As a result of the implementation of a comprehensive fiscal policy, changes have occurred in state budget revenues and expenditures as well as in the taxation system, thus making the financial system healthier.

Fiscal policy is directed towards the expansion of the budget revenue base, determination of the tax rate and the improvement of the tax collection system in order to ensure economic stabilization and create a basis for sustainable growth. New forms of taxation have been created and executed, such as social insurance fees for retirement and unemployment, accident insurance, additional taxes on diesel and gasoline, income taxes on services, stamp duties and fees on the utilization of natural resources. Tax revenues comprise 28% of GDP or 80% of the state budget.

In order to improve the budget expenditure composition, an insurance system has been introduced for the social welfare and health sector; measures have been taken to reduce public administration expenditures; charges have been introduced for occupational training courses; and the Government has intensified its control on budget revenues and expenditures. There has been a significant improvement in the state budget situation. In 1995, the overall budget deficit was Tg 11.4 billion. This is 24.6% lower than in 1994. The current account surplus is 2.9% higher than in 1994. The state budget expenditure is comprised of: wages 17.3%, subsidies to the local budget - 11.2% and state-agencies and social service expenditures - 28.7%.

In 1995 Tg 16.6 billion of subsidies were allocated from the state to local budgets totalling 33.8% of their total expenditure. Special attention should be paid to increasing the independence of the local Government from the state budget.

CHANGES IN NATIONAL BUDGET TO ADDRESS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:

For this purpose Government should:

a. Strengthen the State Budget. More capital should be distributed to development programmes by improving the current balance of the state budget.

b. Give greater attention to the development of infrastructure in order to support foreign investment.

c. Eliminate energy shortages in order to improve national economic capacity and increase the state budget for further innovation and reach world standards in the production machinery and technology.

NEW ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS:

- promote private sector development through taxation policy

- increase the rate of savings in the GDP

- develop and implement a new fiscal policy, integrating price, money, loans, foreign balance of payment issues and the stabilization of prices and the exchange rate

- cooperation with international donor organizations to protect vulnerable social groups from poverty

- change the current situation of predominate social consumption expenses in budget expenditures

ELIMINATION OF ENVIRONMENTALLY UNFRIENDLY SUBSIDIES: Big environmentally unfriendly subsidies have not been paid from the state budget. However, attention has been paid and activities have been taken dealing with the reduction of pollution, the restoration of land, and forestation.

ODA policy issues

Mongolia is a recipient country of ODA.

A national information system on environmentally sound technology has yet to be established in Mongolia. Mongolia does not have the appropriate technological capacity for creating links with regional information systems.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION:

The means of promoting clean technologies and waste minimization processes are being included in development and environmental legislation and related documents.

The Government has been conducting training sessions on environmental technology applications for people involved in government and the business sector .

STEPS TAKEN TO ENHANCE SCIENTIFIC UNDERSTANDING, IMPROVE LONG TERM SCIENTIFIC ASSESSMENT, BUILDING OF CAPACITY AND CAPABILITY:

- create an appropriate infrastructure for science and technology

- support the successful work of scientists

- develop the social and economic sciences and humanities

- promote the fundamental sciences, new materials and encourage high technology

- develop new methods and technology for natural resource assessment and environmental management

Specialized vocational training also plays a key role in training the manpower needed for national economic development. However, today Mongolian vocational and technical education and special attention is not cost effective. Since 1990, there have been positive changes in vocational and technical education and special attention was paid to training high skilled workers/craftsmen. Some of these institutions have now merged and the number of students in vocational schools has decreased since 1990. During the last 3 years, there has been a drop of 5,705 students and the total enrollment equalled 17,382. Training in these vocational centres is mainly limited to agriculture, construction and industry and has been subsidized by central and local budgets.

a) Reorientation of education towards sustainable development The management of the current educational system is governed by the Educational Law of 1995 and educational planning, procedures and objectives are regulated by the Minister for the Enlightenment. The Mongolian educational network is covered by the following legislative acts:

The Educational Law, the Primary and Secondary Education Law, the Higher Education Law and the Government policy for education. In 1993, the Ministry of Science and Education (MOSE) with the assistance of ADB and Pittsburgh University of the USA, developed the "Mongolian Education and Human Factor" Master Plan for 1994 -1998, which has been approved by the Government on May of 1994. This Plan reflects education policy and the directives which should be implemented in the next five years in the fields of general, higher and professional education, informal education, and structure and management of the MOSE. Today, other Programmes and Projects are implemented and funded by local and international organizations, namely: the National Programme for Development of Children up to 2000, the Programme of Basic Education for all, the Project on Non-formal Education for Gobi Women, the Promotion of English Training, training of teachers, developing textbooks etc. These projects are of great importance in respect to the reorientation of education towards sustainable development and promotion of capacity-building for the next century.

b) Increasing public awareness see above

c) Promoting training see above

ROLE OF MAJOR GROUPS: The female population of Mongolia consists of 50.3% of the total population. Mongolia became a State Party to the United Nation's Convention Against the Discrimination in Education in 1964.

The Government of Mongolia has been implementing the objective of providing women with education step by step and on a systematic basis. After the Revolution of 1921, the new Government implemented policies to ensure equal rights for women, and to provide educational opportunities for females and eradicate illiteracy among them. Various