During the 1960s and 1970s, the country conducted an active policy regarding the acceleration of development in various developing countries; these activities have essentially been reduced for the present transition stage as a consequence of the undergoing substantial socio-economic changes and the corresponding national priorities, the scarcity of various resources, and the changing orientation in international trade and collaboration.

Hungary has good connections with various developing countries in terms of trade as well. A remarkable part of international trade is completed with developing countries by taking into account the particular production/trading conditions of the relevant developing country partners. A significant part of the exports contain products and technologies of the industrial and agricultural industry sectors.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The governmental decision making process is based on the ministries and authorities and taking into account the business sector; for instance, the Chamber of Commerce has a significant role in the trade related decision making, as well.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: Business life and industry: The process of privatization, new management restrictions and the development of new enterprises all function together to develop a more environmentally sound business sector. This kind of new series of ventures is involved as well in increasing trade activity in Hungary. Scientific and technological community: According to a comprehensive governmental initiative, scientists and experts in technology, education and culture have a role in the modernization process. This comprehensive initiative deals primarily with the preservation of national scientific activities, the qualitative development of a research network, and the improvement of material-technical conditions that are necessary for its effective operation.

4. Finance: In the previous years, during the transitional period there was no extra budget or special state fund for promoting sustainable development activities in developing countries.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Hungary is interested in various international cooperative mechanisms, in particular those offered by the UN system. Hungary has participated as an observer in the OECD Environmental Policy Committee since 1992, and became a member of OECD in 1996. Pan-European cooperation is regarded as important. The issue of European integration is one of the most important priorities at the governmental level and Hungary aims at joining the EU as soon as possible. Hungary signed a trade agreement with the EC in 1988. The PHARE Environmental Sector Programme launched in 1990 was a significant step in bilateral cooperation. An Association Agreement with the Commission of the European Communities was signed in 1991, and it was enacted in 1994.

Focus of national strategy

The Government aims at creating a sustainable welfare system. The main steps to realize these are reorganization of the social insurance system, and increasing provision of direct assistance to indigents (by reforming the family, the pension, and the educational supporting systems).

Highlight activities aimed at the poor and linkages to the environment

In accordance with the above mentioned national strategy, the implementation of its various elements is ongoing and coordinated by the Ministry of Labour, Ministry of Welfare and Ministry of Finance. The management, decision making structure and financial basis of the social welfare system has been fully reorganized. Special assistance funds are established for the poorest social strata, such as compensation funds in relation to certain highly increased services costs, for additional vocational training courses etc. Parts of the environment related funds are spent for pollution abatement programmes, projects and investments which also contribute to local capacity building, and increase of working opportunities.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The Ministry of Welfare, Institute of Public Health and the Ministry of Labour are responsible for national level programmes, development of legal instruments and facilitating implementation of these programmes and international obligations. The National Conciliation Council is a forum of the government, and deputies of employers and employees, twho represents the different interests of the labour market.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: Trade unions (e.g., Federation of Hungarian Trade Unions and others), NGOs, municipalities, religious communities and Regional Labour Centres help to solve social problems by organizing different programmes, providing financial resources and representing different interests.

4. Finance: PHARE contributes to both the social sector reform and the softening of the social consequences of economic transformation. For example through the Social Welfare Programme (3 million ECU/521 million HUF, 1990) 1500 jobs were created. The programme has been implemented by the Foundation for the Development of Local Social Networks. The Social Policy Development Programme (6 million ECU/1.048 million HUF, 1992) targets reform of the social sector. The Employment and Social Development Programme (20 million ECU/3.494 million HUF, 1992) aims at enhancing employment and human resources development and is managed by the Ministry of Labour. Through the Health System Restructuring Programme (10 million ECU/1.747 million HUF, 1993), not only does Primary Health Care provide for economically more efficient care, it also allows for an approach in which the patient is the focus. For the period 1995-1999, reform of the social sector remains a priority for PHARE, and it is expected that further programmes will be initiated in this sector.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information

NB: Developed countries, where domestic poverty alleviation is not a major concern may wish to briefly describe their position regarding global poverty alleviation.

a) population living below the poverty line, 1992

b) according to the estimates of sociologists and statists, 1996

c) total social benefit (in cash and in kind) as percentage of GDP

National policy objectives/focus

Recent changes in production and consumption patterns have been basically determined by economic recession and the transition to a market economy. Following an extended period of stagnation, industrial production decreased at an even higher pace from 1990 onward, falling to the level of the 70s. Industrial structures have also changed: e.g., metallurgy, construction materials industry, machine industry have lost ground. It can be considered unambiguously positive for the environment; the general decrease of industrial production reduced direct emissions and in certain regions resulted improvements in the state of environment. Both structural changes and the large-scale liquidation of industrial companies significantly reduced emissions of air pollutants. The volume of industrial waste water effluents requiring treatment discharged into living waters was also significantly reduced. Industrial and agricultural production has decreased as well as energy use in those sectors.

Consumption of coal has been reduced considerably due to the introduction of nuclear energy (The single nuclear power plant provides about half the electric energy for the country.) Since 1990 total energy use has increased, especially within the residential sector. General consumption of goods has declined in recent years. This trend does not result from more environmentally conscious consumers, but from lowered income levels.

Environmental taxation has been introduced as an instrument to influence consumer behaviour. Since 1990, corporations with environmental programmes have been able to take reductions in taxes on corporate profit. Starting in 1991, 20% of environmental investments could be deducted from taxes. Since 1992, enterprises with foreign participation and meeting certain conditions have enjoyed 100% tax abatement on production of products and equipment serving environmental protection. To ensure the competitiveness of environmentally sustainable fuels, excise taxes on liquefied natural gas and PB-gas have been used since 1990. Motor vehicles fitted with catalytic converters have enjoyed excise tax abatement since 1992. Environmental fines play an important role in changing consumption and production patterns although, according to experience, the efficiency of this instrument has not been significant enough. As of 1995, the following fines have been introduced: land protection fine, sewer fine, environmental fine, air pollution fine, noise and vibration fines, and nature conservation fine. Specific product fees exist on fuels, tires, refrigerators, packaging materials and accumulators. The fees collected go to the Central Environmental Fund to be granted - upon application - to finance certain activities of environmental protection. Another specific fee, a water resources contribution is paid for the water volume used. This contribution goes to the Water Management fund. A system of eco-labeling has been introduced. Awards are given to deserving products, and the right to use the eco-label is granted for a maximum of 2 years. Hungary was the first, among countries with similar economic and political situations, to establish a system of eco-labeling. First experiences have indicated that this mechanism has been successful in promoting wider use of environmentally sound products and change in consumption patterns.

Economic development is a key national target. Its sustainability, however, is not considered to mean the restriction and limitation of development and consumption for Hungary, but among other things to conduct economic

and efficient management of natural resources. By using the tools of environmental protection, economic incentives, legal regulations and relying on increasing public awareness, economic development can be achieved with more efficient material and energy use and with fewer environmentally hazardous wastes and emissions. The phase of economic development in which Hungary is now can result in very quick and (from the environmental perspective) very favourable reconstruction in the production sector. First of all, there is a great possibility for restricting obsolete industrial technologies and replacing them with environmentally sound ones. In this way, economic modernization can also yield the proper environmental benefits. The best and cheapest way of protecting the environment is prevention. At the moment, the most serious environmental hazards, and those which directly threaten human health, can be stopped only by modernization. All of the cleaning equipment, joined to obsolete technologies, is very expensive, and does not eliminate the pollution of the environment, but rather only delays the solution of the problems. Thus environmental strategy has to be handled not as an isolated but rather, as an integral part of the economic development programme. A series of recently adopted environmental laws, other sector-oriented legal instruments and the new National Environmental Programme are based on this approach.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The body mainly responsible - in cooperation with the Parliament and the Government - is the Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy. Other ministries and state agencies are responsible for particular areas in this context; e.g., energy, trade or tax related issues are primarily coordinated by the Ministry of Industry, Trade and Tourism, Hungarian Energy Agency and the Ministry of Finance, respectively; certain national level water management and regulation problems are the primary responsibility of the Ministry of Transport, Telecommunication and Water Management etc. The Act on Public Procurement enacted in 1995 is regarded as an important legislative measure to influence public consumption patterns. According to this Act public procurement should also be based on environmental interests. The role of local authorities (governments) and the private sector is also rapidly increasing in influencing consumption and production attitudes.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: Several fora have been established for interagency coordination and cooperation with the representatives of various stakeholders (among others, such consultative mechanisms are provided by the Hungarian CSD and the recently established National Environmental Council). There are several other consultative and advisory boards and commissions in which the relevant organizations of major groups are represented (such as associations of local governments, environmental NGOs, associations and chambers of entrepreneurs, trade unions, association for consumer protection etc.).

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information

a = 1994

Goals

Means & Measures

authorities

aspects of product life cycle

(e.g., transportation alternatives, recycling)

Under the 1992 Fertility and Mortality Conditions, the population decrease is projected to continue at an increasing rate. By 2020 the population is expected to be 8 percent less than it was in 1993 and 11.5 percent less than it was in 1980 when the decline started. In addition, the ageing process is projected to continue further. A specific feature of the Hungarian population situation is that mortality - compared to the socio-economic and cultural level of the country - is unusually high. The mortality level had been gradually improving until the mid-1960s but, since then, has significantly deteriorated.

Hungarian Population Policy has followed the recommendations of the World Population Plan of Action, taking into consideration specific features of the Hungarian population situation and interests.

The national programme for the improvement and development of the health status of the population is named "For a Healthier Nation". The programme strives first for primary prevention, but also pays attention to those specific fields of health-care engaged in treatment. Other sectors such as volunteer organizations, local self-government and management in the work place could also find it possible to join this programme where suitable. According to plans the programme is intended to gain legitimacy based on a wide consensus by Government Decision and by Parliamentary Resolution.

The overwhelming part of the support costs is covered by the state budget, while a smaller part is provided for by the Social Insurance. The local self -governments play a significant role in social support and in the keeping and supporting of children s institutions. The most important elements of the institutional system available in the near past and at present are the following: maternity allowance, childbirth leave, child-care leave, family allowance, tax benefits, work-related benefits, children's institutions, and maternal- and child health-care services. Due to the decreased resources that characterize the present transition period, it has been rather complicated to maintain provision of the necessary resources for the above mentioned instruments and facilities. Apparently, more financial resources are needed to ensure effective implementation of the current population policy. The Government defined the long-term basic principles of the population policy for the next decades; in particular some basic actions in order to increase fertility were adopted as follows: the most important population-policy task is to increase the readiness to have children; in order to increase fertility parents must be helped to fulfil both their working and parental roles; the readiness to have and to bring up children must be helped in a more co-ordinated and target-oriented manner than is now done by improving the housing situation, ensuring the financial and institutional conditions of child-care, improving working conditions and creating a better division of work between the parents; the basic instrument of financial support for families will be the family allowance, a system which the Government intends to develop further by taking into consideration the increasingly differentiated incomes and the costs of childbearing; when designing the long-term health policy, the increase in the number of planned and desired pregnancies and the decrease in that of unplanned and undesired pregnancies must be a basic principle and ensured by all possible means. The conditions of pre-natal care, delivery and new-born care must be improved.

The Government is of the view that the fertility level and population growth are both too low.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The Constitution of the Hungarian Republic, the Health Act and the law on contraception and abortion (passed by the Parliament in December 1992) form a regulatory framework for population policies. The ministerial body responsible for the coordination of decisions related to demographic issues is the

Ministry of Welfare.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: Organizations dealing with the family can be divided into four basic groups: organizations engaged in child- and youth-welfare, organizations taking up the cause of the handicapped, religious organizations and women's organizations (e.g. the Association of Hungarian Women, the Association for the Protection of the Foetus and the Association of Large Families).

4. Finance: A number of economic instruments are used to encourage families to bring up children: maternity allowance, childbirth leave, child-care leave, family allowance, tax benefits, work-related benefits, children's institutions, maternal- and child health-care services.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Hungary has a long history of co-operation with the UN and its specialized agencies. Hungary participated in the 1974 World Population Conference and in the 1984 International Conference on Population. In 1988, Hungary joined the Geneva Convention on the status of refugees. Cooperation with UNHCR was started in 1987. Thus Hungary was the first former socialist country to join the international organization dealing with refugee problems.

a = 1995

The number of doctors and other medical positions has increased continuously in recent years but the work to improve primary health care is still at an early stage. However, the number of medical facilities in rural areas has not changed considerably. No changes have occurred either in the number or density of primary health care districts.

Control of communicable diseases: The number of communicable diseases, especially those preventable by vaccination, has decreased remarkably in recent decades. In 1991, age-related vaccination coverage varied between 97.8% and 99.9%. The system of age-related mandatory vaccination will be maintained. Emphasis is being put on decreasing the incidence of such diseases as enteric infections, hepatitis, tuberculosis and sexually transmitted diseases.

Protecting vulnerable groups: Lifestyles and the state of health among school children and high school students have been examined. The survey that was conducted on 5,800 children aged 11-16 years showed that there is a notable lack of health education in the Hungarian school system. The report states that it is necessary to create a comprehensive health education plan for all school levels and for professionals working as teachers, nurses and family doctors.

Urban health: Approximately 11.2% of the territory and 44.3% of the population are affected by polluted air. The national Emission Measurement Network has been measuring SO2 and NO2 contents of the air, sampling sites and quantities of sediment dust in 680 sites. According to 1992 data, acceptable levels were exceeded in more than 10% of the major cities. Air emission levels are announced daily to the public at large.

Reducing Health Risks from Environmental Pollution and Hazards: Programmes have been introduced to reduce lead exposure from public transportation, to lower nitrification of drinking water, etc.

Recent changes in the political and social structure of society have not been favourable to improved health care. As regards the capacities for implementation of the "Towards a Healthier Nation" programme, the main problems encountered are related to the insufficient level of resources (lack of experts, financial resources and infrastructure).

A National Environmental Health Action Plan (NEHAP) was also submitted to Parliament in 1996 (together with the National Environmental Programme).

1. Decision-Making Structure: The primary responsibility lies with the Ministry of Welfare. Its regulatory and programme work is assisted by several institutes, and a network of health care institutions and consultative bodies. A special national interagency body was established on issues of public health. This organization substantially assisted the preparation of the national programme and one of its subcommittees coordinated the preparation of the Environmental Health Action Plan. Other ministries and agencies also contribute to the preparation and implementation of these programmes; e.g., the Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy actively took part in the preparation of the Environmental Health Action Plan. The National Public Health Center plans and finances the public health programmes described above.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: No information

4. Finance: Estimated costs (1994 estimates): age-related vaccination programme: US$1.9 million in 1994; programme for STD control: US$1.0 million (annually); prevention of congenital anomalies US$0.5 million (annually); measuring and decreasing urban air pollution US$325,000 (annually); reducing health risks from environmental pollution and hazards: US$1.0 million (annually).

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Regarding the prevention of congenital anomalies, Hungary takes part in WHO EUROHEALTH programmes, incl. "Healthy infants and mothers" and "Healthy aging" subprogrammes. WHO Collaborating Centers of these programmes operate in the Medical University of Budapest and the National Institute of Health Promotion. Approx. US$4.2 million has been received from EU PHARE for the on-line measuring network of air emissions. The International Cooperation Agency of Japan has provided US$370,000 for the Sajó valley which is the most polluted area. Hungary also cooperates with UNEP, the WHO Center for Environment and Health and on a bilateral basis.

Male

Female

a = population with public water supply

b = organized water transport to settlements without healthy drinking-water

c = dwellings with comfort

d = 1995

1. Decision-Making Structure: The bodies mainly responsible for sustainable human settlement development are the Ministry of Environment and Regional Policy, the Ministry of Interior and the Ministry of Culture and Public Education. A new act on regional development recently ratified by the Parliament emphasizes both short- and long-term planning and introduces institutional mechanisms for this task.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: No information

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Hungary has signed the following international conventions: the Convention on the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1985), the Convention on the Protection of European Architectural Heritage (1990), and the Convention on the Protection of European Archaeological Heritage (1992). Hungary is involved in UN-cooperation on this subject. It attended HABITAT-II and presented the basic elements of the national programme. A regional information center of HABITAT is located in Budapest. Hungary also takes part actively in cooperation on regional policy and human settlements within the framework of the OECD.

The Montreal Protocol and its Amendments

The Vienna Convention, the Montreal Protocol and its Amendments

Montreal Protocol (1987) signed in 1989 enacted by Ministerial Decree No. 13/1992

London Amendment (1990) signed in 1993 enacted by Ministerial Decree No. 22/1993

Copenhagen Amendment (1992) signed in 1994 enacted by Governmental Decree No. 13/1994

The latest report(s) to the Montreal Protocol Secretariat were prepared in 1996.

The national programme of phase-out of ozone depleting substances: Hungary is not a producer of ozone depleting substances (ODS) as there are no facilities for their production. All ODS are imported.

The Country Programme for ODS phasing-out was prepared by the Ministry of Environment and Regional Policy. The quantity of ODS used as propellants has rapidly decreased - partly due to governmental regulations, and partly due to fundamental changes in the Hungarian economy. Product fees for CFC refrigerants and refrigeration appliances were introduced in 1995. They serve as economic incentives for recovery, reclaim and recycling of refrigerants. According to the new regulations, only 25% of CFCs could be used in 1994 and 1995 compared to the base year and 15% of CTC and 50% of MFC were allowed for use in 1995. Firms are aware of the regulations of the Montreal Protocol and they study the experiences of other countries, but they cannot undertake similar measures or introduce new ODS technologies because of the declining economic situation. The solution of this problem is now facilitated by a GEF project.

Stabilization of greenhouse gas emissions

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

UNFCCC was signed in 1992 and enacted by the Act LXXXII in 1994

The latest report to the UNFCCC Secretariat was submitted in 1994.

Moderate progress can been seen in the decrease of greenhouse gas emissions (CO2 emissions, please refer to "statistical information" below). Based on the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, a resolution was passed by the Parliament in December 1993 to return carbon dioxide emissions to 1985-1987 levels by the year 2000. Fuel emissions from coal mining, which constitute approximately 75% of the total methane emissions, decreased by 20% between 1985 and 1990. The changes in greenhouse gas emissions are primarily taking place due to the substantial structural changes in the economy, ie. the recession of the principal "polluting" sectors. Various measures are projected that will contribute to further emission stabilization. One of the most critical programmes is related to the improvement of energy conservation and energy efficiency.

Reduction of transboundary air pollution and air quality control

Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (UNECE)

LRTAP was signed in 1979 and ratified in 1980

its EMEP Protocol was signed in 1985 and ratified in 1985

its first sulphur protocol was signed in 1985 and ratified in 1986

its nitrogen protocol was signed in 1989 and ratified in 1991

its VOC protocol was signed in 1991 and ratified in 1995

its second sulphur protocol was signed in 1994 and ratified in 1994

National reports are submitted on a regular basis in accordance with international obligations.

Energy efficiency: After Parliament approved the "Energy Conservation Plan" in early 1994, an Action Plan for Energy Conservation was launched in January 1995. The priorities of the Plan are as follows: enforcement of regulations for building construction, energy efficiency regulations for household appliances, information programmes for consumers and local authorities, training programmes for engineers and managers, energy audits and demonstration projects. The Hungarian Energy Office coordinates the implementation of the energy savings programme. On the basis of the Action Plan, an Energy Saving Soft Loan Program was established in 1996.

Transportation: The Hungarian Government has urged local governments to prepare traffic control measures which contribute to emission reduction. A City Bus Greening Programme has been introduced to focus on the replacement of old bus motors with environmentally sound ones which meet EU emission standards. Protection of the atmosphere, improving the air quality and promoting the reduction of harmful atmospheric emissions is one of the highest priority areas of the new National Environmental Programme. This programme lists key sectoral policies and indicates the most essential regulatory tasks.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy is responsible for national level programmes, development of legal instruments and facilitating the implementation of these programmes and international obligations. The environmental aspects of key sectors are also taken into account in sector-related regulations and programmes by the relevant ministries (Min. of Industry, Trade and Tourisms in case of the energy sector; Ministry of Transport, Telecommunication and Water Management in the case of transport issues.) The Hungarian Energy Office was established in August 1994, and the Energy Saving Department is a part of this governmental body.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: Importers and distributors of ODS are consulted each year by the Ministry of Environment and Regional Policy and the Ministry of Industry, Trade and Tourism. Import permissions and limits are based on these consultations. The Ministry of Environment and Regional Policy has also consulted with the Hungarian Association of Plastic Industry about the necessity and technical possibilities of phasing out CFCs used in plastic foam production. As regards local air quality problems, there are various environmental NGOs that are represented also in the National Environmental Council or the Hungarian CSD. These bodies also took part in the review and development process of the recent programmes (especially, the National Environmental Programme).

4. Finance: The national Central Environmental Fund provides considerable financial resources for projects which directly or indirectly serve the protection of the atmosphere, and the improvement of local air quality. Nevertheless, Hungary has not had adequate financial resources for the new ODS-free technologies and investments. Therefore, it applied for a GEF grant to help its ODS phaseout activities. Regarding the energy sector, a number of rationalization programmes have been supported by the World Bank in the form of loans. The main objective of the programmes is to increase energy saving and introduce modern technologies to the energy sector. Since 1983, more than US$240 million has been provided. Costs of the Cross-sectoral Air Pollution Control Programme are estimated to be approximately US$500-750 million (at 1992 rates). Approximately US$ 40 million was provided by the German Government to the German coal aid loan programme which has assisted in funding energy efficiency projects.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Bilateral cooperation with the Netherlands is based on a Memorandum of Understanding between the Ministries of Environment. The objective of the project is to study climate change in Hungary, including its consequences for energy production and related issues. Another project entitled "Control Strategy for the Emission of Volatile Organic Compounds" was started in 1993. A project focussing on creating a long-term energy policy to respond to possible climate changes was initiated in 1994 by the Norwegian institute CICERO. Under the US Country Study Programme, a project was launched in September 1994. This project supports Hungarian policy planning with particular attention being given to the energy savings/efficiency aspects. A soft loan programme entitled "German Coal Aid" provides Hungarian households with an opportunity to buy German coal in order to offset the Hungarian demand for coal. In the agreement signed by the governments of Germany and Hungary it was declared that 60% of the revenues received from the sale of coal (worth DM50 million) would be spent on a preferential credit facility aimed at energy saving.

NMVOC emissions in 1994 were 119,200 tons.

a = 1991 b = preliminary

The national environmental policy adopted recently pays attention to the conservation of soil resources and sustainable land use. It lists the basic measures to be taken in further soil conservation policy.

The extensive use of chemical inputs and the large-scale intensive farming systems of the past 20 years has resulted not only in high yields by world standards but also in negative environmental impacts upon land and water resources. The elimination of the subsidy on pesticides has resulted in the decreased use of these inputs. Assistance is also planned regarding environmentally friendly technologies which use fewer inputs (e.g., low input sustainable agriculture /LISA/ systems). To ensure the reasonable, environmentally conscious and safe use of fertilizers, maximum limits for toxic element content were introduced in 1992 with the objective that only high quality fertilizers and yield increasing compounds be put on the market. A law on land tax, introduced in 1992, allows a 50% reduction on land tax if a farmer adopts environmentally sustainable technology. The following activities are subsidized: liming of acid soils, sustainable nutrient management based on soil tests, increasing the proper use of manures and land use with appropriate soil conservation measures.

A new Soil Information and Monitoring System was established in 1992. It contains 1,400 observation points, 1,000 of them on agricultural land, 200 in forests and 200 in environmentally threatened areas. Important soil parameters are measured regularly in cycles of one, three or six years.

The main legal instrument for protecting wildlife sites is to designate areas as reserves. This type of protection depends on the voluntary co-operation of landowners because the state owns only 10% of the reserve areas. This could cause conflict between conservation and development aspirations on newly privatized farmlands. In order to solve such conflicts, some of the regulations have recently been amended in favour of nature conservation and, in this context, the provisions of the new Act on Nature Conservation (1996) are also essential. According to that act, the basic plan of nature conservation was prepared, adopted by the government and submitted to the Parliament as part of the National Environmental Programme in 1996. The Programme itself formulates the most important general objectives of sustainable land use, protection, and conservation of soil resources.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The legislative framework for the management of land use are Act I and Act II on Cooperatives (1992), the Act on Land (1994), the Act on environmental protection (1995), the Act on Nature Conservation (1996) and the Act on forests (1996) which ensure up-to-date regulation of land ownership, land use, soil conservation and special management criteria for protected areas. These regulations and the coordination of relevant programmes are mainly under the responsibility of the Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy and the Ministry of Agriculture. In addition, the role of local authorities (municipalities) in the regulation, management and control of land use practices within their regions has substantially increased in recent years.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: Due to the large-scale reprivatization process, one of the most important new interest group consists of the many landowners or associations of forest owners who received back their ownership. The agricultural cooperatives have remained significant stakeholders and they still have a large share in the production and provision of agricultural goods. Their members and interest group representatives also play an important role in negotiations with the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Finance and local governments on changing regulations of land use and agricultural production, the use of various funds etc.

4. Finance: Agricultural Funds were adopted by Parliament in 1992 to create an entrepreneurial type of agriculture. The regulations on these funds were extremely important for the transformation of agriculture, forest development and the protection of arable land, biological bases, and species of game for hunting. In particular, the Agricultural Development Fund was aimed at upgrading the material-technical base of agricultural production, broadening its infrastructural background, ensuring the qualitative development of its biological bases and operating a new system of agricultural counseling; the Land Protection Fund was planned to assist production in high-quality land areas withdrawn from farming and to ensure proper use and protection of arable areas. The National Forestry Fund was meant to protect and ensure sustainable management on large areas of woodland.

The Regional Development Fund helps to create employment opportunities for the unemployed in agriculture and thus preserve rural capacities to sustain the population. The Credit Guarantee Fund supports farmers having difficulties in providing the property guarantees demanded by the banks. Efforts are also undertaken to build an effective rural network of banks as part of refining financing systems.

Actually, there are serious problems in restructuring and reorienting agriculture, and in strengthening the conditions for ecologically and economically effective land use practices partially because of limited financial resources.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Hungary takes part in the relevant programmes of the FAO. Increasingly important for Hungary are the regional development directives and programmes (such as the Common Agricultural Programme) of the EU which include essential requirements, and aspects of sustainable land use.

Various studies indicated that about 500,000-1,000,000 ha of currently agricultural land had to be converted to other land use, and that the majority of the non-profitable agricultural land should be afforested in Hungary. Thus a relevant government programme was adopted. Decisions on reforestation are supported by the research findings of forest geneticists. It is under the responsibility of the State Supervision of Propagation Material that forestry uses such kind of propagation material which is well-adapted to the local environment, durable, and which improves both the volume of growing stock and the quality of wood material.

The former cooperatives and their successors owned 535,000 ha of forests, and there were about 10,000 ha of forests that were private properties before the transition era. This latter figure is increasing as privatization and compensation proceeds. The forests owned by cooperatives are being distributed among those private persons who owned them before the collectivization of agriculture. Increasing number of forest owners and an increasing share of private properties may cause some disorder in the tasks of the Forest Management Planning Service and the 10 independent local State Inspectorates. Their responsibilities have been redefined in this regard.

The new forestry act adopted recently by Parliament set a new regulatory basis for sustainable forest management by taking into account the changes in ownership, economic aspects and ecological requirements. Some of the important elements of this law are: Management in the forest should be practiced according to management plans approved by the Minister of Agriculture and forest owners should follow the plan's recommendations; the state inspects the owners' activities through the State Forest Inspectorates; "semi-natural" forest management is recognized; privatized forests are considered as private properties and common goods at the same time; the limitation of clear cutting and the obligation to do selective cutting; the introduction of the concept of agro-forestry (short-term rotation forestry) etc.

1. Decision-Making Structure: Forestry as a whole is under the control of the Ministry of Agriculture. The Office of Forestry and its local authorities, and 10 State Forest Inspectorates control the management of forests. The Ministry of Environment and Regional Policy is responsible for strictly protected forests.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: The new private owners of forested areas represent an important interest group. Scientists engaged in special monitoring, analytic studies, and forest science provide essential information to decision-makers. A significant number of environmental NGOs also deals actively with various aspects of sustainable forestry, conservation of forested areas of specific value and related questions.

4. Finance: Special budgetary funds were allocated by the Ministry of Agriculture for the implementation of a large-scale reforestation-afforestation programme. During the privatization process, certain protected forested areas were also taken off the state forestry control. Following the intervention of the Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy, the land privation regulation has been duly amended and a special fund established to repurchase these areas and compensate the private owners. According to the new forestry law, those who manage forests shall pay a specific forest-maintenance contribution to a separate account. These funds shall be the financial base for the regeneration of forests.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Hungary has joined several international treaties which have provisions relevant for sustainable forestry and forest conservation, including the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Ramsar Convention, the Washington Convention (CITES), the Bonn Convention, the Bern Convention and the Geneva Convention on transboundary air pollutants (in its framework, the impacts of this pollution on the forest condition in Europe is also analyzed). Hungary also takes part in international cooperation on forest management under the auspices of FAO.

a) 1994

International Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Drought and/or Desertification Particularly in Africa: has not been signed.

Hungary did not participate in negotiations on the Convention (CDD). Interdepartmental consultations on preparation for accession to this Convention are now in progress under the auspices of the Hungarian CSD with involvement of the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy, and the Ministry of Transport, Communication and Water Management.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter: Combating desertification and drought is of high importance in Hungary. The country is located in a climat zone predisposed to drought, and dry periods have always occurred. Large parts of the country are semi-arid or dry subhumid. The Great Plain, and especially the area between the Danube and Tizsa rivers, is the most threatened region where certain symptoms of desertification can also be detected. The problem of droughts is superimposed in some areas with soil erosion.

Analysis of long term observations demonstrates that there is a significant decreasing tendency in precipitation amounts and average soil moisture content.

A drought management strategy aimed at the prevention and control of droughts has been introduced. The key elements of the strategy are promotion of water-saving farming methods (e.g. tillage systems, application of organic manure; certain types of agricultural machines); plant protection and weed control; amelioration and irrigation; afforestation and plant breeding, and improvement of observation systems.

It is expected that one of the possible consequences of anticipated global climate change will be the average decrease of precipitation levels in the Hungarian region by approximately 50-100mm/degrees C annually. This might cause severe water supply problems in semiarid areas and drylands.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The main government agencies responsible for coordinating the issues related to droughts are the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy. The Hungarian Commission on Sustainable Development is the interministerial steering body that coordinates inter alia the convention (CDD) related cross-sectoral activities.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: The Hungarian Academy of Sciences recently coordinated a multidisciplinary research project which addressed the problems of droughts. A continuation of that project is an ongoing programme entitled Agro-21 which provides a scientific basis for the further development of Hungarian agriculture and which also takes into consideration the variability and probable changes in natural conditions. The Academy has also established a special subcommittee to coordinate these research activities and to provide decision-makers with necessary scientific information. Farmers, agricultural cooperatives and their organizations also play an important role.

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Hungary conducts extensive international collaboration on various agricultural, breeding, monitoring etc. issues, some of which are relevant for drought/desertification management, as well. Hungary joined the FCCC and takes part actively in international climate related activities.

Drought frequency: Severe or moderate droughts occur in Hungary nearly every year. Drought frequency has increased, primarily in the last two decades. Winter and spring precipitation amounts show a significant decreasing trend.

1. Decision-Making Structure: No information

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: No information

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information

large-scale privatization process, change of the production structure, overall problems stemming from the lasting recession, the loss of significant foreign trade markets (after the collapse of the Eastern European market for which Hungary used to be an essential net exporter of agricultural products), and the changing economic situation of farmers, cooperatives and state farms (decreased profitability for this sector, decreased state budgetary resources to offer various subsidies and financial benefits or to promote special programmes for agricultural entrepreneurs.)

Agriculture and rural development is also a concern for regional development policy and labour policy. As a part of promoting regional development and sustainable human settlement, special attention is paid to underdeveloped regions and rural areas where agriculture is one of the main sources of income.

As already mentioned in the land use chapter, the share of agricultural land area is rather high in Hungary: about 70% of the area of the country is agricultural land, which is an extraordinary high per- centage by international comparison; of this 73% is arable land, 20% are pasture and meadows and about 7% are gardens, orchards and vineyards. Besides the relatively good soil properties, the country enjoys relatively favourable geographical and climatic conditions for agricultural cultivation.

Aside from their significant economic results, large-scale intensive farming systems and extensive use of chemicals over the past decades resulted in negative environmental impacts on land and water resources to some extent. Abolition of price subsidies on chemicals (e.g. pesticides) has decreased their use. To ensure reasonable, environmentally conscious and safe use of fertilizers, maximum limits for toxic contents were introduced in 1992.

Over the past decades, cultivated land area was steadily decreasing. As a result of urbanization and the expansion of industry and mining, this loss amounted to about 600,000 ha. of the entire agricultural area between 1945 and 1990.

Recently, the Hungarian Academy of Sciences coordinated a multidisciplinary research project which addressed the problems of agriculture. As a continuation of that project, a programme entitled Agro-21 gave an in-depth analysis of tendencies, the expected options and requirements for this sector and formulated policy priorities and various measures. This programme provided a good, professional basis for the further development of Hungarian agriculture, but unfortunately, there is not yet a comprehensive national agricultural programme, whilst various recommendations of the Agro-21 programme have, however, already been reflected in some measures and other programmes, like the National Environmental Programme or for the regional development programmes for rural areas.

Please refer also to the information provided on chapters 10 and 12 above.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The Ministry of Agriculture is the body primarily responsible for agriculture, and the Ministry of Environment and Regional Policy controls issues of regional and rural development. In accordance with the recently adopted regional development act, central and regional (county) development councils have been established which are now the principal coordinating and decision making organizations responsible for regional planning, priority setting and allocation of certain financial resources for various regional development projects.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: The new Soil Information and Monitoring System was established in 1992. Important soil parameters are measured regularly in 1, 3 or 6 year cycles to follow changes in soils and to scientifically support the measures against harmful effects.

3. Major Groups: The Agricultural Chamber represents the interests of the agricultural sector in the various discussions concerning the sector's position. There are also other associations, organizations of agricultural producers, farmers (small-holders, land owners), cooperatives and the local authorities which have substantially increased autonomy in the establishment and implementation of local development programmes.

4. Finance: A law on land tax, introduced in 1992, allows a 50% reduction on the land tax if a farmer adopts environmentally sustainable technology. The following activities are subsidized: liming of acid soils, sustainable nutrient management based on soil tests, increasing the proper use of manure, and land use with appropriate soil conservation measures. Agricultural Funds were adopted by Parliament in 1992 to create an entrepreneurial type of agriculture: the Agricultural Development Fund to upgrade the material - technical base, broaden its infrastructural background, ensure the qualitative development of its biological bases, and operate a new system of agricultural counseling; the Land Protection Fund to help open up high-quality land withdrawn from farming and to ensure proper use and protection of arable areas. The Regional Development Fund is also mentioned because of its importance for underdeveloped rural areas. Besides its other targets, this fund is expected to create employment opportunities and preserve the rural capacity to sustain the population.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Hungary participates in various international agricultural development programmes coordinated by FAO. The EU programmes on regional and rural development, the objectives and criteria of its structural funds are increasingly important for Hungary as one of the associated member states of the European Union.

The Convention on Biological Diversity was signed in 1992 and ratified in 1994

A conceptual approach with setting the general requirements, principles and objectives of the biodiversity conservation has been formulated in the framework of the national framework for environmental protection and nature conservation in 1994. The recently adopted Act on Nature Conservation also put a special emphasis on the conservation of biological diversity. Based on these documents, the "Basic plan on nature conservation" was adopted by the Government and submitted to Parliament at the end of 1996. It also pays great attention to this area and presents the basic tasks of conservation. In line with this approach, a country study and a specific action programme are now being prepared and a report on these activities will be submitted in 1997 to the secretariat of the Convention in accordance with the relevant decision and the guidelines adopted by the Conference of the Parties.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora was ratified in 1985

Hungary complies with provisions laid down in the Convention; its administrative agencies perform the licensing, prohibit and adequately sanction trade violating the relevant provisions. In accordance with the fundamental objective of the Convention, Hungary is taking active part in preventing and controlling trade in endangered species. A ministerial decree was issued for the implementation of the Convention in Hungary in 1990 which makes the provisions more stringent in several respects: all birds of prey are included in Appendix I to the Convention; everyone who is in possession of species and their derivatives included in Appendix I, or who has breeding stocks of species listed in Appendix II must be registered; the import of ivory to Hungary is prohibited; transit shipments without the required CITES-permit are not allowed in the territory of Hungary. Reports are regularly submitted to the Convention's secretariat.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter: According to the Basic Plan of Nature Conservation, the problem of biodiversity is considered as a high priority issue. Conservation of biodiversity will be realized on all major levels: (i) on the level of populations, where the main target to be achieved is the conservation of genetic diversity and the protection of gene-reserves, considering non-domesticated plants and animals, as well as cultivated plants and bred animals; (ii) on the level of species, where the extinction of species has to be prevented, the viable populations of various species have to be maintained in the adequate diversity; (iii) on the level of biocenoses, where the preservation of the species-diversity of biocenoses and the maintenance of the variety of species-combinations are to be regarded as main objectives. A concrete action programme, based on earlier achievements at national level, is now being planned to follow the national priorities closely and the international guidelines (issued by UNEP and adopted also under the Convention).

A monitoring programme providing data on the status of biological resources has been developed. Particular emphasis is put on species and habitats which are scarce or endangered. The objective of creating such a biomonitoring network is to identify and assess the changes of biodiversity under the influence of various human activities and natural processes, and of the measures initiated by a general programme for nature conservation and by the planned specific biodiversity conservation programme. The main elements of the network are as follows: a biodiversity data recording system and network for Hungary and a general survey and inventory of main habitat types in Hungary.

The establishment of a network of environmentally sensitive areas is planned. The aim of this network will be to create a more harmonious relationship between agriculture and nature conservation.

Botanical and zoological gardens are considered important for the educational role they play and for providing programmes for preserving species.

1. Decision-Making Structure: A new environmental and nature conservation policy, introduced by the Ministry of Environment and Regional Policy in 1994, reflects both the recommendations of Agenda 21 and of the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Act on Nature Conservation was approved by Parliament in 1996 and the Basic Plan on Nature Conservation has been prepared. All these instruments include essential provisions on biodiversity conservation. The cross-sectoral tasks in this context are coordinated under the auspices of the Hungarian CSD. The Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy and its Nature Conservation Agency have the prime responsibility for concrete regulatory tasks and programmes, and the fulfillment of the specific obligations under the Convention on Biological Diversity.

As concerns the CITES, the concrete tasks are performed by the assigned Management Authority which is the Nature Conservation Agency. This Agency is authorized to issue the so-called "CITES" permits. About 200-300 permits are issued per year. Animals and plants, their parts and derivatives which enter Hungary through violation of the provisions will be seized by the Agency in co-operation with the Hungarian Customs and Finance Guard and its regional offices.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: No information

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Hungary is an active participant in all relevant international agreements such as, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar Convention, CITES, Bonn convention, Bern Convention.

a) the number of strictly prohibited species in 1985 (the number of prohibited species is 537)

b) the number of strictly prohibited species in 1996 (the number of prohibited species is 781)

Biotechnology is considered in Hungary as one of the most dynamic disciplines the last few decades. Biotechnology is applied not only for technologies using genetically manipulated microorganisms, but in a much wider sense, including the production and application of enzymes, and the production of hormones. The main fields of development and application of biotechnology are the following: soils, water pollution treatment, degradation by biotechnological means; production and processing of biomass, industrial production and recycling processes.

Regarding soil related applications, the main task is compost recovering with adequate microorganism content. Thus, the bacteria species in the soil should be selected according to the original conditions, and if necessary, genetically modified microbes should be introduced into the soil by compost. There are also two essential biotechnological procedures to be performed and studied in Hungary: (i) in order to intensify nitrogen fixing, the number of nodule bacteria is increased; (ii) large quantities of xenobiotics in soil are degraded by genetically modified microbes, since they consume the contaminant.

For water pollution treatment, the removal/reduction of nitrogen and phosphorous content of waters can be solved by biological and biotechnological means. Biotechnological methods are being developed and tested for treatment of waters with high nitrogen and phosphorous contentand also for proper cleaning of industrial, agricultural and communal waste waters, i.e. to prevent the pollution of rivers and lakes. Typically, genetically modified microorganisms can be successfully used for treatment of waste waters from various industrial plants. Different technologies are being developed for the treatment of communal waste water and the sludge (mainly useful biomass) produced in waste water treatment stations.

Because of the importance of agricultural production in Hungary, biotechnical methods are being developed and will play an increasingly important role in the future in particular for that sector. A bio-industrialization programme is now planned for production of biomass (primary and secondary plant biomass, primary and secondary animal biomass, food processing and feed production). Some results have been achieved for plant biomass production, where conventional selection methods can solve both the yield quantity and the quality problems, but biotechnology has an increasing role.

Biotechnological methods are also being developed for food preserving and storing, and their future extensive introduction is important since agricultural production in Hungary has a great capacity. These preserving techniques should offer longer life-time, preserve the vitamin content and the biological value at a high level with an acceptable aesthetic form. Applied biotechnological and food processing research institutes have a key role in the development of these techniques.

More concrete progress has taken place for biotechnological applications for industrial production, especially for production of medical and paramedical products, as well as, for the production of enzymes and intermediers. In this area, the most important field is in the production of factor vaccines. Production of antibiotics is also an important field, where Hungary has some traditions. Special attention is being paid to new resistant microorganisms and beta-lactase derivative antibiotics.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The biotechnological R&D programmes are conducted in academic research institutes. Some of the regulatory tasks and programmes are under the aegis of the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Industry, Trade and Tourism and the Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy. There is now a special concern about biosafety and the establishment of an interministerial body is now planned to consider the problems related to the GMOs and to assist policy-planning and formulation of relevant regulations.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: No information

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Hungary takes part in various international programmes on biotechnology development (especially those within the framework of FAO, UNEP, UNIDO and the OECD) and is also an active participant in the negotiations on the planned biosafety protocol to the Convention on Biological Diversity.

No information

The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea

Convention on the High Seas: Ratified in 1961

Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter:

Ratified in 1976

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships: Ratified in 1983

The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea: Ratified in 1985

1. Decision-Making Structure: No information

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: No information

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information

total population)

Both the natural and the anthropogenic impacts on freshwater resources can be adequately analyzed in the country because there is a good monitoring network. Regular water quality monitoring of surface waters in Hungary started in 1968 once the standard network was established. Parallel to the observation for surface waters, regular monitoring is operated also for the subsurface waters and for the water quality in irrigation projects.The most recent development in this area was the adoption of the National Environmental Programme (submitted to the Parliament) which includes substantial provisions and measures for the management of surface and subsurface water resources. Some of the key targets and approved policy directions are developing regulation encouraging economical water use; the improvement of water quality for the main watercourses (Danube, Tisza, lake Balaton); that the share of community sewers should reach 65% in terms of all settlements by 2002, that all waste water getting to sewers should at least be biologically cleaned; the nitrate and phosphorous load of highly protected waters sensitive to nutrients should be decreased. On the basis of EU guidelines, waste water drainage and cleaning should be solved for all settlements with more than 15,000 inhabitants by 2000; to prevent further subsurface water (pressure) level decrease, to ensure and promote regeneration, restoration of natural water balance of the endangered regions etc.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The bodies mainly responsible for the protection of freshwater resources are the Ministry of Transport, Communication and Water Management and the Ministry of Environment and Regional Policy. The basic regulatory framework consists of the Water Act of 1995 and the law on environmental impact studies of 1994; there are important provisions under the act on environmental protection (1995).

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: According to the general guidelines for Hungarian water management and protection, the state is responsible for the training of qualified personnel (public administrators and employees).

3. Major Groups: Land owners will be responsible for the protection of subsurface drinking water resources to the extent specified in the licenses provided by the authorities. Water works and local governments also take responsibility in providing healthy drinking water. Scientists traditionally play an important role in Hungary in monitoring, analysis and providing scientific studies for decision making related to the conservation and environmentally sound utilization of freshwater resources. This field is also of special concern to various environmental NGOs.

4. Finance: A special fund for technical development purposes, to increase of freshwater supply and waste treatment capacities has been established. It is financed by fees, charges and other contributions. The fund provides grants for different activities and investments related to protection of water resources.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Cooperation with neighbouring countries is an objective of great priority. Existing agreements on transboundary waters will be harmonized in accordance with international agreements and EU regulations. The ECE-convention (Helsinki 1992) is regarded as an important legal instrument. It gives basic provisions for the protection and use of transboundary water courses and international lakes.

According to present regulations, health hazard assessments and licencing documents are required for each chemical produced or used in Hungary, and they are provided by experts of relevant institutes as well as by the Office of the Country Chief Medical Officer of the National Public Health Centre.

Legislation on chemical safety is not yet properly harmonized with the requirements of the EU and OECD countries. Serious steps have been taken, however, in the course of preparing for joining the OECD in which environmental requirements were among the most important criteria in the case of the Hungarian application.

The recently prepared National Environmental Programme sets out the basic tasks in this regard. It underlines the importance of enhancing the legal basis of environmentally sound management of toxic chemicals and of chemical safety, and of setting these regulations in line with OECD and EU criteria. According to the Programme, a dedicated subprogramme to reduce chemical risks will be adopted and implemented by 2002 with registration of emergencies, damages in the fields of production, transportation and storage.

At present, there are still various infrastructural and resource related problems in the adequate implementation of the chemical safety requirements. For instance, there is also a shortage of professionals in the field of toxicology; the lack of means for developing and maintaining an effective information and control system is also a problem.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The government regulates the treatment of toxic chemicals. Responsibility for the control of toxic chemicals is shared among different ministries and institutions, but the Ministry of Welfare has a primary role. Regulations issued at different levels constitute the legislative framework for chemical safety. A governmental decree of 1985 and a ministerial decree of 1988 regulate production, marketing, use, licensing etc. of toxic chemicals.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: No information

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: In the improvement of management of toxic chemicals the role of international cooperation is important. The Government has undertaken to follow the OECD recommendations on management of hazardous chemicals including the information exchange systems to follow. Hungary participated in the International Conference on Chemical Safety held in Stockholm in April 1994.

No information

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal

was ratified in 1990

In hazardous waste export-import issues, the provisions of the convention are taken into consideration in the course of licensing in Hungary; the required information and notification are regularly provided to the Secretariat.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter: Hazardous wastes and their management is a substantial problem in Hungary. A programme set in the mid-80s to build up a network of regional hazardous waste landfills and incinerator plants has not been completed due to limited financial resources. One high-tech incinerator plant, one chemically secure landfill and four interim storage sites have been constructed and put into operation, which is less than half of what was planned. Establishment of new regional incinerators is planned in the near future. In addition, many large and small factories have their own storage facilities.

A new programme for registration of the quantity and treatment of hazardous wastes is being prepared. Waste avoidance and recycling are regarded as the most significant long-term strategies in waste management, and they should be given priority over treatment and disposal.

These problems and objectives are now summarized in the framework of the National Environmental Programme which identifies adequate waste management as one of the most urgent tasks. It is generally recognized that some basic problems should be solved as soon as possible, such as the formulation of a waste management act covering all types of waste, including hazardous wastes and the development of a reliable information system for the different types of waste. In terms of hazardous wastesthere is an urgent need for the increase of waste disposal capacity. The implementation of tasks under the international conventions and programmes particularly those of the Basel Convention (including survey of wastes on the basis of lists adopted following the proclamation of the convention) sahould also be a priority. It is planned that for the year 2002, the incineration and dumping capacities for hazardous waste have to be increased to 25,000 tons/year. In addition, the prevention of production of such wastes should be promoted by proper technological methods and changes in production patterns.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The government regulates the treatment of hazardous wastes and the responsibility for the regulation and control of hazardous waste lies primarily with the Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy. The current regulations are harmonized with the provisions of the Basel Convention. The Government decision entitled "The control of the production of hazardous waste and the activities related to its neutralization" (56/1981) was revised by a recent decree (27/1992). It is the primary legal instrument for hazardous waste management together with other laws and decrees which partially address these issues. New, comprehensive legislation on waste prevention, re-use and management was to be enacted in 1994.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: Information on waste treatment capacities is given above.

3. Major Groups: No information

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: In the improvement of the management of hazardous wastes, international cooperation is important. Hungary is an active participant to the Basel Convention and conducts collaboration in the framework of bilateral agreements with several countries (Switzerland, Denmark, Japan, USA). A PHARE project was carried out to create a strategy on hazardous waste management for the north-west region of Hungary.

A considerable part (1.9 million tonnes/year) consists of "red mud" from aluminium smelting.

a) based on the implementation of the Basel Convention

b) 1993

83% of municipal solid waste is collected and treated in an organised way. The proportion of recycling paper wastes has been extremely high: the pulp and paper industry is covering its production material demand by more than 80% from waste paper which accounts for more than fifty per cent of domestic collection. In other respects the treatment is limited mostly to placement in landfills (91%). Budapest is the only city that has an incinerator for municipal solid waste (annual capacity is 310 thousand tons).

The state of sewerage and sewage treatment is unsatisfactory. Only 43% of the dwellings have sewers. The aim is that by 2010 all settlements with a population of more than 2,000 will have biological sewage treatment facilities. Approximately 54% of the collected waste water is discharged into treatment plants, where the ratio of biological treatment is 33%. This is a very unfavourable situation because it endangers the quality of surface and subsurface waters in many locations.

1. Decision-Making Structure: No uniform responsibilities are defined for waste management and there are no regulatory powers covering the whole waste sector. The forthcoming act on waste management has been developed to make up for this deficiency. The government organisations responsible for the public administration of waste management are the Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy (responsible for waste management policy and control) and the Ministry of Welfare. Participating authorities: the Ministry of Industry and Trade (organises the utilisation of wastes and secondary raw materials and licenses exports and imports); the Ministry of Welfare (responsible for public and environmental health issues); the Ministry of Agriculture (veterinary and phytosanitary issues); and the Ministry of the Interior (in charge of enforcement tasks related to municipal waste treatment).

Local governments are responsible for the treatment of municipal waste. They also issue construction permits for waste treatment facilities. Regional (county level) local governments are responsible for issues in the territory over which they have authority.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues:

3. Major Groups: In Hungary in the early 1990s, 100% of the state owned specialised companies organised regionally in a trust, collected and purchased (mostly reusable) waste from industry and households and sold it. Certain trading companies selling manufacturing equipment also operated here. The role of the private sector in this activity was insignificant.

4. Finance: Municipalities receive standardised support from the government budget based on the annual budget. The size of the support is determined according to the number of residents and disbursements are debited from the budget allocation to general responsibilities of local governments or from the allocations for settlement operation. The treatment and disposal of municipal liquid waste may also be supported from central government allocations. The amount of per capita support is HUF 1637. The provisions of the act on targeted subsidies also allow disbursements to support waste management tasks. Under the Act, Parliament has the power to decide on awarding targeted subsidies for establishing regional landfills. Municipalities may set aside 30% of the income generated by environmental fines to create municipal conservation funds to be used for carrying out their responsibilities. They may also apply through tender for subsidies from government funds set aside for capital investment and development projects. These include: Earmarked Estimates for Regional Development, the Central Environmental Protection Fund, Earmarked Estimates for Economic Development. The Central Environmental Protection Fund may be used to extend interest-free or concessionary loans or to issue financial guarantees for credit purposes to applicants from the business sector.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: As the price of waste accumulated in Hungary is much lower than globally, there has been a lot of interest - mostly from Western Europe - in reusable iron, steel and a variety of non-ferrous metal (copper, aluminium) wastes. Recognising the boom, several enterprises (around 600 with 1000 sites) engaged in collecting and purchasing wastes for export purposes mainly. Additionally, a smaller circle of enterprises - mostly partnerships - specialising in foreign trade, were incorporated, but due to low capitalisation only a few of these are capable of operations (cutting, compacting, packaging in bales) required by secondary processing.

industrial

municipal

The issue of radioactive waste became a concern when the first nuclear power station was started in Paks. The Paks nuclear power plant generates most of the radioactive waste in Hungary. To promote the safe and sustainable management of radioactive wastes, a special national project has been introduced. The first phase of the project is aimed at determining the outlines of the complex strategy for the management and disposal of all types of radioactive wastes. The project also elaborates criteria for site selection, selection of disposal technologies, exploration of potential regions for high and low level waste disposal, and it assures the financial basis for waste management and the enhancment of public acceptance.

1. Decision-Making Structure: According to the act on nuclear energy passed by Parliament in 1980, licenses for construction, operation and other related activities must not be granted unless sufficient measures are taken for the safe storage of radioactive wastes. The act also defines the responsibilities of various ministries. The Ministry of Welfare is responsible for the licensing of the disposal of radioactive wastes. The interdepartmental project described in "Progress/Status" above is coordinated by the competent authorities and ministries, such as the Ministry of Industry and Trade, the Ministry of Environment and Regional Policy, the Ministry of Welfare, the National Committee for Technological Development, the National Atomic Energy Commission and the Hungarian Power Company Ltd.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: No information

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women was

was signed on 6 June 1980 and ratified on 22 December 1980

24.b Increasing the proportion of women decision makers.

The percentage of women in government (incl. ministers, min. w/o portfolio, pol. secretaries of state) was 5.7% in 1990 and 10.3% in 1990; in parliament it was 30%, 7.3% and 11.2% in 1980, 1990 and 1994 respectively; at the local government level it was 30% in 1980 and 16% in 1990.

24.2.e assessing, reviewing, revising and implementing curricula and other educational material with a view to promoting dissemination of gender-relevant knowledge.

Curricula and educational material already promote gender relevant knowledge.

24.2.f and 24.2.c formulating and implementing policies, guidelines, strategies and plans for achievement of equality in all aspects of society including issuing a strategy by year 2000 to eliminate obstacles to full participation of women in sustainable development.

Policies/strategies are being drawn up

24.2.d establishing mechanisms by 1995 to assess implementation and impact of development and environment policies and programmes on women

Mechanisms are being developed

Brief comments on this chapter: Women in politics: The "women's" issue has not been, and is still not, on the agenda of any committees of the Parliament. As a result of an initiative launched by all female parliamentarians, a joint subcommittee on women's issues was established in 1995. This subcommittee examines bills submitted to the Parliament from womens' perspective. As mentioned above, an office was established in the Ministry of Labour for the coordination of the assessments, decision preparation, information dissemination and the relevant actions. The proportion, and the actual role of women in politics, substantially decreased after the political changes in 1989/90 and during the first years of the transition period. Women and education: The level of women's general educational background is on a par with that of men. In general, women and men have equal opportunities to obtain education and higher degrees. Women and social security: Supporting motherhood and child care are of high national priority. A nation-wide network of institutions to help mothers before and after childbirth, as well as a network of pediatricians and child care nurses has been established. Women in the economy: 50% of full-time wage-earners are women. Women in blue-collar positions earn 30-40% less than their male counterparts and for those in white-collar positions it amounts to 50-60% less. Passing through a social and political transition, Hungary is coping with severe economic constraints. These adversely affect the enforcement of economic, social and cultural rights, the effective recognition of women's rights and the development of an attitude conducive to the full acknowledgment of female equality. International aspects: Hungary participated in the Fourth World Conference on Women and regards it as important that a special focus was put on the economic difficulties facing Central and Eastern European countries in transition.

25.4 establishing processes that promote dialogue between the youth and government at all levels and mechanisms that permit youth access to information and opportunity to present their views on implementing A21.

Name relevant youth fora (3-4 most important):

1. Green Heart

2. Hungarian Association of 4H Groups (these two groups are engaged in environmental protection activities and the idea of sustainability)

3. Nature Conservation Club of the Eötvös Lorand University of Budapest

4. Green Circle of the Technical University of Budapest

They have an ad hoc role in the national process.

25.5 ensuring that by year 2000 more than 50% of youth -- gender balanced -- have access to appropriate secondary education or vocational training.

The goal set in Agenda 21 has been reached.

Brief comments on this chapter (maximum 100 words) (please, do not exceed this page):

25.6 Reducing youth unemployment

Youth unemployment (as a percentage of the total unemployment rate): 1992: 4.1%; 1995: 7.5%

The importance of the role of youth in overcoming of the present crucial socio-economic problems, to achieve recovery of the economy, and to successfully solve the problems of transition to an "ecological-social" market economy is recognized. A high-level interagency council was established for the identification of the priorities and for supervising the funds provided for the implementation of basic programmes and projects. The present socio-economic problems have their adverse implications on this major group, as well; youth unemployment is one of the critical symptoms. Approximately 92% of the compulsory education students can be taught the concept of sustainable development in formal education. In 1995, the Parliament approved a new National Core Curriculum. According to this curriculum environmental education is now an integral part of teaching and a compulsory subject in public education.

The Körlánc Environmental Education Programme was established by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of the USA and the Hungarian Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy in 1992. The programme was designed to create a model to promote environmental education in Hungary. Since the beginning of 1995, the Ministry of Environmental and Regional Policy and the Ministry of Culture and Public Education agreed on financial support for the programme. This programme operates through five regional work-groups, and it develops, assesses and implements curricular programmes where local communities are involved. It also disseminates textbooks and other publications of local pedagogic innovations. At present, more than 500 nurseries, primary and secondary schools, museums, national parks, NGOs and zoos belong to the Körlánc organization. In 1994 Körlánc was integrated into the Foundation for the Development of Ecological Culture. The Association of Hungarian Pioneers, with the legacy of extensive nature conservation and recyclable waste collection activities, is the biggest youth organization with 75,000 members. During the years of political and economic transition, new organizations were also established. These represent 5% of the 10-25 year-old children and young people. There are a few purely environmentally oriented organizations, i.e., the Green Heart and the Hungarian Association of 4H Groups. The Scout organizations were revitalized after the political changes in 1989/90 and these groups are also active in promoting the importance of nature conservation and other aspects of sustainable development. Registered societies can ask for funding from the Fund for Youth and from the Parliament.

26.3.a A process to empower indigenous people and their communities -- through policies and legal instruments is not yet in place.

26.3.b strengthening arrangements for active participation in national policies is not relevant in Hungary.

26.3.c There has been no action yet in involving indigenous people in resource management strategies and programmes at the national and local level.

27.5 developing mechanisms that allow NGOs to play their partnership role responsibly and effectively.

27.6 reviewing formal procedures and mechanisms to involve NGOs in decision making and implementation.

27.8 promoting and allowing NGOs to participate in the conception, establishment and evaluation of official mechanisms to review Agenda 21 implementation.

Mechanisms already exist which allow NGOs to play their partnership role responsibly and effectively.

NGO inputs are ad hoc

27.7 establishing a mutually productive dialogue by 1995 at the national level between NGOs and governments.

Brief comments on this chapter (maximum 100 words) (please, do not exceed this page): The role of the non-governmental organizations in relation with various environmental problems in Hungary has increased significantly over the last 10-15 years. Nowadays there are hundreds of local, regional and national level environmental NGOs. The economic transition, and the extensive privatization process has led also to a substantial "growth of weight" of the business NGOs, their interest groups, and the various chambers and associations. As concerns the formal mechanisms, besides the more or less regular national consultative meetings of the environmental NGOs, their representatives also participate in the National Environmental Council that was established in 1996. This advisory body of the government consists of representatives of the three NGO constituencies, namely, the environmental NGOs, the representatives of the scientists and the business organizations. Whilst this is an advisory body of NGO representatives (with a single government representative - the minister of environment and regional policy who is the co-chairman), the basically interministerial Hungarian CSD has also offered several seats to NGO representatives. NGOs also have their own initiatives both at the regional/local levels and in the form of country-wide programmes. In 1996, as part of independent preparations for the pan-European meeting of environmental ministers in Sofia, environmental NGOs produced the framework programme for the sustainable development of Hungary. Some of the environmental NGOs, academic organizations, and professional societies produce analytic or position papers and organize programmes, conferences, roundtables on specific sectoral or cross-sectoral questions of sustainable development.

28.2.d encouraging local authorities to implement and monitor programmes that aim to ensure participation of women and youth in local decision making.

Many local authorities have developed environmental, nature conservation, and regional/local development programmes of narrower or wider scope. More or less full scale local Agenda 21 programmes have not, however, been prepared. The basic reasons for the lack of such programmes are most probably related to the extensive socio-economic changes that characterize Hungary as one of the transition countries. These changes have had significant impacts on the role and functioning of local governments, the division of mandates, responsibilities, labour, resources between the central government and local authorities. During recent years, a set of new legal instruments, decision making structures, and financial mechanisms were adopted. Based on them, many more initiatives to formulate and implement comprehensive local/regional integrated development programmes with particular emphasis on the environmental prioritiesare expected in the near future from the local authorities . (Further comments are given below.)

Brief comments on this chapter (maximum 100 words) (please, do not exceed this page): One of the key features of the political and socio-economic transition is placing responsibility for policy implementation at the local level. It is recognized that adequate regional, subregional and local planning are essential parts of the implementation of sustainable development. Due to the ongoing restructuring of the economy, governmental funding has been drastically reduced. This, combined with the lack of trained personnel, hinders local initiatives and implementation of new development projects. The recently adopted law on environment clearly expresses the idea of integrating environmental aspects in regional planning. The law also includes provisions on the establishment of local environmental protection funds.

Since 1991, a number of regional programmes entitled Community Environmental Action Projects (CEAP) have been initiated to promote regional development. Originally the CEAPs were introduced in four small towns and five rural villages around a water-catchment area. In these programmes local authorities cooperate with governmental authorities, and the local population is encouraged to formulate its own aims and visions. The city of Sátoraljaújhely, e.g., introduced a pilot recycling programme originally for 500 households. As of 1995, projects implemented in four towns have had the following phases: organizational and introductory training; risk identification, data collection and priority ranking; development and implementation of an environmental action plan. The formulation of a series of Community Environmental Action Projects (CEAPs) was assisted by the Institute for Sustainable Communities, Vermont USA, in cooperation with the Independent Ecological Center, Budapest.

A regional programme was developed for the Tisza Valley. The planning process was undertaken by an interdisciplinary team, in close cooperation with the Government and the Association of Local Governments. The aim of the overall programme was to promote modernization in the deprived areas and by means of the coordination of programmes and actions and the strengthening of inter-community links, to promote sustainable economic development. For the region of Ráckeve-Soroksár, the sustainable development planning process has been undertaken through Canadian-Hungarian cooperation (between the Canadian Urban Institute and the local and county governments as well as planning organizations). It is a demonstration programme that was undertaken as an open, participatory process, with the involvement of local governments, professional and social organizations, local enterprises and the inhabitants of the region. The Sokoro Foundation has had a very important function in the formation and organization of sustainable development programme for the Sokoro region. The primary goal is to create a sustainable development system based on the development of the family production unit. Developing the human resources of the area is central to the success of the programme and can be accomplished through a series of workshops and educational programmes. One of the main goals is to create the Sokoro Ecological Park and Folk School where educational programmes can be offered about the environment, the economy and sustainable development.

29.2 full participation of workers in implementation and evaluation of A21.

29.3 a to e (By year 2000, (a) promoting ratification of ILO conventions; (b) establishing bipartite and tripartite mechanism on safety, health and sustainable development; (c) increasing number of environmental collective agreements; (d) reducing occupational accidents and injuries; (e) increasing workers' education and training efforts.

ILO Conventions have been ratified;

Workers do not yet participate in National Agenda 21 discussions/implementation

Brief comments on this chapter (maximum 100 words) (please, do not exceed this page): Measures to facilitate the creation of new working opportunities for the unemployed are adopted and introduced by the government. Regional development policy also pays due attention to this problem. An obvious solution for the present problems of Hungarian labour and for supporting a sustainable employment policy would be the encouraging of part-time employment. Another one is to extend the educational system to help workers getting into the labour market.

In the National Conciliation Council (a high level body of representatives of the government, employers' and employees' organizations) the interests of employees are represented by trade unions. Of these unions, the most powerful one (in terms of membership) is the Federation of Hungarian Trade Unions; it has more than one million members, but its member organizations generally represent various sectors (54 member-organizations), the interests of young people, women, pensioners, etc. In the course of the recent political changes, many new autonomous trade unions were established. Workers and their representatives take part in the above mentioned "tripartite" mechanism at the national and local level in order to discuss key terms of the planned regulatory and financial/tax mechanisms that may affect the various sectors, the unemployment rate, the wage-system, the effects of the state budget-reform, the methods for minimizing the disadvantages that affect employees.

Hungary participates in various ILO programmes and conventions, in particular in those which are relevant for awareness raising and involvement of employees in working conditions, conditions of the work place/environment, safety regulations etc.

30.6 increasing the efficiency of resource use, including reuse, recycling, and reduction of waste per unit of economic output.

There are governmental policies encouraging the above objectives

30.18.a encouraging the concept of stewardship in management and use of natural resources by entrepreneurs.

List any actions taken in this area: Enterprises in the energy production and distribution sector, the chemical industry, refineries, several producers of building materials, paper factories, food producers and some other enterprises have adopted, to some extent, the stewardship concept and, based on it, formulated and introduced environmentally sound technological, managerial standards and practices. This progress is reinforced with the changes in international trade, the increasing share of trade with the industrialized countries and the related environmental requirements. Another essential factor is the change in the tax and price systems related to natural resources, energy and raw materials. The environmental product charges, and fines for environmental pollution also contributed also to these changes.

30.18.b increasing number of enterprises that subscribe to and implement sustainable development policies.

Most big enterprises and a few small and medium sized enterprises have adopted sustainable development policies

Brief comments on this chapter (maximum 100 words) (please, do not exceed this page): One of the positive signs of the socio-economic transition is the increased environmental awareness within the industrial sector. Business ventures dealing with environmental protection have increased rapidly. The large scale privatization process has also contributed to changing attitudes; the State Property Agency (coordinating privatization) also takes into account the "inherited" environmental problems and sets the environmental criteria for the new owners. Quality control systems and certificates, e.g. in relation with standard ISO 9000, are spreading within Hungarian industry. A good example of a "green" enterprise is the Hungarian State Railways Conference which is expanding its services in an environmentally sound way. Other groups of enterprises with strong environmental commitments are mentioned above. In the banking sector, environmental concerns and responsibilities have increasingly been taken into account. Besides these positive signs, the state has not adequately regulated industry, from an environmental point of view. Price regulations on certain environmentally hazardous products (e.g. detergents and fertilizers) have not been introduced. Interest groups and representatives of enterprises also follow the new environmental regulations, and comment on the planned changes. One of the most active organizations in this context is the Environmental Committee of the Hungarian Federation of Employers.

31.3.b improving exchange of knowledge and concerns between s&t community and the general public.

the scientific community has already established ways in which to address the general public and deal with

sustainable development

31.9 developing, improving and promoting international acceptance of codes of practice and guidelines related to science and technology and its role in reconciling environment and development.

Brief comments on this chapter not already described in chapter 35 (maximum 100 words) (please, do not exceed this page): The proportion of the expenditures for research and development today hardly exceed 1% of the GDP. Before the present transition period it was around 2.5%. In turn, the number of employees (staff in research institutes) has decreased to half of what it was in the previous period. (E.g., between 1988 and 1993, the staff in R&D institutes decreased from 7378 to 4062, in R&D departments of various enterprises from 11157 to 3305 pers.)

The increased opportunities for the research community to participate in international programmes, especially in programmes of developed countries and their integration organizations are considered very important.

Under the changing conditions and requirements, the scientists seek new goals and opportunities in relation to the new socio-economic challenges, the problems raised by the transition process, the modernization of the country and sustainable socio-economic development. The Hungarian Academy of Sciences has presented the views of the scientific community on the most important aspects concerning the state of sciences and scientists in the country, as well as their long term tasks. According to this evaluation, despite the present complicated economic and financial circumstances, the competency levels, capabilities and infrastructure of the scientific community are considered consistent with the requirements of the developed countries, in particular those of the European Union.

Similarly, according to a comprehensive governmental initiative, scientists and experts in technology, education and culture have a role in the long term modernization process. It is recognized that the high level of national scientific activities should be maintained and that the qualitative development of the research network and the improvement of material-technical conditions should be guaranteed. It was accepted that the financial resources for the scientific community, for research programmes should reach 1.8-2.0% of the GDP again. Among the highest priority areas, those related to sustainable development are emphasized (such as the introduction of energy-saving technologies, development of environmentally sound technologies, development and utilization of biotechnology, research on updating food-farming, safeguarding of public-health and medical studies etc.)

(As concerns various mechanisms of dialogue between the scientists and policy-makers please refer to information on Chapter 35.)

Ch. 32: STRENGTHENING THE ROLE OF FARMERS.

32.5.c promoting and encouraging sustainable farming practices and technologies.

32.5.e developing a policy framework that provides incentives and motivation among farmers for sustainable and efficient farming practices.

32.5.f enhancing participation of organizations of farmers in design and implementation of sustainable development policies.

Brief comments on this chapter (maximum 100 words) (please, do not exceed this page): Agriculture has always been a key sector of the national economy in Hungary. About 70% of total land area is suitable for agriculture production. Between 1948 and 1960 an intense collectivisation process took place that resulted in profound structural changes in land use and agriculture as a whole. As a consequence of these structural changes, an intensive, specialised and concentrated large scale farming system was established between 1960 and 1989.

Major laws have been adopted for the transformation of the property pattern since 1990 (legislation on compensation, the transformation of the co-operatives etc.) As a result, this sector is undergoing radical changes in ownership systems and land tenure. The active agriculture population is decreasing: the percentage of the total labour force is about 8%. Nowadays, agriculture contributes about 7% to the GDP.

As a consequence of the privatization process, "land fragmentation" may have adverse impacts on the sustainable use of the agricultural area. It is clear for decision makers that more attention should be paid to extensive grasslands, small-scale keeping of livestock, recovering of traditional practices, including small-scale mixed farming and extensive livestock grazing, extensive arable land management, river floodplains, set-aside practice, fish ponds, reeds, and woody grasslands. The introduction and general application of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) are considered important. The common interests are calling for the practical implementation the integrated GAP policy in Hungary, including the "Integrated Plant Nutrition System" keeping the efficiency and profitability of agriculture on an adequate level, providing a suitable living standard for the rural population and taking into account the importance of the improvement of the state of the environment.

The Central Environmental Fund, administered by the Ministry of Environment and Regional Policy, is a public fund which promotes the prevention, reduction and elimination of threats to the environment. At least 75% per cent of the financial resources available in the fund are granted as direct support or loans for investments directly promoting the protection of the environment.

The Water Management Fund promotes the implementation of certain tasks in the water management sector, among them the economical use of water and protection of water management. The main resources of this fund come from payments of a water resources fee.

The Regional Development Fund: administrated by the Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy, promotes development policies utilizing regional resources to foster the social and economic renewal of regions. The legal basis of the fund is the Act on Regional Development and Physical Planning (1996). The financial resources available in the fund are granted as a soft loan (interest rate subsidies: 30%) with a loan moratorium of 2 years.

CHANGES IN NATIONAL BUDGET TO ADDRESS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: Environmental investments in proportion to GDP rose from 0.5% in 1985 to 1.5% in 1986 and 1987 and fell to 0.6% in 1991. They began to grow again from 0.9% in 1992 to 1% in 1993. This indicator does not say much about the transitional economy however because the investments are too general.

In critical sectors, such as mining, metallurgy and the chemical industry, environmental protection investments are significant, while in high-earning branches, such as tourism, expenditures are minor. The share of the whole retail sector in environmental investments hardly surpasses one per cent. There is a real danger that the crisis sectors will not be capable of maintaining environmental protection. As in much of the world, investment in water protection dominates in Hungary.

Because of the economic transition, use of the "polluter-pays principle" system is difficult. This is true not only in bankrupt branches, but also in the sphere of privatization. The question is whether new owners should bear responsibility for pollution caused by enterprises which were previously state property, or whether the state (i.e. tax payers) should shoulder this responsibility. Both solutions create controversy. If the state takes responsibility, it would be the subject of unrealized and unsupervisable obligations. It would also be forced to determine responsibility, which might then limit individual polluters from finding investors.

NEW ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS: The main purpose of the act on environmental product charges is to create the necessary financial resources for the mitigation and prevention of environmental damages caused by certain products. Product charges must be paid for the following products: fuels, tires, refrigerators, packaging materials and accumulators.

ELIMINATION OF ENVIRONMENTALLY UNFRIENDLY SUBSIDIES: No information

No information

Hungary participates in the following areas of international cooperation: (i) bilateral international agreements with several countries; (ii) R&D programmes of the EU; (iii) participation in 72 COST programmes (European Cooperation in the Field of Scientific and Technical Research); (iv) Hungary has been a member of EUREKA since 1992, and is currently participating in 35 projects; (v) Hungary is a member of CERN and has also a cooperation agreement with the ESA; (vi) cooperation with the scientific programme of NATO; (vii) cooperation with the Commission of Scientific and Technological Policy of the OECD.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION:

National Programme for Environmental Research and Development: this programme is being formulated jointly by the Ministry for the Environment and Regional Policy and the National Committee of Technological Development with a special emphasis on improving the technical-technological conditions for environmental protection. Elements of this programme include: development of environmentally sound public utilities; technologies for healthy drinking water supply; environmentally-sound technologies integrated into production; material, energy and water saving technologies, and environmental sanitation.

A special eco-labeling system was recently introduced by initiative of the Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy.

Provide information on the adoption of environmental management systems. National reaction to environmental management system standards such as the ISO 14000 Series and others. Please note efforts made at the national level to promote their adoption and the creation of certification infrastructure in order to facilitate access to these standards to local industry.

List and describe programs or work under way to facilitate the transfer of ESTs to small and medium sized enterprises. Please note efforts to facilitate access to financial resources and other transfer strategies.

The government has a comprehensive national initiative which deals primarily with the preservation of national scientific activities, the qualitative development of the research network, and the improvement of material-technical conditions that are necessary for its effective operation. The primary goal is to increase funding. Identification of the high priority study areas to be supported follows the principles of sustainable development. The importance of science is recognized by the government. A special cooperative agreement has been elaborated recently between the Government and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences on the basic topics and ways of conducting scientific analysis, on providing scientific advice on key issues of socio-economic development (the modernization programme), its international conditions and tendencies, and on R&D aspects or environmental requirements.

Such scientific contribution is also significant for particular areas. For example, a group of experts, commissioned by the Ministry of Agriculture in 1995, completed a strategy for sustainable development in agriculture for Hungary. Another group studied the various environmental scenarios and objectives for the country. A similar analysis has been prepared for the transport sector (resulting in a Transport Policy Concept that determined the long term policy directions of the government for this sector) and for the future of water management policy ("Hungary's Water Management at the Turn of the Millennium" with special emphasis on environmental protection).

Other areas have also been investigated by various academic institutes and discussed by the specialized committees and groups of the Academy of Science. The highest level input to decision making is provided through a scientific policy committee chaired by the Prime Minister. Another important forum is the recently established National Environmental Council, in which one third of the members represent the scientific community. This council serves as the advisory body to the government and assesses all programmes and planned legal instruments which are relevant from an environmental point of view.

These programmes already take into account the changes in the structure and mandate of the scientific community and the provisions of such recently adopted legal instruments as the act on environmental protection (1995) or the act on nature conservation (1996). According to the former, environmental R&D is to be increased and the coordination of these activities should be improved.

environmental education into the curricula. Sections 54 and 55 of the Act on Environmental Protection (1995) deal with environmental education, training and culture. This sector is a joint responsibility of the Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy and the Ministry of Culture and Public Education. School-system education-training provides general and professional environmental knowledge in nursery schools, public education, professional education and higher education.

a) Reorientation of education towards sustainable development: A teaching/training packet entitled "People and their Environment" was developed and contains a school book, a curriculum, a manual for teachers, a problem manual for field practice and a series of slides. It is the basis of a course of the same name which is being taught in over 185 secondary schools. The programme was created by notable environmental experts and 70,000 copies of the book have been printed to date. An Environmental School Network was established by the Ministry for Culture and Education in December 1992 with the mandate to provide a framework in which schools could more closely cooperate in the development of environmental education. This network allows schools that are more advanced to share their experiences with schools that are just beginning their involvement in environmental education. The National Environmental Scientific Student Congress is organized every two years. At the fourth congress in 1994, almost 200 studies were received in the field of environmental protection, natural conservation, environmental economics, environmental technology, education and ecology.

b) Increasing public awareness: Besides the education and training curricula and concrete programmes, special attention is devoted the role of media in dissemination of environmental information and in raising public awareness on environmental protection or the more general aspects of sustainable development. Apparently, more information has been published by the media on environmental issues during the last decade. A special training course was also initiated for journalists with environmental interest. Various environmental NGOs also take part in raising public awareness on environmental hazards and environmentally sound solutions by issuing special publications, press releases or the organization of various campaigns. Financial resources can be provided for these activities from various sources (including the Central Environmental Fund).

c) Promoting training: Progress has been achieved in teaching environmental knowledge related to professional branches and professions. Technical training is also in progress to prepare people to manage the environmental protection problems of local governments. Environmental protection training was particularly emphasized in a World Bank project for the innovation of professional training. Many of the schools which were accepted into the programme take part in the development of new curriculum and materials.

ROLE OF MAJOR GROUPS: No information

FINANCING AND COST EVALUATION OF THE LABOUR ACTIVITIES: No information

a) ratio of persons receiving first level education in full-time forms to population of relevant age

b) 1995

No information