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National Implementation of Agenda 21![]()
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Information Provided by the Government of Bahrain to the
United Nations Department for Policy Coordination and
Sustainable Development
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This country profile has been provided by:
Submitted by: Khalid Fakhro, Director General for
Environmental Affairs
Note from the Secretariat: An effort has been made to present
all country profiles within a common format, with
an equal number of pages. However, where Governments have not
provided information for the tables appended
to Chapters 4 and 17, those tables have been omitted entirely in
order to reduce the overall length of the profile
and save paper. Consequently, there may be some minor
inconsistencies among the formats of the different
country profiles.
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1. Key National Sustainable Development Coordination Mechanism(s)/Council(s).
Contact point (Name, Title, Office): Environmental Affairs, Ministry of Housing, Municipalities and Environment Telephone: 973 293693 Fax: 973 293694 e-mail: Mailing address: P.O. Box 26909, Manama, State of Bahrain
2. Membership/Composition/Chairperson
2a. List of ministries and agencies involved: Ministry of Health, Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture, Water Resources, Dept., Central Municipal Council, Ministry of Finance and National Economy, Ministry of Development and Industry, Ministry of Information, Ministry of Education, Bahrain Centre for Studies and Research (BCSR).
2b. Names of para-statal bodies and institutions involved, as well as participation of academic and private sectors: Major companies, Bahrain University, Arabian Gulf University.
2c. Names of non-governmental organizations: Professional Societies, Women Societies and Clubs.
3. Mandate role of above mechanism/council:
4. If available, attach a diagram (organization chart) showing national coordination structure and linkages between ministries:
Submitted by (Name): Khalid Fakhro Title: Director General, Environmental Affairs Signature: Signed. Date: 26 July 1997 Ministry/Office: Ministry of Housing, Municipalities and Environment, State of Bahrain Telephone: 973 293693 Fax: 973 293694 e-mail:
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GENERAL INFORMATION
CHAPTER TWO
CHAPTER THREE |
Introduction
As plans were being set up for the coming phases of Industrial,
Economic,
Health, Education and Social Developments in the Small Island
Developing State of Bahrain, and in the light of augmenting Global
concern, our Government has rapidly recognized that meaningful
success
on the above-mentioned developments cannot be realized unless the
Environmental Management of the country be integrated in the
process of
development wheel to achieve the sustainable development at large
as this
is explicitly spelled out in the lately enacted Amiri decree-law
No. 21
(1996) and subsequent upgrading the former Environmental Protection
Committee into An agency under the Ministry of Housing,
Municipalities
and Environment.
This special report summarizes the experience of this Small Island Developing State in Environmental management that - includes but not restricted to- development of Environmental laws and guidelines, monitoring the environment , protected areas conservation and above all, it demonstrates the commitments of the Government in participating, and affirming the partnership relations with the International community and the Regional Nations ( such as the League of Arab States and the Gulf Cooperation Council) their efforts and concerns on the protection of the Globe through the ratification of conventions and protocols, and the attendance of the conferences such as the Earth Summit of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), took place in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992.
Post Rio, the Government of Bahrain participated actively in a similar conference but devoted to the Small Island Developing States convened in Barbados in 1994.
The 19th Special Session of the General Assembly of the United Nations which will be taking place on the period from 21 to 25 June 1997 to discuss the progress on the agenda 21, after 5 years, should take into consideration that what remains is urgently needed effective action, which is only possible with national determination together with sustained and incessant international efforts and cooperation.
General Information
The state of Bahrain is located centrally on the southern shores of the Arabian Gulf between latitudes 25 32 and 26 30 North, and longitude 50 20 and 50 50 East. It lies some 22 km off the Eastern Coast of Saudi Arabian and slightly further from the Western Coast of the Qatar peninsula. It is linked with Saudi Arabia through the King Fahad Causeway which has been opened in November 1986.
The state comprises a group of some 36 islands, with a total land area of about 700 sq. km. The largest of these is Bahrain where the capital city, Manama, is situated. Bahrain island accounts for nearly 85% of the total area of the State of Bahrain is low lying, with a maximum elevation of 134 metres. Apart from a narrow fertile strip along the North and North-Western Coast, it is generally rocky and bare. The limestone bedrock is covered with varying depths of sand which supports little vegetation other than a few tough desert plants.
Climate
The significant aspects of the general climate are cool winters with sparse rainfall, and hot summers with high humidity.
The winter season, from December to February, is influenced by low
pressure systems from the Mediterranean, which travel east into the Gulf and cause periods of disturbed weather. These disturbances are accompanied by rainfall which averages approximately 74 mm per annum. January is usually the coolest month, when extreme low temperatures are experienced, and prevailing winds of north-westerly.
The summer season from June to September is generally hot with a noticeable increase in wet bulb temperatures. Initially the region is influenced by low pressure over Pakistan. This is caused dry north-westerly winds, known locally as Al-Barah, to become established, they persist for long periods and create more pleasant conditions than in other summer months.
After this period, the low pressure system declines allowing the formation of South-Easterly winds known as the Kaus, which cause a steady rise in both temperature and humidity.
August is the hottest month of the year when temperatures are at the highest level. By October, temperatures begin gradually to decrease and cloudiness increases bringing the possibility of rain. Although the weather may be changeable with the possibility of thunderstorms, the most comfortable months are March, April, October and November.
Settlements and Social Affairs
The total population reached over half a million in 1992. The Bahrainis represent about 62.5% of the total population, divided equally between males and females. A remarkable increase in the population has been noticed since 1971 when it was approximately half of the current population.
The growth rate of Bahrainis is 2.91% and the average age of the Bahrainis population is 18 and over. Therefore, Bahrain is classified as a young community. Those age between 15-44 represent 51% of the total population whereas the older people (65 years and over) represent 2.3% only.
Bahrain has a relatively high population density with 829 inhabitants per square kilometer. Due to its small size, the State experiences mixed development, industrial areas being located close to residential areas. The urban population represents about 80% of the total population.
The capital Manama, where most of the commercial centers, Government departments and other service centers are located. Manama has experienced some migration to the suburbs and other towns and areas. It is Government policy to provide housing in the various areas on the island since housing is a key element for socio economic development.
Increased urbanization1 The Bahraini definition of urban is places or communities with a population of 2500 or more. is sometimes coupled with the increase of domestic waste, and Bahrain's production of domestic waste 1.2 Kg per capita which is considered to be one of the highest in the world.
Bahrain society is considered an urban and settled society. No Bedouins or tribes are present among the populations communities.
Although the State of Bahrain is composed of various islands, the majority of the population is in the main Island Bahrain. It is the center for most activities and public services. Muharraq, the second largest island lies north east of the main island. The third inhabited island is Sitra, east of Bahrain.
Due to the large increase in population, inhabited areas have expanded southwards to the desert and new towns have been established. The first was Isa Town, built in the sixties and Hamad Town, built in the late seventies-early eighties. A third town is presently being planned in the south east region. However the old housing areas have witnessed a variety of improvements.
Bahrain experienced a rapid growth in all kinds of infrastructure during the seventies and eighties, such as modern road networks including bridges now connect all areas in Bahrain. The telecommunication system is excellent, almost every house in Bahrain has a telephone set. Direct dialing, telex, fax, internet, and other facilities are available to most parts of the world, expansion and upgrading the Bahrain airport facilities and seaport services, and construction of luxuries hotels to boost tourism.
Among the most important infrastructure utilities is a sewage network which has covered almost all major towns. However, a considerable progress has been achieved to cover adequate domestic and industrial areas. Limited reuse of the tertiary treated sewage waters is in use for irrigation in restricted and controlled areas.
Health services in Bahrain started early in 1900's. Since then, the Government is working very hard to provide advance free medical care to all inhabitants of Bahrain. The Government has also adopted the World Health Organization goal to achieve "Health For All in the Year 2000".
As a result of the health development experienced by Bahrain, the expectation of life at birth for both sex rose dramatically from about 55 years in 1971 to 67 years in 1991.
Government expenditure on health is over 8.5% more than that contributed to public expenditure, with a revenue of approximately 6.7% of the expenditure.
The initial health service commence at the Health Centers. There are 22 Health Centers and Clinics, 4 Hospitals and 5 Maternity Hospitals. Cases requiring additional care are brought to Salmanyia Medical center, the biggest hospital in Bahrain which is highly equipped and contains over 832 beds. The total number of beds in hospitals (Government and Private sectors) is not less than 1837.
The regular education in Bahrain started in 1919 when the first boys school was opened in Muharraq town. Nearly ten years later (in 1928), the first girls school was opened. In 1929 education was put under direct Government control represented by Ministry of Education.
The education in Bahrain is in three stages: Primary stage (6 years), Intermediate stage (3 years and Secondary stage (3 years).
Higher education is available for secondary school graduates and can be obtained through the Bahrain University, Arabian Gulf University and specialized Institutes.
The total number of students of all schools reached 120657 in 1993 distributed among 162 Government schools and 31 private schools.
The Economic Growth
Prior to the discovery of oil in the early thirties the economy was dependent on agriculture, the pearl industry and regional trading. The pearl industry flourished in the past because Bahrain was amongst the richest areas in pearls. Government revenues from the pearling industry were, to a large extent, based on nominal taxes and fees imposed on each pearling ship together with indirect taxes imposed in the form of custom duties on pearls exported.
Since the discovery of oil in 1932 Bahrain witnessed a variety of changes, and by the beginning of the seventies when it became an independent state, socio-economic restructuring occurred on a rapid pace, boosted by the growing production of oil and gas industry, increased prices in the world market particularly during 1973.
However, due to the oil prices fluctuation, it is unwise to depend solely on oil as a principal source of income, and as such, industrialization became one of the options along with an additional key feature of Bahrain's economy which is the attraction of the international financial institutions, thereby making Bahrain an efficient financial center in the Middle East..
National Income
Oil production and refining contribute by 56.4% to state revenue. In the last few years the dependence on oil has decreased and revenue from the non-oil sectors is gradually increasing. However, revenue from oil will dominate for years to come.
The Following is the percentage share of economic sectors in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for the Year 1993.
1. Agriculture and Fisheries 01.0 %
2. Mining and Quarrying 16.4 %
3. Manufacturing 20.9 %
4. Electricity and Water 02.0 %
5. Construction 05.1 %
6. Trade, Hotel and Restaurants 11.0 %
7. Transport and Communication 10.5 %
8. Financial Services and Real Estate 18.0 %
9. Social and Personal Services 04.4 %
10. Public Administration and Defense 18.7 %
Less: Input Service Charge ( 08.1 % )
Gross Domestic Product 100.0 %
Bahrain exports oil and non-oil products, light industrial products, aluminum, vegetables and some food stuffs. Total exports reached 1713.4 million Bahraini Dinars (BD) in 1996.
Total imports, which include all necessary and complementary items, reached 1578.3 million BD in 1996. The total trade exchange was 3291.7 million BD in 1996 and the transit shipment was 26.6 million BD in the same year.
Environmental Management
Industrialization combined with the population increase has
brought major pressures on the land area
of Bahrain. There has been a considerable reclamation of land from
the sea which caused blocking
of natural drainage channels killing date palm trees, effecting
mangrove swamps and stopping the
flow of natural springs. The rapid industrialization has brought
stress on the environment and other
natural resources. While the primary aim of the new economic
policy is to accelerate industrial
development, improve operational efficiency and competitiveness,
enhance exports and induce greater
foreign investments, inevitably it will have both positive and
negative environmental consequences.
Government of Bahrain felt that economic development and sound
environmental management are
complimentary aspects of the same agenda and without adequate
environmental protection,
development will be undermined. With this view in mind, the most
important legislation was set forth
as Amiri Decree No. 7 in August 1980, which formed
the Environmental Protection Committee (EPC)
and the Environmental Protection Technical Secretariat (EPTS). The
EPC was attached to the office
of H.H. The Prime Minister through the office of H.E. The Minister
of Health , Chairman of EPC.
Recently, an Amiri decree-law No.21 (1996) was enacted with the
establishment of an Environmental
Affairs (EA), an agency under the Ministry of Housing,
Municipalities and Environment . The EA
consists of two Directorates; Directorate of Assessment and
Planning( See Annex-I , for 1997
projects), and the Directorate of Environmental Control (See
Annex-II for 1997 projects). The Amiri
decree-law No. 21 (1996) outlined the inter alia
responsibilities:
The mission in Article 1
Subject to the rules and provisions set forth in the relevant
Laws, the provisions of this Law
concerning the environment shall come into effect.
This Law aims to protect the environment from the polluting
sources and factors, and put an end to
its deterioration by drawing up the required plans and policies to
preserve it from the harmful effects
resulting from activities causing damage to human health,
agricultural crops, marine life and wildlife,
other natural resources and the climate, and the implementation of
such plans, policies, adopt all the
appropriate procedures and arrangements to put an end to the
deterioration of the environment,
prevent or combat all types of environmental pollution and limit
such pollution for the benefit of
present and future generations through the realization of
sustainable development objectives.
The mandate in Article 3
The Environmental Body shall undertake the
issue of resolutions and instructions in
all matters relating to the environment and be empowered to execute
all the
required authorities and powers, particularly the following:
1. To draw up plans, policies and to supervise their
implementation or the
purpose of accomplishing its objectives.
2. To participate in drawing up the scientific research
policy relating to the
environment in co-ordination with the relevant authorities.
3. To have the right to request details which it deems
essential, from any
authority undertaking an activity which may lead to pollution
or environmental
deterioration.
4. To review contracts and agreements which define
rights of the environmental body or result in obligations towards
the said Body.
5. Other powers and duties provided for in this Law.
The objectives in Article 4
For the purpose of implementing its objectives, the
Environmental Body shall co-operate and co-ordinate will all the
relevant authorities to carry out the following:
1. To prepare drafts of laws, legislation and
to issue regulations which ensure the safety,
protection and development of the environment.
2. To discuss, study and propose general
plans and policies for the environmental affairs
on the State level.
3. To review, discuss and propose plans and
policies drawn up by the Ministries,
organizations, establishments or companies which are engaged in an
activity that may harm the environment, propose answers for any
environmental problems or obstacles that may face such programs and
projects.
4. To discuss, study and prepare proposals
and answers for any matters or problems
related to the environment referred by the Council of Ministers,
any other
official or non-official party in the State.
5. To conduct or supervise comprehensive
research work or studies about pollution,
observe its negative effects on health and the environment, and
adopt all
preventative measures and possible required methods to limit the
environmental pollution of all kinds and prevent environmental
deterioration.
6. To lay down the required bases to link the
environmental considerations with the
planning and development policies on the State level through the
introduction of the environmental management concept as an integral
part
of the defined policy for planning, implementing and follow-up of
development projects which the government agencies or private
sectors are
executing through evaluating the environmental impact of such
projects.
7. To exercise control over public and
private activities which have a negative effect on
the environment.
8. To study the nature of soil, water, power
and to propose the means to preserve them
from deterioration and reduction in quantity through the required
regulations to limit their misuse or depletion.
9. To study the nature of the coastal areas
and marine environment and to propose the
protection of their resources, develop and promote them.
10. To lay down and promote preventive
measures to limit the marine pollution from oil,
other harmful materials and activities; to develop and train
manpower to
carry out plans for combating such pollution.
11. To establish an environmental reference
laboratory and to provide it with the
technical personnel, and required equipment for its operation.
12. To decide and control the measures and
limits permitted for the emission of materials
causing pollution of the environment and their concentration
levels.
13. To seek to develop interest in
educational, information, social and cultural aspects to
increase and further develop the environmental awareness to enable
the
society to take an effective part in accomplishing the desired
objectives for
protecting and developing the environment.
14. To drawing and carry out the required
programs to train and qualify the technical
personnel in the field of the environment.
15. To conduct a comprehensive survey of the
human settlement problems, monitor the
development effects of economic and social conditions on the human
settlements and their effect on the environment, propose the
programs
which provide suitable solutions and to implement them.
16. To establish schemes and systems for the
collection and analysis of data and
information, exchange them and benefit from the research
institutes,
specialized organizations and societies in the field of
environmental affairs
whether inside the State or abroad.
17. To review the international, regional and
Pan-Arab agreements concerned with
environmental affairs, and to express views with respect to joining
them in
co-ordination with the relevant authority.
18. To co-ordinate with the relevant
authorities concerning the relations of the State with
International, Regional and Arab organizations concerned with
environmental affairs.
19. To determine the standards relating to the
import and dealing in chemical and
radioactive materials and to supervise their implementation.
20. To lay down the required bases for the
proper management of industrial, health and
domestic waste.
21. To seek to achieve co-ordination on both
regional and international levels for
ensuring the safety, protection and development of the
environment.
Other legislation that relate to protection of environment
have been issued as a series of Ministerial
orders to control various disciplines (Table 1)
In addition to the above, national effluent guidelines have
been formulated on the basis of
standard practices followed in the region and are from certain
existing standards of an
implementation nature (Annex-III). However, a comprehensive review
of the standards and
guidelines of other countries, USýEPA, EU, Singapore, Hong
Kong, Japan, and the Saudi
Arabian MEPA, is in progress. It is intended after this study that
the EA will formulate a
compromise guideline.
Air Quality Management
Air Monitoring
Continuous monitoring of atmospheric pollutants at four
geographical locations
started from August 1993.
Pollutants such as Sulfur Dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen Dioxide
(NO2),
Nitrous Oxide (NO), Ozone (O3), Carbon Monoxide
(CO), Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S), hydrocarbons (HC),
Inhalable Particulates (PM10) and Fluoride (F) are
monitored. Recorded data at each station is transmitted via
modems to a central computer system. Various mean
values are automatically calculated and compared to
acceptable ambient air quality standards. All measured
values are available for statistical evaluation. Daily,
weekly, monthly and annual reports are utilized in the
decision making process.
Pollution by Motor Vehicles
There is a continuous increase in the number of cars in
addition to those entering Bahrain from neighboring
countries through King Fahad Causeway.
There were 169318 vehicles registered in use in 1995,
which makes a car for every 3 persons living in this
country. There is a joint effort to implement an action plan
to reduce car emissions and introduce unleaded petrol, in
coordination with the Directorate of Traffic and licensing
and the Bahrain National Oil Company (BANOCO).
A program called "Fume watch" was introduced in
Bahrain in 1994, to report vehicles, emitting smoke,
followed by an immediate approach to rectify the
situations in progress and resulted in noticeable
improvement.
Water Resources Management. (Fresh water and
Marine Water)
Marine Pollution Control
Great attention is paid to prevent marine pollution by
controlling land based sources of pollution. There are
marine monitoring programs (since 1983) to check the
status of the marine life. Sea water, sediments, and fish
samples are analyzed to determine nutrients, heavy
metals, chlorinated pesticides, organic matter and
hydrocarbons in order to preserve the health of the sea.
An effluent guidelines to control and prevent pollutants
from industrial effluents that may harm the marine
environment was developed and enforced.
Other tools to control discharge of pollutants into the
marine environment are through the regional protocols
that Bahrain had signed and ratified such as Protocol for
the protection of the marine environment against pollution
from land based sources, and Protocol concerning marine
pollution resulting from exploration and exploitation of
the continental shelf(Amiri decree No.9 for 1990).
Marine Habitat Survey
Using Landsat-V a study was conducted to determine
marine ecology in Bahrain's coastal water. This study of
312 sites mapped the ecology of all the shorelines and
coastal areas. The final product of this study was a set of
17 maps depicting the distribution of marine habitats,
coastal ecology and areas recommended for protection.
Also a comprehensive volume describing the habitats of
the marine environment including the physical, chemical
and biological influences. After the elapse of 10 years,
the survey will be repeated, in June 1997, to determine the
changes that might occurred to the habitats cover.
Regulate marine dredging and land reclamation
activities
Recognizing the need to expand horizontally, it was
realized that proper management and control is needed to
regulate the coastal activities in order to minimize the
adverse effects of dredging and land reclamation on the
marine environment. Hence, in coordination with other
relevant Governmental authorities, an assessment of the
impact of dredging and land reclamation on the
environment was undertaken. Appropriate alternative
approaches concerning environmentally sound
management of such activities had been formulated
through the involvement of all authorities concerned with
process and impact of reclamation and land dredging to
ensure sound decisions and reduced impacts.
Sustainable Fisheries Development
Fish catch had been reduced due to the increase on
fishing efforts
(both the number of boats and fishermen) , in addition to
indiscriminate land reclamation and excavation activities
and destruction of coral reefs. An artificial reef
development program has been undertaken by the
Fisheries Directorate and has paid well. They have
succeeded in breeding juvenile fish in these reefs.
A commercial pilot project is underway to keep artificial
reefs in various areas. This could enhance the marine
ecosystems in a manner that maintains productivity and
preservation for future generations.
Water Resources Management
Groundwater resources are depleting due to increased
abstraction some times more than the recharge.
Directorate of Water Resources under the Ministry of
Works and Agriculture is making every effort to control
excess water use. An Amiri Decree has been enacted
stopping the drilling of new wells and control of the water
use for agriculture is done by introducing drip irrigation
practices. Re-use of waste water is practiced for municipal
gardens, hedges and for fodder crops. Artificial recharge
of treated water is being studied.
Water distribution network is being modernized and the
latest state of the art equipment is being installed with a
view to control excess waste by leakage and a tariff
system is in use to control household demands.
National Sewerage network
Nearly 65 % of the total residential areas and part of
the industrial areas of
Bahrain is connected to the sewerage network and is anticipated to
cover 90 % of
the population by 2010. There are 12 sewage treatment units in
Bahrain.
The largest unit is the sewage treatment plant at Tubli,
which discharges treated
water (actual capacity) at the rate of 160000 m3 per day though the
designed capacity is 124000.
Oil Spill Contingency Plan
Oil spillage is a recurrent phenomenon
not only in Bahrain territorial waters but
wide spread in many parts of the
Arabian Gulf. A National Contingency
Plan has been enforced since February
1993.
Land Management
Land use plan
Bahrain has formulated a land use plan
for the year 2000 and beyond.
There is a clear management policy in
allocating land for industries, housing
development, oil and gas processing,
recreational and cultural activities,
agriculture, public utilities,
communications, ports and airports,
road network and quarry activities.
Land Pollution Control
Land is being protected by preventing
indiscriminate waste dumping
throughout Bahrain. Agricultural
development has adopted a policy on
the use of agricultural chemicals
(fertilizers and pesticides) that is
governed by the international
regulations on the safe use depending
on their chemical, natural and biological
properties to curb environmental
pollution and control its impact. Bahrain
is working toward enlarging the arable
area, upgrade productivity, optimize
utilization of available water resources
and increase yield per hectare through
soil conservation. There are projects for
land reclamation, development of land
drainage schemes, desertification
control and organic fertilizer use.
Management of Industrial and Domestic Wastes
The disposal of industrial and domestic
waste can be regarded as the most
pronounced environmental problems in
Bahrain. The generation of both types
of wastes is relatively high (Table 2).
Currently domestic waste is land filled without any
treatment at the site that is away from urban areas. Waste
management practices had been improved especially the
handling, collection and transportation. Landfill site is
regularly monitored to control risk associated with it and
to protect the health of the citizens.
Waste Separation and Recycling
There are many small companies involved in collection
and segregation of waste paper, car batteries, glass,
plastic, aluminum cans, metals, and wood. Some of these
wastes like aluminum are being recycled in Bahrain.
These activities have reduced the amount of waste that
needs to be incinerated or put in landfill. Oily waste and
lubricants from automobiles is collected and exported.
Managing of Chemicals
World-wide, millions of chemical compounds have been
manufactured and few thousands more are added every
year. However, several events, internationally and
regionally, indicated that chemicals could be a threat to
the human health and the environment. Bahrain, with no
exception, utilizes large volumes of chemical compounds
and materials that is based on some potential chemicals
that may threat the human health and the environment.
Hence, a joint effort between relevant authorities lead to
sound procedures dealing with the safe handling and
disposal of chemicals including those of toxic, hazardous
and radioactive nature. There is a close follow-up and
coordination between all authorities concerned with
chemical production, transport, recycling, treatment,
storage, and finally disposal to ensure sound management
of such potentially harmful product.
Environmental Public Awareness (EPA) program
Great attention is given to the importance of EPA to the
public and decision-making levels and encourage their
participation wherever appropriate.
EA cooperates with other Ministries and NGOs such as
private schools and societies in executing all specialized
programs focused on increasing public awareness in
regard to national regional and international
environmental issues. These programs include - but not
restricted to - painting and drawing competitions among
students, stage show, lectures at school, TV interviews,
scientific field trips, etc.
EA in coordination with relevant public and private
sectors celebrates the following events to engender a
concern and caring attitude.
- 7th April- World Health Day.
Environmental Education
EA is collaborating with the Ministry of Education on
regular introduction of environmental topics, literature
and issues of national, regional and international nature in
the school curriculum. Every attempt is made to develop
an earth watching, earth-protecting, earth-caring, and
earth- helping attitude in the minds of children. Many
schools have been encouraged to start recycling activities
and leading schools have already started Ecology clubs.
Children regularly take part in clean-up campaigns and
project work on environment. On World Environment
day, 1992, EA supported NGO's in organizing a "Mini
Earth Summit" in Bahrain. The conference was a big hit
and was not only a learning experience for the
participating students, but also received attention in
community.
EA jointly with Central Municipal Council (CMC) and
the Directorate of Heritage and Museum celebrated the
Environmental occasion by a 3 year carnival entitled,
'Who adopts a Palm Tree' in which a date palm seedling
had been distributed among the children to plant them in
their gardens and to take care of it.
Training and Development of Human Resources
A considerable attention to train general and
professional
staff either by supporting or encouraging them to pursue
their academic studies, participate in workshops, technical
conferences, seminars and specialized training courses is
a continuous process to achieve the ultimate goal in
making EA a learning institute.
Sustainable Development in Industrial Management
Pollution Prevention (Cleaner Production
Technology)
It is well known that cleaner production and zero waste
technology hold tremendous promise for the alleviation of
many problems associated with industrialization. EA is
taking a proactive step to spread this approach in industry
and it stands now as one of our major activities.
Like other developing countries, Bahrain faces obstacles
in the implementation of new technology due to lack of
immediate transfer of technology from developed
countries and due to lack of experience. Some regulatory
means are introduced as part of EIA process and training
is imparted in this field for staff abroad. Cleaner
Production concept was introduced in Aluminium Bahrain
(Aluminum reduction plant) at a cost of Bahrain Dinars
(BD) 95 Million and is also being introduced in an
integrated Iron and Steel plant and other metal processing
industries. While the EA seriously consider the
introduction of the Environmental Management and ISO
14000 as future target, many industries have been
awarded ISO 9000 series certification showing their
commitment for achieving quality production.
Risk Control Measures
The EA in cooperation and coordination with concerned
authorities and major companies are finalizing a plan of
action to combat industrial accidents. The plan is based
on Awareness and Preparedness of Emergencies at the
Local Level (APELL) manual and some scenarios planned
by some major industries.
Realizing the importance of the generalization of the
APELL manual, originally prepared by
UNEP/Environment and Industry Office, EA took the
initiative to translate and print the manual in Arabic and
distributed to all Arab Countries and specialized
institutions.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Bahrain is committed to the cause of environmental
protection and has thus decided to incorporate
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) into the
industrialization process to solve the problems of
pollution and environmental degradation.
EA and The Ministry of Oil and Industry (MoOI) have "A
Memorandum of Understanding" which gives a flexible
system in fulfilling the objectives of both, taking into
accounts promoting the industrial investment and the
needed balance between the industry and the environment.
Conservation
A number of activities are usually undertaken to involve
public participation in EA programs. Many sub-committees and ad-hoc
committees are formed to enable
other professionals and public to effectively participate in
activities or formulate programs that would enhance the
environmental management decision making process in
Bahrain.
Wildlife
A wildlife sanctuary "Al Areen" was established on 1976
and has been managed through H.H. The Crown Prince
Court. A successful breeding in captivity and cross
fostering program for some endangered species have been
achieved.
Realizing effective management of flora and fauna
depends upon the maintenance of their habitats and
control of their rational utilization, a National Committee
for the Protection of Wildlife attached to H.H. The Crown
Prince Court, was formed with a mandate of protecting the
wildlife in coordination with all relevant authorities.
Mangrove Swamps
EA aiming to develop the 43 hectares of mangrove swamp
into a wetland conservation area. There are plans for a
museum, walkways, bird watch towers ultimately aiming
to convert it in to a tourist spot.
The development will allow public to experience and
enjoy the natural history of Bahrain's coastline.
Coastal Zone Management
Several studies conducted locally had confirmed that
reclamation and coastal activities had adversely affected
the intertidal habitats, and mangroves were also found on
the verge of destruction. An integrated coastal zone
management approach was identified and adopted as the
most effective mechanism that could manage the marine
environment and achieve sustainability. A procedure for
identifying, minimizing, and mitigating the negative
consequences of the development of the coastal
environment has been set with the help of UNDP.
Sensitive Natural Areas
Based on program identifying the degree of sensitivity of
Bahrain coastal areas. The following areas have been
categorised:
1. Full Protection:
These areas are considered to be birds
feeding and roosting zone so
they need to be fully protected.
2. Conservation Status :
These areas represent zones of major commercial and
scientific importance due to the presence of number of
unique and rare habitat types namely, coral reefs and
seagrass beds, the reefs are of importance because of the
rich diversity of marine life, while the seagrass beds are
an important habitat for commercial species of fish and
shrimp as well as endangered species such as turtles and
dugong. So those area require some measure of
conservation, monitoring and general supervision.
3. Seasonal Management Status:
These are mainly nesting or migratory feeding sites for
sea birds: due to variety of factors including development
of coastal strip, disturbance by man, ... ext. recommended
to be given some seasonal protection and management to
prevent such interference.
Cooperation with National, Regional and
International Organizations
EA has strengthened its relation with Governmental and
non-Governmental organizations in order to facilitate
executing its assignments. It has maintained its
distinguished and goodwill ties with many establishments
and companies from the private sector including non-governmental
societies.
At the regional and international levels, the EA has
participated more actively and effectively in many aspects
to strengthen the coordination and cooperation with
specialized national institutions of many countries for the
implementation of joint projects, exchange of expertise
and data transfer.
Regional Co-operation
The eight coastal States of the region(Bahrain, Iran,
Iraq,
Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the UAE) have
coordinated a common action to protect the Arabian Gulf
and Gulf of Oman. Consequently ROPME was
established on 24 th April 1978 to be the governing body
to fulfill this goal. Several protocols have been adopted
to facilitate coordination between member states to
implement the regional programs and activities.
Accordingly, Bahrain has signed and ratified the
following protocols:
Kuwait Regional convention for the
co-operation on the protection
of marine environment from
pollution. Signed in Kuwait on 23rd April, 1978 and ratified on
1 April, 1979.
Protocol concerning regional
cooperation in combating pollution
by oil and other harmful substances in case of emergency,
Kuwait on 23rd April, 1978 and ratified on 1 April, 1979.
Protocol for the protection of the
marine environment against
pollution from land based sources,
Kuwait, 21st February, 1989 and ratified on 16 May, 1990
Protocol concerning marine pollution
resulting from exploration and exploitation of the continental
shelf, Kuwait
29th March, 1989
and ratified on 16 May, 1990.
On the other hand the head of States of the Gulf
Cooperative Council (GCC) had adopted in 1985 the
general principles on the protection of the environment in
the region to form the basic guidelines and Code of
Conduct towards the individual and collective programs
and activities in the various disciplines of the
environment.
Several guidelines had been adopted such as the unified
guidelines for Environmental Legislation and
Environmental Impact Assessment.
Agenda 21
The State of Bahrain is one of many countries that
participate in support
the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED), that was held in Rio de Janeiro- Brazil in June 1992,
which
asserts the necessity of linking sustainable development with the
conservation of environment. And for the sake of executing Rio de
Janeiro declaration, the Environmental Affairs (EA) insisted on the
effective participation of all related parties in the State of
Bahrain for
the execution of Agenda 21.
A national committee was formulated to prepare a
national strategy to
execute Agenda 21 program. Many meetings were held to define the
priorities, and five environmental issues were recognized, and
considered to be pressing environmental matters. These issues are
:
1. Protection of freshwater resources (Chapter 18).
In order to facilitate the proceedings of the above
committees, it was
requested from all ministries, companies, occupational
organizations,
and women societies to nominate a representative to participate in
these
committees. A coordinator from Environmental Affairs was appointed
for each committee.
A. Protection of Freshwater Resources Committee:
This committee consisted of a chairman representing
the Arabian Gulf
University and members representing Ministry of Oil and Industry,
Bahrain Petroleum Company (BAPCO), Aluminum Bahrain (Alba),
Ministry of Works and Agriculture, Directorate of Water
Distribution,
Bahrain Center for Studies and Research (BCSR), Municipalities
Affairs, and Bahrain Girl Renaissance Society.
The main tasks of this committee were:
An action plan was prepared included revision of the
available studies
in this field and the general policies related to water resources
management, awareness programs to rationalization of water
consumption. It was agreed that a mechanism for supporting and
monitoring the comprehensive national strategy on water resources,
that has been submitted by BCSR, is required.
B. Environmentally Sound Management of Waste and
Chemicals:
This committee consisted of a chairman representing the
Ministry of Oil
and Industry, and members representing Bahrain Aluminum Extrusion
Company (BALEXCO), Al-Zamil Coating Factory, Bahrain Aluminum
(Alba), Environmental Health Directorate, Bahrain Chemical Society,
Ministry of Commerce, and Bahrain Center for Studies and
Research.
The main tasks of this committee were:
C. Protection of Marine Environment:
This committee consisted of a chairman representing
the National
Committee for the Protection of Wildlife and members representing
Directorate of Fisheries, Bahrain Center for Studies and Research,
University of Bahrain, Ministry of Housing, Municipalities and
Environment, Ministry of Education, Bahrain National History
Society.
The main tasks of this committee were:
1. To prepare guideline plans to protect coastal
zones specially those which are economically
important.
D. Protection of the Atmosphere:
This committee consisted of a chairman representing
Bahrain Center for
Studies and Research, and members representing Ministry of Health,
University of Bahrain, Ministry of Oil and Industry, Ministry of
Works
and Agriculture, Meteorological Office , Directorate of
Electricity,
Public Transportation Organization and Bahrain Medical Society.
The main tasks of this committee were:
1. To prepare a database about the atmosphere to
support decision
makers.
It is worth to mention that Environmental Affairs
have started air
monitoring program consisting of four air monitoring stations, and
the
monitoring results were disseminated to the concerned bodies in the
state of Bahrain.
E. Changing Consumption Patterns:
This committee consisted of a chairman representing Bahrain
Chamber
of Commerce and Industry and members representing Ministry of
Cabinet Affairs and Information, Bahrain Center for Studies and
Research, Ministry of Education, Bahrain Girl Renaissance Society
and
Bahrain Society of Economist.
The main tasks of this committee were:
1. To participate in suggesting program and policies to
encourage changing consumption pattern.
The Environmental Affairs is continuing reviewing
the performance of
these committees for suggesting new mechanism for follow-up.
Generally, the ambition of the committees is too great as
stated by
Agenda 21 and the Achievements of these committees should be
subjected to rational consideration. The ambitions won't be a real
without the international co-operation through the related
organization,
specially United Nation Environment Program, United Nation
Development Program, Economic Social for West Asia (ESCWA) and
Sustainable Development Committee.
International Conventions and Protocols
Recognizing the need for appropriate legal tools to
affirm
the commitment of the State of Bahrain towards the
international community and the joint effort to protect the
environment and achieve sustainable development,
Bahrain has signed, ratified and acceded to a number of
international treaties and conventions that deal
specifically with environment or have environmental
implications.
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the
Ozone layer and the Montreal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
Bahrain supports the endeavor of the International
community to reduce the consumption of fully
halogenated CFCs and Halons. Bahrain signed the
Montreal Protocol and expressed its firm commitment to
strengthen ozone layer protection by ratifying the
Montreal Protocol on 27th April 1990 and the London
amendment on 23rd December 1992. Bahrain's per capita
consumption is <0.3 kg and is categorized as a developing
country operating under Article-5 of the Protocol.
Here below is the progress made , so far, by the EA and
the National Ozone Team;
I. January 1997 : Submission of the budget breakdown and Time
Schedule of project activities for the
institution
strengthening project.
II. February 1997: Preparation of Recovery/Recycling of
Refrigerants Project with the help of UNDP
Consultants.
III. February - : Questionnaires were sent to Governmental
and
March 1997 Public Sectors who use Refrigerant (R-12).
IV. March 1997 : Return of the UNDP Consultant for data
analysis to
finalize the project for submission to MLF, for
discussion.
V. April 1997 : First Cash Advance Statement was sent to
MLF for
first Payment of Institutional Strengthening
Project.
Climate Change Convention
Bahrain signed the frame work convention on climate
change in Brazil in June 1992. A sub-committee has been
formed to study and formulate a country action plan to
combat the threat to global warming and to promote
sustainable development.
Basel Convention on the Control of
Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes
and Their Disposal
It is of particular interest to mention that the State of
Bahrain had ratified Basel Convention in 1992 which
came into force in 1993.
The Regional Organization for the Protection of the
Marine Environment (ROPME) is in the process of
finalizing a regional protocol complementing Basel
Convention on the transboundary movement of hazardous
wastes across borders and the Gulf Cooperating Council
(GCC) countries also working on a unified rules to deal
with industrial waste.
International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil
Pollution
Damage (CLC), 1969.
International Convention on the Establishment of An
International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage
(FC), 1971
An Amiri Decree No. 13, 1995 was issued on 3rd May
1996 to accede
CLC 1996 and its protocols of 1976 and 1992, and FC 1971 and its
protocols of 1976 and 1992. CLC 1969 and its protocol 1976 and Fund
1971 and its protocol 1976 entered into force for Bahrain on 1st
August
1996, whereas protocols 1992 for both Conventions (CLC & FC)
entered into force for Bahrain on the 3rd of May 1997.
CLC forms the basic structure on which the regimes of
liability and
compensation for Oil Pollution Damage from ships are based, and the
aim or function of the Fund Convention is to provide supplementary
compensation to those who cannot obtain full and adequate
compensation for Oil Pollution damage under the CLC.
Biodiversity Convention
Conservation of biological diversity constitute one of
the
most pressing issues of our time. In an attempt to address
environmental problems in an international context,
Bahrain signed the Biodiversity convention in Brazil on
9th June 1992. An Amiri decree-law No. 18 (1996) stated
that the convention has been ratified on 19th June 1996.
Ramsar Convention
An Amiri decree No. 3 (1997) gives that the convention
has been ratified on 26th February 1997. Attempts are
made to ensure that wildlife and other national resources
are protected and managed in harmony with other forms
of development.
United Nations Convention To Combat Desertification
(CCD)
In addition to the above conventions, Bahrain is considering
signing the
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD). The
State of
Bahrain In cooperation with Gulf Cooperation Council, Islamic Bank
for
Development, UNEP/ROWA and Arabian Gulf University organized a
Symposium dealing with the desertification and land reclamation in
The
GCC countries (22-25 Nov., 1993). Also, GCC-CCD convened meeting on
the Convention to Combat Desertification for Environment and
Agriculture
Decision makers of the GCC member States (19-20 Nov., 1995).
In addition to the above conventions, Bahrain is a party in
the following:
1. UN Convention on the Law of the sea signed in
1982.
2. International Convention for the prevention of
pollution of the sea by oil, Geneva, 1958. Bahrain
signed in 1985.
Air Quality
Air pollution concentrations vary in different time and
place . The main pollutants are monitored continuously
in order to meet the objective of air pollution
management and control strategies. In order to assess the
potential impact of the various air pollutants on human
health and environment, it is necessary to have reliable
information regarding pollution sources and their location.
However, since many of the pollutants are invisible their
presence must be detected using especially designed
equipment. Thus, air quality monitoring programs are of
fundamental importance in determining the air pollution,
its sources, and provide the best prevention method.
EA, operates and maintains four automatic air quality
monitoring stations around Bahrain. These sites are
located at Manama, Askar, BATELCO earth station ( Ras
Abu Jarjur )and Zallaq (see map).
The parameters monitored are Sulfur dioxide, Total
reduce sulfur, Nitrogen oxides, Carbon monoxide, Ozone,
Methane, Non-methane hydrocarbons and Inhalable
Particulate(PM10) in the air. In addition to this wind
direction, wind speed, temperature, humidity and solar
radiation are also measured
The ranges of parameter found during the monitoring
period did not exceed the international Ambient Air
Quality Standard (AAQS) with exception of ozone and
particulate which occur during the dust episodes.
However, the concentrations of the pollutants shows a
little spatial variation across Bahrain. Table 3 and the
following graphs presents the annual average of
monitored parameters during 1996.
Table 3 Annual Average Concentration for 1996
Annual Average Concentration
Water Quality
Fresh Water Quality
Bahrain has no surface water resources, ground water is
the only source of fresh water supply. During the past
decade, the water supply of Bahrain has grown from least
effective management to almost total management, from
natural ground water to desalinated water and from a
declining natural resource to a stabilizing and potentially
improving situation. It is anticipated to be more effective
after the Governments plan to re-use treated water is
successfully implemented.
However, several sources of ground water pollution such
as septic tanks and cesspools, deep well injection of oily
water from oil fields and intrusion of sea-water have
contributed to the deterioration of the quality of ground
water.
Marine Water Quality
There are many factors affecting marine water quality.
Urban centers along the coast, cause tremendous stress to
the vulnerable coastal environment by discharging treated
and untreated sewage into the shallow coastal waters,
together with industrial effluents and irrigation drainage
water.
Shortage of land for development has prompted Bahrain
to reclaim more land from the sea by dredging . In the
early years of reclamation and dredging activities, only
low cost considerations were studied and environmental
constraints were not given high priority. Unfortunately
most of these reclamation activities has caused an increase
in the turbidity of sea water, induced siltation and
destroyed benthic communities of these areas. This
dredging and reclamation activity has to continue as part
of developmental activities.
Land-based sources of Pollution
Waste water is generally classified as domestic or
industrial origin. Domestic waste water is derived
principally from residential, business and institutional
uses. The domestic waste water of community tends to be
uniform in character. Considerable variation is possible
between individual communities, whereas, industrial
waste water may be thought of as waste flow not
originating from domestic sources.
Each waste water is unique. It generally reflects the raw
material components, the intermediate products, the end
products and by-products of a particular manufacturing or
production process.
The major sources of coastal pollution in Bahrain are the
domestic sewage and industrial effluents, discharged from
urban, rural and industrial areas. The effluents are
discharged into the marine environment through
numerous outfall located along the coast. The quality of
the effluent and their pollution strength vary from one
area to another and from one outfall to another depending
on the degree and type of treatment. However, most
industrial effluents and the domestic sewerage outfalls are
located along the east coast of Sitra extending about 10
km, which would cause immense stress to the vulnerable
coastal environment and as a result, monitoring becomes
essential.
The EA has initiated a monitoring program with an
ultimate goal to establish sound management of effluent
discharge into the marine environment. The following
strategies were adopted to achieve the goal:-
Establish a data base.
Assess stress on the marine environment.
Establish national standards on effluent
discharge into the marine
environment.
Implement periodical monitoring and evaluation
programs.
The impact on the marine environment of effluents from
major industries were investigated and monitored since
1983. Thirty seven physical and chemical parameters
were measured for each industrial effluent. The result
obtained since 1983 showed that most of industrial
effluents are within the acceptable limits in accordance
with EA interim effluent guidelines as well as USEPA and
Saudi Meteorology and Environmental Protection
Administration (MEPA) effluent standards. Therefore,
there is no major impact on overall marine environment.
The main guiding principle of the EA is to balance
development objectives with environmental protection.
Sustainable industrial development and protection and
conservation of Bahrain's natural resources are the
ultimate goals. Industry is being asked to promote cleaner
technology, minimize waste, install pollution control
equipment, increase efficiency and recycling. New
development projects are carefully analyzed by the EA
and, where necessary, the developer is requested to submit
environmental impact statements.
As a result of Government efforts and the EA policy to
mitigate and minimize the stress and hazards to the
environment, the discharge of untreated and insufficiently
treated waste water into the sea has been reduced through
the expansion of the sewerage system, the installation of
treatment plants among large industries, environmentally
oriented industries and the improvement of some
treatment facilities in various plants.
Furthermore, EA, requested all industries through
Ministry of Oil and Industry (MoOI) to perform self
monitoring for their effluent and to report the result
periodically to EA. This strategy is to ensure the
involvement of all sectors in minimizing emission to the
environment and hence conserve it. Whereas, the role of
EA in this regard would be to collect random samples to
ensure the quality and compliance with discharge
guidelines of the analysis.
Effluent guidelines shall be mandatory to all existing
plants discharging their effluent into the marine
environment, this would ensure that the high potential
hazardous chemicals are not being discharged to the
marine environment. Moreover, EA and MoOI have
realized the importance of incorporating the EIA process
for new industries, whereby both parties have signed "A
memorandum of Understanding" which gives a flexible
system in fulfilling the objectives of both parties taking
into their accounts promoting the industrial investment
and have a sustainable development. This has been re-stated in the
Amiri decree-law No. 21 (1996), where the
industry and the development -in general- shall get the
approval and the consent of EA, before the start of the
project. The EA has prepared the EIA procedures for
development projects and will be ordered by H.E. the
Minister.
On the regional scale, an attempt has been made to
describe the kind of pollutants expected from industrial
activities, the danger posed to the marine environment and
to human health by pollution from land-based sources and
the serious problem resulting in coastal waters of many
regional states, principally due to the release of untreated,
insufficiently treated and for inadequately disposed of
domestic or industrial discharge. Noting that the existing
measures to prevent, abate and combat pollution caused
by discharge from these activities were not available, a
protocol has been signed by all countries in 1990, and
ratified by Bahrain in April 1990 entitled " protocol from
the protection of the marine environment against pollution
from land based sources. Accordingly, all member states
are obliged to report periodically, their effluent analysis to
the ROPME. This ultimately shall lead into sound
management with control on all land-based effluent
discharge into the marine environment.
WILDLIFE
State of Flora and Fauna in Bahrain:
Vegetation cover most of the island, with over 200
species
of flora so far identified, although the southern areas are
certainly less well covered than the others. The northern
and western coastal areas are heavily cultivated with data
palm and alfalfa plantations and have been so for
thousands of years. Artificial irrigation channels for the
plantations have created a more diverse habitat, although
the salinity of the irrigation water and very poor soil
drainage restricts the diversity of the plant life to some
extent. Typical of arid or semi-arid climates, the soils are
known as pedocals. Water amounts are not sufficient to
allow complete leaching, so sulfate and calcium carbonate
(soluble salts) are found as a distinct layer in the profile of
the soil. The vegetation of the non-irrigated areas is made
up of typical desert plants, in the main comprised of four
different types, each with its own adaptation to survive in
a desert environment. These are:
Ephemerals opportunistic plants that capitalize on
infrequent favorable conditions by a very short life cycle
and bypass extended adverse conditions by producing
seeds that are able to lie dormant for many years, awaiting
rain.
However, all plants of arid and semi-arid regions can
loosely and simply be termed Xerophytes.
Although fifty species of mammal occur on the mainland
of Arabia, Bahrain can only boast thirteen terrestrial
species confirmed as extant on the island.
Only 26 avian species actually breed on the archipelago,
but over 265 different species of birds have been recorded
in recent years. This is a very high figure for such a small
desert type of island and shows the attractiveness of the
habitats for migrating birds. The coastal areas, extensive
plantations, desert habitats and smaller islands attract
enormous numbers of birds on their spring and autumn
migration routes, which pass close by Bahrain. Between
central Eurasia and Africa an estimated 2-3 thousand
million birds are thought to pass through the Gulf during
their migration.
It is difficult to estimate correctly the number of
species
of reptile and amphibian occurring on Bahrain, but
Gallagher established a definite 25 species and another 12
possibles. This is quite a variety for a small island if one
considers an island such as the United Kingdom which
can only boast twelve species.
The butterflies of Bahrain have been revised by (Torben
& Harsen 1990). They listed about 21 species. They
attributed this low species diversity to the harsh climate
(high temperatures) that affects the adaptive behavior of
butterflies.2 Source: An Introduction to the Wildlife of Bahrain
by Dr. Mike Hill & Dr. Paul
Webb.
The results of most recent study on the benthic marine
algae have indicated that there are 88 marine algae species
in Bahrain and these are distributed as 21 chlorophyta, 17
phaeophyta, 13 cyanophyta and 37 rhodophyta. (Basson
& Mohammed 1990). The authors reasoned the low
number of reported species to the environmental stress
setup by high salinity 43-80 ppt and high water
temperature 36o C featuring Bahrain's marine
environment.
Protected areas for Wildlife:
1. Al-Areen Wildlife Park
This Park perhaps the first project in the region
oriented to pressure the
natural heritage of the Arabian countries.
Many species from Arabia and Africa have been introduced
successfully
to the park. Breeding programs have been undertaken and good
results
were produced particularly to those endangered and rare
species.
Species of particular interest are: several species of
gazelles, Arabian
that Northern bald ibis, oryx, Arabian bustard, Dalmatian pelican
and
others. Also several species have just recently been introduced of
which
are Arabian wolf, Syrian wild ass, Arabian leopard (Samour,
1990).
2. Ras Sanad Mangrove Reserve.
The Environmental Affairs (EA) was given a 4 sq. Km of
mangrove
swamp to protect and develop to a reserve. The EA has demarcated
the
area and fencing the reserve will be undertaken in near future.
Also,
there is a plan to construct a bird watch tower and educational
CENTER
on the reserve which will publicize the importance of the reserve
as
nursery grounds to many fisheries such as shrimp and fishes. The
Cabinet of Ministers on the session No. 1341 on 16th April 1995
and
A Ministerial order No. 1 (1995) issued on 13th June 1995, further
declare full protection for the mengal and ban coastal
infilling.
3. Protection of Hawar Islands and the adjacent Territorial
Waters.
The process of formal designation of protected areas
such as the Hawar
islands and the adjacent waters is now proceeding through the
Prime
Ministerial Edict No.16 (1996) and the Ministerial Order No.6
(1996)
under the auspices of the Ministry of Housing, Municipalities and
Environment (Environmental Affairs). An adhoc committee has been
formed and chaired by Director General of EA, and comprising of
members representing National Wildlife Committee, Arabian Gulf
University, University of Bahrain, Bahrain Natural History Society,
Directorate of Fisheries, Directorate of Tourism, and the Coast
Guard.
Three subcommittees were formed;
The terms of reference of each sub-committee has
been discussed and
agreed upon and the final plan of action is under preparation.
Solid Waste
The domestic waste problem become a big issue at both
levels, national and regional. It become apparent that
regional coordination is required to utilize the best
available technology on recycling, separation, compost
and residual incineration of domestic waste. The concept
of recycling still green and investors yet reluctant to
invest in this line of business. The limited incineration
and separation facilities in the region are neither sufficient
nor efficient.
Generally speaking, there is a need to change the
consumption pattern and habits in the region. The
composition of average waste contain more than 50%
food (left over), 4-10% papers, plastics, food and drinks
package, about 0.6 - 4% cans and glass(Table 2).
Due to the absence of appropriate facilities for
recycling,
handling, separation and treatment of the domestic waste,
the landfill process is the major method in use so far.
There is no sound control to this dumping activity.
However, the Municipalities Affairs is studying seriously
the installation of facilities that would separate, incinerate
and/or reduce waste size. There is an effort to encourage
the private sector to invest in recycling business and at the
same time plans to encourage public to sort their garbage
at home, schools, offices, etc.
At the level of GCC there are some efforts to promote the
concept of recycling for some domestic wastes such as
aluminum cans, glass bottles, plastic containers, paper,
etc. and at the same time encourage to use their substitutes
- or reduce and economize in their usage or consumption.
The quantity of waste generated by the industries is
large
(Table 2), when compared with the site capacity, means of
handling and facilities available.
No waste classified under Basel Convention's annexes are
exported from Bahrain that would violate the articles of
the convention. The secretariat of the convention is kept
informed on the steps undertaken toward the
implementation of the articles.
Annex-I: List of projects for 1997 of the Directorate of
Assessment and Planning.
Year
Subject 1977
To control the removal of the desert sand 1977
To control garbage collection 1980
To control the extraction of the ground water 1981
To control fishing 1983
To control agriculture 1984
To control importation of plant materials 1984
To protect date palm trees 1986
To protect dugong 1986
To control gill nets and shrimp nets 1986
To limit trawling to areas greater than 20m depth 1986
To prohibit use of drift nets 1989
To control the use of pesticides 1995
Protection of Tubli Bay (Mangrove protected area) 1996
Designation Hawar islands and the adjacent waters as protected
areas
Type
Amount Domestic
213758 Commercial
66254.31 Construction
waste
28558.2 Agriculture
8642.22 Industrial non-hazardous
3388.24 Industrial hazardous
24000 Carcasses
6386.93 Grand Total
350987.9
- 22nd April - Earth Day.
- 24th April - Regional Environment
Day.
- 5th June - World Environment Day.
- 14th October - Arab Environment Day.
- Hawar Islands.
- Mashtan Island and Surrounding Reef Area.
- Western and Southern Coastline of Tubli Bay.
- East Coast Reef and Seagrass Zone.
- Northern Edge of Fasht Adhm.
- Inner, Northern and Eastern Tubli Bay.
- The Outer Reefs, Jarada and Fasht Dibal.
- South Western Coastal strip of main islands.
- East Coastal strip - Sitra to Askar.
- Island Nesting sites.
2. Environmentally sound management of waste and
chemicals
(chapters 19,20,21,22).
3. Protection of the marine environment (chapter 17).
4. Protection of the atmosphere (chapter 9).
5. Changing consumption patterns (chapter 4).
1. To define and evaluate freshwater resources.
2. To protect freshwater quality, ecosystems and prevent
underground water pollution.
3. To integrate development and management of water
resources.
4. To study climate change effects on water resources.
1. To prepare a mechanism to control the
industrial chemicals and the
daily usage.
2. To assist the national abilities through
the suggestion of
proper legal mechanism and to increase the
awareness in controlling
waste and chemicals.
3. To prepare a documentary system for the packing
and storage of
chemicals.
4. To prepare a mechanism to prevent the Transboundary
transportation of
hazardous waste .
5. To suggest effective procedures to encourage the
reduction of waste
through recycling.
6. To study a proper location for the disposal of industrial
waste.
7. To study of the choice of regional treatment of
waste.
8. To suggest a mechanism to disseminate the available
studies in the
field of waste and chemical materials.
Municipalities Affairs have introduced a strategy for
treatment of
solid waste which is currently under study and evaluation.
2. To prepare an action plan to protect marine
resources specially those which are nationally and
internationally important.
3. To study the climate change effects on coastal
zones.
4. To prepare a plan to encourage Research related
to marine environment and effecting factors.
A preliminary report was prepared that included a
guideline for
preparation an action plan to protect the coastal environment which
is
under study and evaluation process.
2. To prepare a strategy for protecting ozone.
3. To suggest a procedure to protect the environment
from the transboundary movement of pollutants.
4. To determine pollution effects on health from
stationary sources.
5. To suggest an action plan to protect the
atmosphere.
2. To define the effects of unrational consumption on
the economy growth.
3. To encourage consumption patterns and development in
a way to
minimize the environmental overstrains.
4. To develop a better understanding of the consumption
role and pinpoint more sustainable consumption patterns.
5. To participate in evaluation of the relation between
production, consumption and environment, and studying the
effects of current changes
in the status of modern industrial economies on the
environment.
Halophytes - high salinity tolerance
Xerophytes - tolerance to drought
conditions.
Phreatophytes - utilizing underlying water-table.
a- Literature search and monitoring
b- Demarcation of boundaries
c- Environmental Public Awareness
Serial | Projects |
1 | Adoption of Standards |
2 | Reviewing the Convention on Biodiversity |
3 | Survey of Environmental Problems |
4 | Tubli Bay Monitoring (Mangrove protected area) |
5 | Marine Habitat Survey by remote sensing |
6 | EIA mechanism Inter and intraministerial Coordination |
7 | EIA Sectoral forms |
8 | Assessing of the Economic importance of the Marine Environment |
9 | Creation of GIS maps and data base for Tubli Bay Environment |
10 | Creation of GIS maps and data base on Howar Environment |
11 | Development of Environmental data bank |
12 | Setting Criteria for An Environmental Prize |
13 | Workshop on Environmental Economics |
14 | Issuance of Executive newsletter |
15 | Mechanism and Specification for Land Reclamation |
16 | Workshop on Environmental Management |
17 | Correlation of Environmental data and Health |
18 | Reporting on the control of NOx from R. Power station |
19 | Mercure project Management |
20 | Industrial pollution control reporting guidelines |
21 | Environmental charges: Procedure and Directive |
22 | Hawar protection procedure |
23 | Coordination with UNDP |
24 | Coordination with Fisheries Directorate |
25 | Preparation of Environment and Development Report |
26 | GCC coordination and Ministerial Mtg. |
27 | Hidd Power Plant EIA |
28 | Hidd industrial area reclamation EIA |
29 | Manama - Muharraq 3rd crossing EIA |
30 | Ispat sponge iron plant EIA |
31 | Enabling Activity on Climate Change |
32 | Celebrating Environmental Days |
Annex-II: List of projects for 1997 of the Directorate of Assessment and Planning.
Serial | Projects |
1 | Establish procedures to control traffic pollution |
2 | Study existing pollution problems generated by small and medium industries |
3 | Determine buffer zones for services |
4 | Develop a strategy to control asbestos |
5 | Develop standards for environmental pollutants and stresses |
6 | Implementation of Ozone strategy |
7 | Develop a laboratory performance strategy |
8 | Develop standards for wastes handling |
9 | Conduct a feasibility study for landfill site selection for industrial waste |
10 | Review of environmental laws and preparation of ministerial orders |
11 | Categorize the types of violation and appropriate measures to be enforced |
Annex-III: BAHRAIN INTERIM EFFLUENT GUIDELINES
MAXIMM | AVERAGE | ||
PARAMETERS | UNITS | ||
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES | |||
Floating Particles | mg/m2 | 0 | NIL |
pH | pH | 9 | 6 to 9 |
Temperature | C | ||
Total suspended solids | mg/L | 35.000 | 20.000 |
Turbidity (NTU) | N.T.U. | 75.000 | 25.000 |
INORGANIC CHEMICAL PROPERTIES | |||
Ammonical Nitrogen as N | mg/L | 3.000 | 1.000 |
Dissolved Oxygen | mg/L | >2 | |
Sulfide as H2S | mg/L | 1.000 | 0.500 |
Chlorine residual | mg/L | 2.000 | 0.500 |
Cyanide as CN | mg/L | 0.100 | 0.050 |
Chloride (Cl-) | mg/L | TO BE REPORTED | |
Nitrate (NO3-)-N- | mg/L | 10.000 | |
Nitrite (NO2-)-N- | mg/L | 1.000 | |
Phosphorous - Total | mg/L | 2.000 | 1.000 |
M.B.A.S | mg/l | 1.000 | 0.500 |
Fluoride (F-) | mg/L | 25.000 | 15.000 |
ORGANIC POLLUTANTS | |||
Biological Oxygen Demand | mg/L | 50.000 | 25.000 |
Chemical Oxygen Demand | mg/L | 350.000 | 150.000 |
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen | mg/L | 10.000 | 5.000 |
Hydrocarbons(FLUOR or IR) | mg/L | 0.100 | 0.100 |
Oil & Grease (Hexane ex.) | mg/L | 15.000 | 8.000 |
Phenols | mg/L | 1.000 | 0.500 |
TRACE METALS | |||
Aluminium | mg/L | 25.000 | 15.000 |
Arsenic | mg/L | 0.500 | 0.100 |
Cadmium | mg/L | 0.050 | 0.010 |
Chromium Total | mg/L | 1.000 | 0.100 |
Copper | mg/L | 0.500 | 0.200 |
Iron | mg/L | 10.000 | 5.000 |
Lead | mg/L | 1.000 | 0.200 |
Mercury | mg/L | 0.005 | 0.001 |
Nickel | mg/L | 0.500 | 0.200 |
Selenium | mg/L | 1.000 | 0.200 |
Silver | mg/L | 0.005 | |
Zinc | mg/L | 5.000 | 2.000 |
Total Coliforms | No/100 ml | 10000.000 | 1000.000 |
Copyright © United Nations
Department of Economic and Social Affairs
Comments and suggestions: esa@un.org
12 December 1997