Enhancing Women's Full Participation in
Electoral Processes in Post-Conflict Countries

 A Compilation of Selected Resources

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References on women and political representation

1. Gender checklist for free and fair elections in Southern Africa

This guide provides useful checklists for ensuring gender equality in free and fair elections. The checklists addresses different thematic areas of the electoral process, namely international, regional, sub-regional and national frameworks for gender equality in elections; national constitutions; legal framework; political parties; electoral commission and the role of civil society actors.

This is a gender responsive model that seeks to incorporate gender mainstreaming at every stage of an election that can be applied to post-conflict countries. In addition, the guide contains recommendations on registration of voters, voter education programmes, campaign processes, procedure for voting, and institutionalized monitoring and evaluation mechanisms.

Author: SADC-ESN Electoral Support Network, 2002
Countries: Southern Africa
Category: Guide
Pages: 18

2. Women's Political Participation and Leadership Development Programme. Women's Campaign Manual

With the specific purpose of assisting women candidates in Kenya before and during a campaign, this manual gives guidelines on the following topics: fundraising, budgeting, campaign planning, message development, projecting a positive image, techniques of public speaking, dealing with the media, volunteers, voter contact, scheduling, and calendar of events/activities.

Author: National Democratic Institute for International Affairs/NDI, Nairobi, Kenya, 1997
URL: http://www.accessdemocracy.org/library/1291_wp_campaign_manual_123197.pdf
Countries: General
Category: Manual
Pages: 30

3. Training of trainers manual, nominating for change: strengthening women's position in political parties

This manual was specifically designed for a 4-day workshop held in Jakarta, Indonesia in March 2003. However, according to the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs (NDI), the manual can be adapted and used as a guide for other programs whose aim is to promote women's political participation. It contains 20 sessions divided in four days. The sessions include among other things confidence-building behavior and attitudes that affect women's participation in political parties, strategies to prepare women as legislative candidates, steps in self-promotion, as well as psychological/mental preparation.

Author/s: National Democratic Institute for International Affairs (NDI), 2003
URL: http://www.accessdemocracy.org/library/1632_id_parties_053103.pdf
Countries: General
Category: Manual
Pages: 127

4. Women's candidate training programme: Trainer's manual

This manual was designed specifically for political party trainers for the training of women candidates for local government. The manual is divided into eight sections, each addressing different issues namely, local government, the party ticketing process, building the party identity, election codes of conduct, campaign planning, message development, campaigning and project monitoring.

Author: National Democratic Institute for International Affairs (NDI) Nepal, 2002
URL: http://www.accessdemocracy.org/library/1623_np_womentrainermanualPDF.pdf
Countries: Nepal
Category: Manual
Pages: 64

5. Women's Participation

This website provides concrete worldwide examples on programmes aimed at training women candidates, political party assistance, training women's officials and leaders.

Author: National Democratic Institute
URL: http://www.ndi.org/globalp/women/progrmasw/women_traincan_52001.asp
Countries: General
Category: Website
Page: 6

6. Conclusion: lessons learned form the Asian experience with quotas, in "The implementation of quotas: Asian experiences. Quota workshops report series

The article lists important lessons learned from the implementation of quotas in Asia. A brief summary with some of the main observations is provided below:

  • When properly implemented, quotas are an effective means to fast-tracking women's access to decision-making bodies.
  • East Timor is an example of the arguments often used by those opposing quotas (Unqualified women will be elected; candidate selection is a party prerogative is best base on merit; there is a shortage of "willing" women to contest the poll).
  • By and large, women in Bangladesh have not served as advocates of women's rights.
  • While quotas ensure women a presence in parliament, there is no guarantee that women will be able to use their power effectively.
  • Quotas and skills training can be used as simultaneous strategies for the empowerment of women (The case of Pakistan).
  • The case of Bangladesh illustrates that timing is extremely important and that quotas should not be abolished until the political playing field is truly even.
  • A strong women's network and civil society support are key to successful introduction of quotas. If quotas are being implemented in countries with a limited history of women's mobilization and women's integration in political life, the type of quota intervention needs to be chosen carefully and determined by the social and cultural context and political climate in the country.

Authors: Julie Ballington and Cecilia Bylesjo, International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA), 2002
URL: http://www.idea.int/publications/quotas/Asia_Report.pdf
Countries: India, East Timor, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Indonesia
Category: Report
Pages: 37

7. Lessons for expanding women's representation in "Enhancing women's political participation: legislative recruitment and electoral systems

The author examines strategies that can be utilized to overcome obstacles to the political participation of women and, as a result, increase their participation in the public sphere.

Author/s: Richard E. Matland, International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance URL: http://www.idea.int/women/parl/ch3d.htm
Countries: General
Category: Website
Page: 2

8. In search of political power: women in parliament in Egypt, Jordan, and Lebanon

This study analyzes the restrictions to political participation Arab women face, and some of the tactics utilized by women to obtain access to the political sphere. Among the measures put into place to promote women's participation in elections were: the provision of women-only transportation to polling stations, cooperation with women's organizations to raise women's legal awareness regarding their voting rights and cooperation with male leaders in local communities.

Among the strategies utilized to strengthen women's participation in politics were: the increased access to information and skills, lobbying other women members of parliament or sympathetic men members of parliament in order to gain support for their bills and becoming familiar with the rules and guidelines of the political game.

Author/s: Gehan Abu-Zayd, International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA)
URL: http://www.idea.int/women/parl/studies1a.htm
Countries: Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon
Category: Website
Pages: 7

9. Quotas in Pakistan: A case study in "The implementation of quotas: Asian experiences. Quota workshops report series"

The Devolution of Power Plan, which was approved in March 2000 by Pakistani government, contains a provision of 33 per cent quota for women. The author proposes a framework to promote equal participation of women in decision-making structures, which includes awareness-raising, capacity-building, research and documentation, and policy analysis and advocacy.

Author/s: Socorro L. Reyes, International Democratic Electoral Assistance/IDEA, 2002
URL: http://www.idea.int/publications/quotas/Asia_Report.pdf
Countries: Pakistan
Category: Report
Pages: 37

10. Promoting gender equity in the democratic process: women's paths to political participation and decision-making. Synthesis paper

This paper explores the concept of "good governance": one that entails women's full and active participation in politics and decision-making. One of the main arguments made is that by building political skills, women acquire a greater sense of ownership of the political process, which in turns leads to a greater organized participation of women in the public sphere. The paper include recommendations for the enhancement of women's participation, for the promotion of what the authors call the "collective voice" an experience, and for the enhancement of credibility.

Authors: Patricia Ahern, Paul Nuti, Julia M. Masterson, Promoting Women in Development (PROWID), 2000
URL: http://www.icrw.org/docs/GCSLsynthesispaper.pdf
Countries: General
Category: Paper
Pages: 44

11. Coalition building, election rules, and party politics: South African women's path to parliament

The article's main argument is that the creation of a strong women's movement served as a catalyst to the post transition success in constitutional reforms, party politics and election of women to public office. The South African model includes:

  • The Women's National Coalition (WNC) developed a national platform for action, collaborated on policy issues and raised awareness on the status and role of women nationally.
  • From the foundation of the WNC, women formed cross-party bargaining teams to pressure their way into the constitutional negotiations. Women were, therefore, able to incorporate their needs in the constitution.
  • Because of the national impact of the women's movement, women were able to pressure their parties for internal affirmative action measures and demand quotas (the African National Congress introduced a list of candidates with a 30% gender quota) and/or recruitment and training of women candidates.

Author: Hannah E. Britton, Africa Today, Vol. 49, 2002
Countries: South Africa
Category: Article
Pages: 24

12. Gender equality and electoral politics on the left: A comparison of El Salvador and Nicaragua

This comparative study analyzes the representation of women in party structures, candidate lists for public office, legislative assemblies as well as strategies employed by women to increase female representation in El Salvador and Nicaragua. More specifically, the paper examines the 1996 Nicaraguan and 1997 Salvadoran parliamentary elections from a gender perspective.

In brief, the article emphasizes that much work needs to be done in order to convince women to run for elections at the local level. In both countries, with only a few exceptions, the number of women elected was minimal. However, as it was the case in El Salvador, women's perseverance in securing top positions on the party list combined with the strategy of nominating fewer women to concentrate the vote, seems to be an effective mechanisms to increase the chances of women candidates being elected.

Author: Llja A. Luciack, Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 1998, Vol. 40 Issue 1.
Countries: El Salvador and Nicaragua
Category: Article
Pages: 28

13. The 30 percent quota law: A turning point for women’s political participation in Argentina in "A raising public voice. Women in politics worldwide"

The chapter discusses the introduction, challenges and effects of the quota system in Argentina. The law was implemented 8 March, 1991 and was enforced during the national elections in October 1993. The quota stipulates that "the list of candidates must include at least 30% of women candidates for public office, in proportion which will make their election possible".

Strategies employed by women in public office to have the quota law passed are summarized below:

  • Inter-party alliance was essential for approval of the law.
  • The Peronist Party women organized several women's meeting to present and discuss the law, inviting male politicians as speakers. Using this strategy, they tried to induce men to make a public commitment before the mass assembly.
  • The women took advantage of all existing political links, such as having worked together in the same committees, personal affinities, shared political and professional experience

Authors: Gloria Bonder and Marcela Nari, edited by Alida Brill, 1995. The Feminist Press at the City University of New York, New York.
Countries: Argentina
Category: Chapter
Pages: 10

14. Economic and political change in Poland in "Women and democracy. Latin America and Central Eastern Europe"

This chapter describes the experience of Polish women after the downfall of the communist regime in the late 1980's and early 1990's. Evidence shows that in both the 1991 and 1993 elections, women made up only a meager group of candidates. Not only did political parties place women in on their list unenthusiastically, but they avoid placing women candidates on op of their lists. However, it turned out that women received on average more votes than men. As a result, the author concludes that "the problem for women candidates lies more in the actions of party leaders than in voter resistance" (p.137).

Author: Renata Siemienska, 1998, edited by Jane S. Jaquette and Sharon L.Wolchik, The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London
Countries: Poland
Category: Chapter
Pages: 25

15. Stability Pact Gender Task Force Report

The report elucidates projects undertaken to mainstream gender equality in party politics called "Women can do it II", as well as other projects such as, among others, "Women voters can do it", and "Women can do it in Trade Unions". The Gender Task Force is an inter-governmental organization dedicated to advancing gender-balanced sustainable development in South Eastern Europe.

Author: Stability Pact Gender Task Force, 2003
URL: http://www.stabilitypact.org/gender/actrep-may2003.pdf
Countries: South-Eastern Europe
Category: Report
Pages: 6

16. Kosovo: Independent Voting

Women without Borders is launching a lobbying project directed at the OSCE, the election organizers of the Kosovo election in 2004, with the goal of reforming the current voting procedures so that women are able to vote more independently. With our partners in the region, Women without Borders will campaign for a pilot scheme initially in a few municipalities, which if successful could be used as a blue print for future elections and in other countries.

Author: Women without Borders
URL: http://www.women-without-borders.org/frauen-ohne-grenzen.asp?loc=projekte&pg=projekte&id=307
Countries: Kosovo
Category: Article
Pages: 1

17. The Kosovo Action Plan for the Achievement of Gender Equality

The National Action Plan (NAP) for the Achievement of Gender Equality presents recommendations to address specific problems and conditions of gender disparity in different areas in Kosovo. The report suggests specific measures that should be taken by key actors, namely government, political parties and civil society, in particular women's non-governmental organizations, to increase the number of women in politics and government, especially in key decision-making structures. Objectives and recommendations to be undertaken by actors—such as political parties, civil society, and the media-- regarding women in politics and the empowerment of women in all roles and at all levels within political parties are examined in the article.

Author: United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)
URL: http://www.womensnetwork.org/english/pdf/Kosovo%20action%20plan%20(english).pdf
Countries: Kosovo
Category: Article
Pages: 76

18. Getting it right? A Gender approach to UNMIK administration in Kosovo

The study outlines the successes and challenges faced by UNMIK, as well as provides an analysis and recommendations on how to improve the access of women in the political arena.

Author: The Kvinna till Kvinna Foundation, 2001.
URL: http://www.womensnetwork.org/english/pdf/Kosovorapport.pdf
Countries: Kosovo
Category: Report
Pages: 42

19. Plan of action to correct present imbalances in the participation of men and women in political life

The Plan of Action, developed by the Inter-Parliamentary Union, is divided into five main sections. In particular, section C deals with the participation in politics at the national level and covers issues such as the promotion of women's political awareness, respect for the principle of equality in political parties, measures for affirmative action, participation of women in elections, and the sharing of political responsibilities by men and women.

Measures suggested to ensure the participation in the activities of political life include arranging times of meetings so that they do not coincide with the time when priority is usually given to children and the family, setting up day-care centers or kindergartens for children that are available free of charge, and fixing and respecting the time for beginning and ending a meeting.

Author: Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), Geneva, 1994
Countries: General
Category: Report
Pages: 34

20. Gender checklist for free and fair elections: A handbook

This guide takes into account the conditions necessary for the achievement of free and fair elections in South Africa which includes a gendered understanding of the concept of citizenship.

Author: Electoral Institute of Southern Africa (EISA), 1999
URL: http://www.eisa.org.za/EISA/publications/pubgender.htm
Countries: South Africa
Category: Checklist
Pages: 10

21. Gender checklist for free and fair elections – Tanzania

This guide describes international and national mechanisms for securing the involvement of women in the electoral process in Tanzania.

Author: Electoral Institute of Southern Africa (EISA), 2000
URL: http://www.eisa.org.za/EISA/publications/pubgender.htm
Countries: Tanzania
Category: Checklist
Pages: 14

22. Gender checklist for free and fair elections – Zimbabwe

This guide describes international and national mechanisms for securing the involvement of women in the electoral process in Zimbabwe.

Author: Electoral Institute of Southern Africa (EISA), 2000
URL: http://www.eisa.org.za/EISA/publications/pubgender.htm
Countries: Zimbabwe
Category: Checklist
Pages: 14

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