As a result of several high discharges and important risks on flooding in the major rivers in the period 1993 - 1995 the Netherlands' Government decided to give higher priority to water discharge and protection against flooding. As a direct consequence larger areas will be reserved for water discharge purposes instead of having other functional uses.

1. Decision-Making Structure: Three ministries are primarily responsible for activities under this chapter: the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment, the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries and the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management.

The following policy documents are relevant:

- the Fourth Policy Document on Physical Planning (1991),

- the Nature Policy Plan (1990/91),

- the Structure Plan for the Rural Areas in the Netherlands (1993/94) and

- the Structure Plan for Surface Mining (1996).

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: The issue "education and training in the integrated approach" has been fully covered, "strengthening technological capacity and institutions" have been covered in part.

3. Major Groups: The issue "raising awareness" has been fully covered. Public participation has been promoted but is not always possible in the preparation of plans.

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: The Dutch government is actively involved in supporting sustainable land use activities in developing countries by implementing projects and supporting divisions in appropriate ministries. It also participates in programmes of FAO and the World Bank.

Various Ministries have initiated joint cooperation programmes with institutions in neighbouring countries, e.g. in Belgium and Germany.

The forest area has increased continously during the last decades from 260,000 ha in 1952/53 to 334,000 ha in 1980/83, when the latest forest inventory was carried out. A new inventory is under discussion. Many of the new forests were planted on marginal agricultural ground and in the newly created polders. The annual increment in the total area of forest is estimated at around 2.5 million m3., approx. 1.3 million m3 of wood is harvested every year. The gradual expansion of the forest area contributes substantially to the sustainable maintenance of forests in the Netherlands. With the annual harvest significantly less than the increment, a modest but significant reduction of CO2 is being achieved. The volume of carbon currently stored in Dutch forests amounts to 63.7 Mt, 58% of which is stored in soil-stable humus. The present gross annual carbon accumulation is equivalent to about 1% of the Dutch carbon emission.

Information campaigns aimed at private forest owners have stimulated the practice of thinning out as a form of harvesting in recent years. More emphasis is now placed in forestry policy on promoting processing and boosting demand, e.g. by increasing the scope for sales of timber for energy generation purposes. Some other important developments in the timber market are the move towards life-cycle management, the certification of sustainably produced timber and the recycling of paper. Most forests are managed on the basis of more or less detailed management plans. Hunting does not take place on a very large scale and is increasingly restricted. There is no overexploitation of forests as a result of productive functions.

The Forestry Act has been a major instrument in preventing the conversion of forests for other uses. In many cases, if the use of the land is changed, the same area of forest or more has to be planted elsewhere. However, recent figures show that around 200 ha of forest disappear every year without being replaced.

The major obstacle to effective afforestation is the inclusion of forest areas in the spatial planning at state, provincial and community levels, which can cause long delays. The increase in forest area and improved management should result in an increase in homegrown wood supply from 8% to 25%

The health of forest ecosystems in the Netherlands is threatened, inter alia, by relatively high levels of nitrogen deposits. The actual levels measured in forests are between 30 and 60 kg of nitrogen per hectare per year. The vitality of the different species of tree varies enormously, though it is difficult to point to a direct correlation between vitality and nitrogen deposits. It has, however, been established that the nutrient budget of many tree species has been disturbed. The nitogen content of leaves and needles is usually around or even above the optimum level, whereas other important elements such as phosphorus, potassium and magnesium are often at or around shortage level. For damp and wet forest ecosystems, parching is another danger. Water extraction and improved drainage have resulted in a permanent drop in the groundwater level from 25 to 50 cm. If inputs of acidifying and, above all, eutrophic compounds continue at present levels, the sustainable maintenance of forest ecosystems on soil that is sensitive to acidification cannot be guaranteed.

Encroaching urbanization is rated "moderate" for causing forest loss and damage. Air pollution and acidification are rated "light". Actions have been initiated to promote tree-breeding, in-vitro-techniques and in situ conservation.

There are several categories of protected forests in the Netherlands: strict forest reserves, "A" locations, national parks and forests with emphasis on nature conservation. Around 90% of the total area of forests is part of the network of protected areas. Recent surveys show that the number of endangered species in forests is very small compared to other biotops. The biodiversity of Dutch forests is likely to continue to increase as a result of a vigorous forestry policy.

On the economic side, timber production accounts for only a small proportion of GNP. The Netherlands supplies only about 10% of its own timber needs. There are no good surveys for the macro-economic significance of forests.

b UN Statistical Yearbook 1993

c 1983

All areas larger than 0.5 ha with tree cover of more than 20% are defined as forests in the national definition.

Annual loss of forest in the last decade appr. 200 ha, mean afforestation amounts to appr. 1,200 ha per year. This results in an increase in the forest area of 10,000 ha over the last decade.

International Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Drought and/or Desertification

Particularly in Africa

Convention: signed in 1994 (15 October); ratified in 1995 (27 June)

The latest report to the Secretariat of the Convention was prepared in 19--.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter

No information

1. Decision-Making Structure: No information

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: No information

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information

There are different relations with other Governmental Policies in The Netherlands. In particular with regard to water scarcity and protection of the aquatic environment, agriculture is considered to be an important sector.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries is in charge of sustainable agriculture and rural development. The following legislation is relevant to this:

- Soil Protection Act (1986),

- Fertilizers Act (1986),

- Pesticides Act (1962),

- Surface Waters Pollution Act (1969),

- Wastes Act (1977),

- Nuisance Act (1981),

- Land Planning Act,

- Animal Medication Act,

- Nature Conservation Act,

- Forest Law,

- Environment Law,

- Fisheries Act.

Legislation has been reviewed, amendments are not needed.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: The Ministry of Development Cooperation has established close cooperation with NGOs on the subject of stimulating ecologically sustainable agriculture. NGOS have been encouraged to seek a dialogue with multilateral organizations such as FAO and UNDP.

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Some programmes run by the European Union to support sustainable agriculture supply funds for regional structural development projects in the Netherlands. The Netherlands is actively involved in the CGIAR and FAO and organized the Den Bosch Conference on agriculture and the environment in 1991, which laid the basis of chapter 14 in the UNCED process. 20% of Dutch ODA is allocated to agriculture and rural development focussing on sustainable land use, sustainable livestock production and integrated pest management. Bilateral agreements on scientific cooperation have been signed with Indonesia.

Convention on Biological Diversity

Convention: signed in 1992; ratified 12 July 1994.

Latest report submitted in 1996.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

Convention ratified before 1 July 1995.

Latest report submitted in 19--.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter

The Biodiversity Action Plan from 1995 identified gaps in policies and in the implementation of policies covering biodiversity issues. The Action Plan's target is to achieve sustainable development until the year 2020 by preventing further loss of biodiversity and by increasing biodiversity through restoration and development of habitats and ecological corridors and through sound environment management. Habitat destruction, over-harvesting and pollution were identified as the main causes for biodiversity loss of flora and fauna.

The Nature Policy Plan of the Netherlands laid down a large number of activities for the in situ conservation of ecosystems. Of major importance is the creation of the national ecological network of (inter)nationally important areas. With regard to ex situ protection a number of rehabilitation centres have been supported, e.g. for the otter, seal and bagder. Collections of genetic resources have been conserved and expanded.

The state of nature and the environment has at the national level been systematically monitored since 1988, resulting in several publications:

National Reference Centre of Nature Management:

- State of Nature 1 (1988),

- State of Nature 1 (1993),

National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection:

- National Environmental Outlook 1, 1985-2010 (1988)

- National Environmental Outlook 2, 1990-2010 (1992)

- National Environmental Outlook 3 (1993)

RIZA (the National Institute for Inland Water Management and Waste Water Treatment) and RIKZ (the National Institute for Coastal and Marine Management) of the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management both annually publish information about water quality.

During the last 15 years, a large number of initiatives have been taken aimed at enhancing public awareness of issues relating to the development and application of biotechnology. These initiatives focused on potential benefits, safety and ethical aspects. They originated from government, industry and interest groups and took a variety of forms such as conferences, workshops, seminars, brochures, exhibitions, tv programmes etc. The Government recently has taken steps to provide some coordination e.g. by establishing a platform in which representatives of interest groups can participate.

The Genetically Modified Organisms Decree was passed in order to protect public health and the environment. The Decree provides for safety procedures relating to the use and the release into the environment of genetically modified organisms. It also provides for the establishment of an advisory committee. Safety procedures contain principles on biotechnology risk assessment and risk management and are being reviewed annually. Notice is given to the Minister of the Environment of projects involving the use of genetically modified organisms. Standard requirements for safe handling and for the release of products are being published in the Bulletin of Acts and Decrees. Specific additional safety requirements can be laid down.

Examples for successful biotechnology projects contributing to a cleaner environment are the In situ Bioremediation Programme and the Programme on Diagnostic Methods for Plant Pests.

1. Decision-Making Structure: There is no central decision-making body for biotechnology issues, but, among others, the following ministries are involved in the sound management of biotechnology: the Ministry of Economic Affairs, the Ministry of Science, the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries and the Ministry of the Environment. Development and review of related policies, strategies and plans is in process.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: Endogenous capacities are strengthened through Technology Assessment Programmes.

3. Major Groups: Farmers organizations are involved in decision-making related to biotechnology.

4. Finance: From 1981 to 1992, the Biotechnology Stimulation Programmes of the Ministry of Economic Affairs accounted for a total of US$ 200 million. In 1994, the Ministry allocated US$ 17.5 million for biotechnology research and development. US$ 50 million are being allocated annually to the Wageningen Agricultural University for research and development in biotechnology. The Association of Dutch Biotechnology Schools receives US$ 5 million per year.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Much of the biotechnology research undertaken is related to the Biotechnology Programmes of the European Union.

The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea

Signed in 1982

Ratified in 1996

See also the attached tables on the next pages.

The Netherlands has an integrated coastal area management programme and is in the process of establishing an EEZ. Activities under the programme area integrated management and sustainable development of coastal and marine areas are all rated "very important" and full attention is being paid to them. Gaps are being addressed in the "conservation and restoration of altered critical habitats" and "public education, awareness and information programmes".

With respect to marine environmental protection the Netherlands has ratified the OSPAR convention that includes precautionary measures for marine and coastal activities, e.g. environmental impact assessments. Some economic incentives have been introduced: a charge for pollution of surface waters, financial compensation for inclination of the soil by natural gas extraction, a Green Award system where clean ships pay lower harbour taxes. All activities under this programme area are rated "very important". Protection of the marine environment has been fully integrated into policies. In 1993, the Coastal Management Centre of the Netherlands was set up to assist coastal nations in making and implementing integrated coastal zone management programmes. Some gaps exist concerning surveillance and monitoring of fisheries at sea. Regarding pollution of the marine environment from land-based sources, specialised information is available in government institutes, and based on this information, Best Available Techniques are elaborated and discussed. All sewage related issues are rated "very important" and have been fully covered.

The Netherlands participates in the development of socio-economic and environmental indicators, systematic observation systems, the mussel watch programme, clearing-houses and in the Global Ocean Observing System as well as in EuroGOOS, the European component of GOOS.

In 1996 The Netherlands has organized the First International Conference on EuroGOOS. The objectives were to identify the next steps in the provision of European operational oceanographic services to indudtry, to government agencies and to value added service companies, and to promote GOOS

There are several data base systems for integrated coastal management:

- DONAR (data management system concerning water information),

- MANS (Management System North Sea),

- NETCOAST (an open-access facility on Internet, aimed at anyone involved in coastal zone issues and management),

- COSMO (Coastal Zone Simulation Model).

These systems are rated "very good" and cover all necessary information.

Since 1995, an international Quality Status Report of the North Sea has been established every 2 to 5 years, including a comprehensive assessment of the State of the Environment. In the year 2000 a QSR of the OSPAR Convention area will be established. Changes in the coastal and marine environment can be determined.

1. Decision-making Structure: A national policy on oceans is part of the National Sustainable Development Strategy. The Ministry for Transport, Public Works and Water Management is responsible for integrated planning. Activities are being coordinated with other competent ministries, government bodies and NGOs.

2. Capacity-building/Technology Issues: The Netherlands develops capacity-building and training programmes.

3. Major Groups: The private sector and small-scale artisanal fishermen have advisory status at the national level. At the local level, Major Groups are ad-hoc participants in decision-making.

4. Finance: Under the programme area sustainable development of small islands, a total financial assistance of US$190,456 was given to Jamaica, Haiti, Cape Verde, Madagascar and the Seychelles on a bilateral basis. Through multilateral assistance US$1.45 million have been provided to Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica and Barbados, especially for education projects.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Concerning the protection of the marine environment from land- and sea-based activities, the Netherlands is a member of the Trilateral Waddenzee Cooperation, the International Conference on the Protection of the North Sea, the OSPAR Commission, the Rhine Commission, the Bonner Agreement, Port State Control, the London Convention 1972, IMO, the Oil Prepared Response Cooperation, and EU activities. No problems have arisen in implementing international conventions. In 1997, an Intermediate North Sea Ministers Conference will be held to discuss concerns related to fish stocks in the North Sea. Voluntary implementation of the FAO Code of Conduct of Responsible Fishing will take place under the responsibility of the EU in cooperation with the parties concerned.

Within the IPCC working group on coastal zones, the Coastal Zone Management (CZM) Centre of the Netherlands initiated the "Common Vulnerability Assessment" and assisted 8 countries in assessing their vulnerability to climate change. At the World Coast Conference 1993, organized by The Netherlands as a response to the call for Intergrated Coastal Zone Management in Agenda 21, participants from 100 coastal nations, 20 international organizations and 23 non-governmental organizations in consensus agreed on strengthening national and international responses for building ICZM capabilities. For the Conference, 46 country and regional assessment case studies were collected. The CZM Centre constitutes the follow-up of the conference.

The development of a Regional Marine Pollution Emergency Information and Training Centre (REMPEITC) in Curacao is being supported in cooperation with IMO and the US Coast Guard.

total population)

1/ The national report makes the following comment: it should be noted that by-catches are important, e.g. per 1 kg. marketable sole, 10 kg dead fish and 6 kg dead invertebrates are caught.

1. Decision-Making Structure: No information

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: No information

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: In 1994, the Netherlands organized an international conference on drinking water and environmental sanitation in Noordwijk.

Integrated water management is also a central principle in regular development projects. For urban areas, the emphasis is on the quality and quantity of the drinking water. Since the extraction and consumption of drinking water is very closely linked to the use of water in agriculture and industry, sustainable water management plays a significant role in urban infrastructural projects.

Special attention is being given to soil protection and the second programme for soil protection and remediation 1995-1998 is being implemented. Long-term targets by the year 2010 are to quantify the total extent of soil contamination, to clean up environmentally urgent cases of severe soil contamination and at least to make safe other severly contaminated sites.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The most important regulations regarding toxic chemicals are the Chemical Substances Act and the Pesticides Act.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: No information

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: The Netherlands is particularly active in the European Union. In 1993, the EC adopted Regulation 793/93 under which the risk associated with certain substances must be evaluated and restricted. The Netherlands made a significant contribution to the development of the method contained in this Regulation, under which the chemical industry is now obliged to provide the EC with information on chemicals. This information will be used to draw up a priority list for evaluating the risk level of different chemicals. In 1994, the Netherlands conducted risk evaluations of 7 substances from this list.

It also made a contribution to the development of an EC notification system for new substances. Risk evaluation is compulsory for all new substances.

The Netherlands devotes attention to the provision of information at the international level, including preparing handbooks and distributing leaflets. Dutch chemical substances policy also focuses on the OECD Chemicals Programme. The Netherlands plays an active role in the Task Force set up within the UNEP for the preparation of a convention that is more binding than the London Guidelines.

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal

Basel Convention: signed in 1989; ratified after 1 July 1992, on April 16, 1993.

The latest information was provided to the Basel Convention Secretariat in 19--.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter

(See also remarks under Chapter 21)

Allthough the amount of waste produced in the Netherlands is decreasing, it will be very difficult to achieve targets set for the year 2000, due to the problems associated with the recycling and reuse of waste.

Waste prevention and recycling plans are being implemented: the Action Programme for segregation of dry waste, the Ten-Year-Waste Programme, the multi-year plan for the disposal of hazardous substances.

Large-scale investments in sewage treatment in The Netherlands have led to a substantial reduction from 40.0*106 to 7.7*106 pollution equivalents from 1969 to 1990. Annual costs of operating sewerage systems and treatment of waste water amount to some US$ 1600 million in 1997.

1. Decision-Making Structure: Supporting legislation has been drafted.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: No information

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: The Netherlands tries to ensure that integrated life-cycle management is adopted as the main principle of waste policy in relation to developing countries. The Netherlands actively takes part in in drawing up EU directives in the field of waste management.

1. Decision-Making Structure: No information

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: No information

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: See Status report.

The Netherlands supports the GEF, the Multilateral Funds, the Montreal Protocol and the UNEP Core Fund Program. In 1994 and 1995, The Netherlands and Tunisia agreed on two debt for sustainable development swaps for a total amount of approx. US$11 million.

CHANGES IN NATIONAL BUDGET TO ADDRESS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:

The following environmental taxes/charges have been introduced since UNCED resulting in a estimated total revenue of US$2.5 billion :

Tax on groundwater (1995), likely to amount to US$190 million;

Waste tax (1995), likely to amount to US$170 million;

Tax on fuels (1992), amounting to US$800 million;

Tax on uranium (in effect in 1997);

Water pollution discharge tax on heavy metals amounting to up to US$8 million;

Regulatory tax on energy (in discussion in Parliament), likely to amount to US$1.3 billion;

Levies for the purpose of water pollution prevention.

An important part of this budget is used for management (licences, control and enforcement), monitoring and research. In some cases there is participation in unsubsidised high-cost infrastructural expenditure.

Expenditure on environmental protection by the Dutch Government:

1992 US$2,994 million (1.4% of national budget)

1993 US$2,900 million (0.4% of GNP)

1994 US$2,867 million

1995 US$2,966 million

1996 US$2,757 million

NEW ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS: Several economic instruments have been introduced in favour of environmental protection: returnable deposits (e.g. oil), waste disposal fee (e.g. cars), Accelerated Depreciation on Environmental Investment in the Netherlands, Green Investment Fund.

ELIMINATION OF ENVIRONMENTALLY UNFRIENDLY SUBSIDIES:

donor country

The Netherlands already spends the internationally agreed 0.7% of GNP for ODA. In the reassessment of Dutch foreign policy it was confirmed that 0.8% of GNP will be spent on ODA and that by 1999 0.1% of GNP will be spent on international environmental issues.

In 1995, an Information Centre for Environmental Licensing was opened. The centre has been set up primarily to provide licensing authorities with information, but industry can also make use of it. The idea is that licensing authorities, by using appropriate and up-to-date information, should be able to apply the ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) principle as referred to in the Environmental Protection Act. The information centre has started by integrating existing information facilities regarding air pollution, energy, soil remediation technology and the helpdesk of the facilitating organization for industry. Information regarding legal aspects is also provided. According to the plans, the scope of the information centre will be broadened to cover the information needs of licensing authorities regarding all environmental aspects. The information centre will be extended, with information on water, waste prevention and environmental care systems. A further assessment of the "market" for information will be performed, the results of which will lead to further completion of the information system. Quality, accessibility and cost-effectiveness are also under the permanent attention of the management. A question registration system is being installed to improve the performance of the information centre. A connection to Internet is planned. An easily accessible data base of state-of-the-art technology has to be created. Up to now information has been available only by telephone or mail.

With regard to the aquatic environment, no discharges are allowed, excluding those which are licensed. Licenses are only given when BAT is applied. Furthermore, in some cases the licenses are even stricter than BAT.

The Netherlands actively supports the UN-policy on setting up environmentally sound technology centres. Within the UNIDO/UNEP cooperation a program has been established for the promotion of cleaner production centres in developing countries. Contacts have been made with countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America. The network of cleaner production centres cooperates closely with the industrial market for technology development and transfer. The main activities of the centres lie in the field of strengthening environmental care in industry by the organization of seminars and courses and provision of support for companies preparing environmental working plans.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION: A Commission has been established to implement the Water Pollution Act. This Commission is also responsible for the exchange of information on water pollution prevention technologies. Several ministries, regional authorities and industrial organizations are represented. A policy paper on environmental technology in relation to development cooperation is in the final draft stage. One of the main aims of the Dutch Coastal Zone Management Centre is capacity building in low lying developing countries. An annual training course has been developed. Frequently, training workshops are organized and held in developing countries, in cooperation with local institutes.

The Netherlands has supported a "Needs Assessment for Clean Technologies" in Costa Rica in May 1995. As a follow-up, projects will be selected for implementation in cooperation with the Netherlands. The Netherlands and Switzerland have organized an international expert meeting on national needs assessment in February 1996. The Netherlands, in cooperation with IMO and the USA Coast Guard, supports a Regional Pollution Emergency Information and Training Centre (REMPEITC) in Curacao (Netherlands Antilles). The Dutch programme for cooperation with Central and Eastern Europe includes projects in the area of environmental technology focusing on sustainable processes of production and energy-saving techniques. Further activities are being conducted within the framework of OSPAR, UNEP and ECE.

The principle of Dutch policy is, as agreed in several International Conventions, the application of Best Available Techniques and Best Environmental Practices as so defined, including, where appropriate, clean technology. Life Cycle Analysis and environmental product development are being applied in the Netherlands for assessment of technology options. The Government applies several instruments to promote development, transfer and dissemination of environmentally sound technologies:

- A preliminary evaluation of the "Stimuleringsregeling Milieutechnologie (StirMT)" (providing subsidies for feasibility studies and development and demonstration projects) showed that an average emission reduction of about 40-50% has been achieved in each participating company. In addition, the StirMT scheme also includes knowledge transfer activities.

- The programme "Schoner Produceren" (a knowledge transfer and information programme) has increased awareness of and knowledge about the possibilities for cleaner production in small and medium sized companies.

- According to an evaluation in 1994, tax incentives yielded a significant acceleration of investments in ESTs.

- An evaluation of subsidies for scientific research aimed at technologies to be implemented in the longer term showed lack of interest on the part of industry to actively participate in research.

- In 1995/1996, a broader evaluation of the impact and effectiveness of financial instruments and an evaluation of environmental awards was carried out.

Provide information on the adoption of environmental management systems. National reaction to environmental management system standards such as the ISO 14000 Series and others. Please note efforts made at the national level to promote their adoption and the creation of certification infrastructure in order to facilitate access to these standards to local industry.

List and describe programs or work under way to facilitate the transfer of ESTs to small and medium sized enterprises. Please note efforts to facilitate access to financial resources and other transfer strategies.

Programmes mentioned above, e.g. the "Schoner Produceren" programme also refer to SMEs.

- Integration of knowledge and scientific assessment of highly multidisciplinary and international fields of research require more programmatic coordination both at the national and international level.

- Since the streams of additional money are drying up, reprioritization and reorientation of ongoing research activities are necessary. Cuts in research budgets are creating problems particularly in nature, environmental and energy research.

- Much of the environmental research undertaken in the social sciences sector is still going on in relatively small, short-term projects of local significance. Some promising developments are emerging in this field.

- Interdisciplinary cooperation between social scientists and between social and natural scientists needs to be improved. Well-coordinated, longer-term national and international multidisciplinary networks and programmatic frameworks are vital in this respect and need further development and support.

STEPS TAKEN TO ENHANCE SCIENTIFIC UNDERSTANDING, IMPROVE LONG TERM SCIENTIFIC ASSESSMENT, BUILDING OF CAPACITY AND CAPABILITY: The Ministry of Education, Culture and Science is primarily responsible for this chapter. The Higher Education and Research Act (1992) is the most important legislation. The National Environmental Policy Plan addresses the promotion of science for sustainable development. In 1993, Dutch universities signed a Charter for Sustainable Development that should lead to integration of sustainable development into their strategies. Several institutes and advisory bodies participate in decision-making for environment and development, e.g. in the evaluation of research programmes:

- the Advisory Council for Research on Nature and the Environment,

- the Advisory Council on Development-Related Research,

- the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Science.

The Netherlands participates in many international scientific programmes and initiatives, e.g. in the EU Framework Programme / Special Programme on the Environment and in the EU 5th Action Programme on the Environment, in GEF -initiatives and in many UN-programmes, especially those related to Environment and Global Change. It hosts the IPCC secretariat for the coastal zone and small island subgroup, the Coastal Zone Management Centre and the International Coordination Office of the Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone Programme of IGBP. Numerous courses and training activities have been offered. It also participates in the Tropical Rainforests Programme of the Tropical Rainforests Organization and in the Special Programme for the Sustainable Management of Coastal Areas of SW Sulawesi and carries out a National Research Programme on Global Air Pollution and Climate Change.

Technical assistance of UN agencies could be re-designed to promote scientific cooperation within existing programmes and frameworks that address sustainable development as a central concept (e.g. WCP, Human Dimensions Programme) and to promote participation of scientists from developing countries in these programmes. UN agencies also should strengthen the coordination of research and monitoring with NGO activities in this field and the coordination between donor agencies and research and monitoring agencies (mainly through START).

a) Reorientation of education towards sustainable development

A National Education Strategy has been prepared. In order to implement activities under this chapter, the Ministries involved encourage partnerships, mobilize resources, provide information and assess the needs of different population groups. At all educational levels, curricula have been reviewed and revised to address environment and development as a cross-cutting issue. Printed material for environmental education is often used at all school levels, audio visual tools are occassionally used (often at the primary school level). Special classes, seminars and workshop are occasionally held.

At all educational levels, the following topics are being dealt with in part: environmental health, safe drinking water, sanitation, food, ecosystems, recycling and energy saving.

b) Increasing public awareness

The GLOBE-program (Global learning observation to benefit the environment) has been established to raise awareness in the public on environment and development issues.

c) Promoting training

Schools are involved in a national network with NGOs and teacher training centres addressing environment and development issues. There are pre-service and in-service training programmes for teachers in all sectors concerning the nature and methods of environmental and development education. Further training for vocational education teachers is envisaged.

ROLE OF MAJOR GROUPS: Major Groups are not members of an education coordinating body. They may ask for subsidies, and their applications and project activities are discussed in the advisory body. It is becoming regular governmental policy in education to foster opportunities for women in non-traditional fields. Programmes and projects have been established for this. NGOs participate in a national network addressing environment and development in education.

FINANCING AND COST EVALUATION OF THE LABOUR ACTIVITIES:

a 1994

b different population 1980 vs 1994

c 1981

d 1993