Finland subscribes fully to the aims and principles of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, participating actively in the work of international organisations like WTO and the OECD on the integration of trade and environment policies. Trade and environment are among the five priority areas of the Finnish external economic policy. Finland also emphasizes the importance of the joint work programme at UNCTAD and UNEP, which Finland fully supports and it is expected that the outcome of this process will be useful in preparing for the Special Session of the General Assembly (1997) on the implementation of Agenda 21.

At the national level, there is a Special Committee (led by the Ministry for Foreign Affairs) which is preparing national positions for all important meetings. This Committee has also been responsible for the Finnish position, in principle, before the EU meetings, even though the final positions are approved in the EU-113 Committee.

1. Decision-making Structure: The integration of trade and environmental policies is discussed in an Advisory Expert Working Group, where both governmental and non-governmental parties are represented. The group participates in the preparations of Finnish positions on issues included in the agendas of e.g. WTO, UNCTAD and the OECD.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information.

3. Major Groups: Non-governmental parties participate in the Advisory Group (see 1 above).

4. Finance: No specific extra financing.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Supported by the other Nordic countries, with which Finland actively cooperates, Finland made a proposal that led to considering trade and environment issues permanently by the UNCTAD Trade and Development Board. Finland has participated constructively in the work of the OECD Joint Session of Trade and Environment Experts, which is carrying out an ambitious work programme under the mandate given by the OECD Council, at the Ministerial level. Finland is chairing the environmental part of the Joint Session. In Finland, appropriate measures will be taken to implement the OECD Guidelines nationally. Finland participates in the work of the

WTD-CTE and has also been very active in this field within the EU.

Focus of national strategy

The unemployment rate in Finland has been exceptionally high for the past few years, around 15 %, which has led to a substantial reduction of living standards in some sectors of the society. Social, educational and labour policy measures have been taken to redress the problem. The access to primary health care, clean water and sanitation, and primary education has been, and still is excellent. The unemployment situation continues to be serious. However, the Government has committed itself to halve the unemployment rate by the end of the century. This will be the most demanding objective of the Government policy.

The particular problem is the long-term unemployment of the ageing employees. Changes in the unemployment security system may increase the poverty rate and enlarge the gap between the rich and the poor in Finland.

In Finland, the greatest part of income security for citizens is arranged in the form of general, statutory insurance. Health care, hospital care, social care services and welfare for children, the elderly and the disabled as well as opportunities for education are equally available for all social groups in all parts of the country. All citizens are guaranteed basic social security. This is an effective way of combatting and preventing widespread poverty and social exclusion. Good quality

day-care for children is widely available. Both sexes and language groups have the same rights to education, social protection and public services. The last-resort living-allowance is granted on the basis of individual means-testing when a person or family cannot get sufficient income in another way. Among the gainfully employed, poverty measured in terms of income is very rare.

The State and Municipalities are jointly responsible for arranging the universal social and health services, backed up by the stipulations of the constitution and sectoral legislation. Sufficient social and health care services and income-security are ensured.

The importance of labour administration has increased. Decision-making power in the labour administration has been delegated to the regional and particularly to the local level, making it possible to take better into account the special features of the different regions and client groups. Unemployment rates have decreased and stabilized, as well as persistent long-term unemployment spells. With the high level of unemployment, the risk of poverty passing to the next generation in the family exists.

Teh relative poverty rate declined in the 1980`s both in terms of income and consumption. In 1994, poor households were only 2.6 % of all households (as measured in terms of disposable income per household consumption unit not over half of the median income. There have been no great changes in their number during the recession.

The deep recession has strongly increased the number of the recipients of the last-resort income security. In 1990, living allowances were paid to 63 persons/1,000 inhabitants, and in 1994, to 113/1,000, i.e to 12.3 % of the households.

More than half of the recipients are unemployed, lack of work being the main reason for poverty. The clients are younger than before. Single persons and single-parent households are over-represented. The typical recipient is a single man.

While unemployment has struck both sexes equally severely, 70% of all women are gainfully employed (1995). Thus poverty has not been feminized in Finland. The share of pensioner households among the poor has stayed very low. Disability is not a significant risk factor. The welfare and rights of minorities (the Sami people, the Romany people) are protected. Having several children and being a single parent are still risk factors.

The phenomenon of urban poverty has reappeared threatening to increase detrimental poverty cultures and exclusion. Welfare dependancy has increased, as well as the proportion of population receiving benefits in the largest cities.

Spatial accumulation of poverty and deprivation in suburbs is not widespread due to the mixed composition of housing (ownerhsip, low and high-rise houses) and population groups living in the area. Employment, urban planning and building together with educational, cultural (schools and libraries) and social amenities are instrumental in preventing social vicious circles, segregation and labeling of suburbs.

The extent of homelessness has been reduced by 50 % in the last ten years, still being at 10,000 single persons and some hundreds of families.

Universal social protection, child day care, employment-creating measures and educational opportunities are barriers against social exclusion and instruments for integration. In Finland, the problem of poverty does not require a separate national plan of action. The poverty problem can be taken care of through the strategies of the different sectors' policies as part of their normal activities.

The cornerstones of the Finnish welfare system are the social protection and education systems. Labour policy is closely connected with the public service system.

The central principle is equal treatment of citizens and gender equality. On a global scale, one can hardly speak of extreme poverty in Finland.

The central strategy-level objective of the Finnish labour policy during the past few years has been to reduce long-term unemployment and to alleviate social exclusion. Measures in labour policy have been increased strongly. The increase in long-term unemployment, which has continued for several years, has indeed been stopped, and the decline will probably continue during the next few years.

As part of the implementation of the strategy each labour district has prepared a regional programme. Efforts have been made to encourage municipalities, other authorities and organisations to commit themselves to these programmes.

The aim in preventive social and health policy is to support activities which can affect the processes that cause social exclusion. The most important target groups are the long-term unemployed people and other risk groups, like vulnerable children, those who suffer mental health problems and substance abusers. The need for new approaches in social work has become more and more evident.

The unemployment security system has been reformed in order to eliminate the so-called poverty traps. The central aim with both of these reforms is to change the benefits so that working could in all circumstances be a better alternative than living on social benefits. Legislation has been modified to prevent exclusion from working life by enhancing rehabilitation that maintains working capacity.

Measures and policies have been developed in order to eliminate poverty among the disabled and to provide them with equal opportunities. In 1995, a long-term plan of action on disability policy was drafted, based on the standard rules approved by the UN in 1993.

Differences in health between population groups are linked to the risk of social polarization. The starting point in the Finnish health policy is the WHO strategy "Health for All by the Year 2000", accordingly paying special attention to services needed by risk groups.

According to the employment programme, vocational training of young people will be extended so that all young people without vocational skills could be offered a place to study at secondary level education. The aim is to create an education guarantee system which would offer an opportunity for further studies to all young people who have completed the compulsory education. In the information society, the exclusion caused by polarisation with regard to knowledge can be reduced by supporting a citizen's information society.

A part of the labour policy measures is directed at organisations founded by the unemployed themselves, and at various training and employment projects.

Financing from the EU Social Fund has been used to complement the national labour policy.

In 1996, a group of experts in the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health studied the recent development of poverty and social exclusion in Finland. The work is linked to the UN International Year for the Eradication of Poverty 1996. Also, several social and public health non-governmental organisations are active in this field, many involved in international cooperation and development cooperation.

1. Decision-making Structure: Legislation related to the issue of poverty is covered by the Social Welfare Act and the Statute on Social Welfare both of which have been reviewed since Rio. The State andMunicipalities are jointly responsible for arranging the universal social and health services. The municipal boards widely cooperate with specialized voluntary organisations.

The importance of labour administration has increased with the sharp rise in unemployment. In the past few years, decision-making power in the labour administration has been delegated to the regional and particularly to the local level, making it possible to take better into account the special features of the different regions and client groups better.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information.

3. Major Groups: The major group receiving public assistance is the unemployed. Clients have the opportunity to participate in and influence the planning and execution of social welfare and the assistance provided through social welfare units.

4. Finance: Threatening income differences due to persistent unemployment have been controlled through unemployment insurance schemes. Provision of social welfare in communities is subsidized by the State.

Due to continuous sizable budgetary deficits, the ODA appropriations for 1994 approved by the Parliament were 12.4 per cent lower than in 1993. The membership in the European Union binds Finland to participate in the financing of the EU development cooperation through EU's statutory budget and the European Development Fund.

Finland is a member of the major international financial institutions, regarding them as central sources of finance for development, policy advice and coordination of assistance to developing countries.

5. Regional/International Cooperation:

NB: Developed countries, where domestic poverty alleviation is not a major concern may wish to briefly describe their position regarding global poverty alleviation.

One of the main objectives of Finnish development cooperation is the reduction of widespread poverty in developing countries. The Finnish Development Cooperation Strategy is clearly based on the principle of sustainable development. Finland's policy is based on the understanding that reduction of poverty in any meaningful way is not possible unless the economies of the societies concerned grow faster than the population. Without an enabling environment, investment in human capital, and empowerment of the poor, development aid will be international social welfare without any sustainable impact on the alleviation of poverty.

Special attention has been paid to the role of women in the empowerment of the poor. For further information related to Finland's development cooperation, see Chapter 33.

(1993)

National policy objectives/focus

Consumers now have greater confidence than before in their ability to influence producers and suppliers in environmental matters, for example by using products within the Nordic Eco-Labelling System. Within the issue of changing consumption patterns, the following activities have been completed: national seminars/debates involving society at large, national awareness programmes on consumption/production and its consequences, media activities and new legislation encouraging waste reduction. The following activities have been initiated: national and sectoral reviews of consumption and production patterns to identify waste and the possibility for waste reduction, as well as steps to reduce energy consumption.

The Finnish Society for Nature and Environment has several projects focusing on changes in lifestyle patterns, "green consumerism" and how to achieve a sustainable society.

Finland has undertaken several studies dealing with attitudinal prerequisites and constraints of environmentally sound behaviour, e.g. Attitudes and Ecologically Responsible Consumption and the National Environmental Policy Programme 2005.

Several seminars and other meetings both at the national and at the Nordic level have been arranged discussing these issues and themes.

We have specific programmes in traffic, energy saving, natural (organic) production etc. The Report on Production - Products - Consumption as part of the preparation for the Government Programme of Action for Sustainable Development will be completed by 15 November 1996.

See also Chapters 7 and 30.

National targets

1. Decision-making Structure: The central institutions focusing on consumption are the following: the Advisory Council on Consumers' Affairs, the Ministry of Justice, and the Ministry of Trade and Industry, and within it, various institutions, e.g. the National Consumers Association. In its consumer information campaigns and seminars, both at national and local levels, the Association promotes a functioning recycling system, minimization of unnecessary consumption and the lengthening of the durability and life-cycle of goods in order to reduce the amount of waste. The target group of the National Consumers Association is an active, quality- and price-conscious consumer who can act in an intelligent manner with regard to his/her own economy and the environment.

2. Capacity-Building: Studies and information campaigns.

3. Major Groups: See "Status Report" above.

4. Finance: No information.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Finland participates in the work of the Nordic Council of Ministers, OECD, UNEP, CSD and the EUs 5th Environmental Programme in this field.

Goals

Means & Measures

authorities

aspects of product life cycle

(e.g., transportation alternatives, recycling)

The general trend in the structure of the Finnish population over the past few decades has been typical to a European industrialized country. The proportion of the economically active population has increased, a characteristic Nordic feature being the high share of women in the labour force.

Finland has undergone a profound social and economic transformation towards an increasingly urban society with smaller family units. Extensive social security programmes have helped families to combine working and family lives.

Among the major challenges that Finland now faces are wide and persistant unemployment; the ageing of the population; as well as securing equal opportunities and services universally for all social groups throughout the country.

In the Finnish population approach, a general welfare policy combined with an active family policy has contributed to a balanced population development. As a consequence of the decline in the fertility rate and longer life-expectancy, the population is ageing. The aim of the social policy is to provide the elderly with care and housing services which promote independence, and enable them to maintain their social contacts for as long as possible.

Check the appropriate boxes below: No information.

1. Decision-making Structure: The Ministry of Social Affairs and Health is the body most directly concerned with demographic issues.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information.

3. Major Groups: No information.

4. Finance: No information.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: HEDEC (the Health and Social Development Group) is a unit for foreign assistance providing expertise and information services pertaining to health and social welfare and to population issues. The objectives of the Finnish development cooperation policy are closely interlinked with population issues, especially population growth, which Finland will continue to tackle primarily through promotion of sustainable economic and social development, human rights and the status of women in developing countries. Special efforts will be made to increase aid to population programs, especially those promoting reproductive health, including family planning, in response to the vast unmet demand in developing countries.

The implementation of the revised national "Health for All by the Year 2000" Programme (revised in 1992) recognizes seven fields of action: decreasing health differences among population groups, maintaining and enhancing the functional capacity of the population, promoting intersectoral cooperation in support of a preventive health policy, improving the cost-effectiveness of the health services, development of the capacities of the health personnel, management in health care, and citizen participation. A leading principle is the increase in cost-efficiency. A network of municipal health centres provides primary services equally in all parts of the country. In rural areas, the capacity of municipal health centres is greater than in cities, where complementary private services exist. The ongoing work to maintain high vaccination coverage has been successful; a major part of the UN targets and programmes on communicable diseases has been reached and is no longer relevant to Finland.

Promotion of parenthood and the welfare of the child population is a major aim of Finnish welfare policy. Finland developed a Plan of Action for implementing the World Summit Declaration on the Survival, Protection and Development of Children and Plan of Action made in 1990.

A decrease in the consumption of tobacco and related health hazards has been an important issue in the Finnish health policy. Smoking has decreased, new anti-smoking legislation being instrumental in creating smoke-free working environments. Smoking is, however, alarmingly high among young people. There have also been campaigns to promote individual control of drinking, focusing on the young.

The economic recession in Finland has led to adjustments in health and social fields. Meeting the needs of the unemployed is an increasingly important task for health and social services as well as voluntary organizations. The economic recession has also affected white-collar groups and executives, widening the scale of social and health problems.

Recent Finnish discussion has recognized new environmental hazards and risks to human health, such as depletion of the Northern ozone layer, global warming and urban pollutants and microparticles.

It is also widely accepted that preventive measures should be used in a larger scale. The Finnish Constitution includes the right to a healthy environment, marking the importance given to the issue.

Human health and welfare is best protected at work and in living environments. The quality of housing, residential environments and the level of social integration are interlinked. The need for employment, income security and improvements to community facilities goes hand in hand with the need for improvements to the physical quality of the local environments. Health promotion and preventive social policy aim at early warning and pre-emptive measures to combat exclusion and accumulated disadvantage at the local level. Environmental impact analysis (health impact assesment, social impact analysis) methods are being improved and employed by local authorities.

The Finnish National "Health for All by the Year 2000" Programme as well as the national preventive social and health policy have started several innovative local, multi-sectoral sub-projects to provide information on new approaches to welfare promotion.

The Government report on national health conditions has been discussed by the Parliament and the report on the state of social protection was submitted in 1996.

A national plan of action on environmental health has been processed aiming at the targets of the European Environmental Health Programme. An official Board has been established on genetic technology.

The new act on health protection aims at preventing, diminishing and eradicating risk-factors detrimental to health in the living environment. Implementation has been delegated to the local authorities. Special emphasis has been given to safeguarding swimming and drinking water.

A special agency to monitor compliance to legal stipulations on chemicals was established in 1994.

Specific actions have been taken to identify health-detrimental factors of residential buildings (micro-organisms, air quality, pollutants).

There is a special campaign to combat domestic accidents.

1. Decision-making Structure: The Department for Environmental Health Research in the National Public Health Institute has grown to a high-level expertise unit on problems of national as well as local concern.

The new Planning and State Subsidies Act provides a mechanism for better cooperation between social and health services at the municipal level. The Act gives local authorities increased responsibility and freedom in health policy. The Act on Patient's Rights, concerning treatment and services for patients in health care, entered into force in March 1993. Finnish legislation provides for children's rights in accordance with the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. New legislation and resources in the environmental sector have benefitted environmental health. For instance, progress in the protection of air and freshwater as well as in waste management has decreased health risks. Legislation on health protection, chemical safety, food safety and radiation protection are, or will be, revised in accordance with the legislation of the European Union.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information.

3. Major Groups: Children's rights (see 1 above)

4. Finance: No information.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: In 1990, a special unit was formed to promote development cooperation in health and social welfare. The National Institute for Occupational Health contributes to the building of occupational health service systems in developing countries. It works as a collaborating center of WHO/EURO to give international support to accidental environmental health problems. It also contributes to the building of an European geographical environmental health information system. Finland has given material and expertise support to the Baltic countries and regions of the Russian Federation in dealing with communicable diseases as well as nuclear and chemical risks.

Male

Female

Since 1992, great efforts have been made in Finland to operationalize the notion of sustainable human settlements development and to develop tools for attaining this goal. The concept has been a topic of a number of research activities. Both "basic" research and practice-oriented applied research have been carried out, such as studies on the environmental and economic implications of various land use patterns conducted by the Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTT). Thanks to these studies, the priority issues have been clarified.

Sustainable human settlements development has been included in a number of policy papers. The following papers, for instance, are focussed on human settlements:

* The Action Programme on Reducing the Adverse Effects of Transport to the Environment by the Ministry of Transport and Communications (1994);

* "A Look at the Cities", the recommendations of the Ministry of the Environment's (MOE) Urban Policy Task Force (1995);

* "Sustainability as a Challenge", Finland's national report for UN's Habitat II Conference (May 1996);

* "Cities as Engines of Growth", report of the Government Task Force set up to prepare proposals for the development of urban areas (June 1996);

* National plan of action on environmental health (currently under preparation);

* Government programme of action for sustainable development, including a sub-programme on human settlements and transport as one of its four components (currently under preparation).

Policy instruments have also been improved:

* EIA was included in the spatial planning stipulations of the Building Act (sectoral law guiding all land use planning and construction) in 1994. The ongoing review of the Act is expected to further strengthen its environmental aspects.

* Environmental aspects have been incorporated into master planning through guidelines and training, and efforts are being made to develop "strategic" master planning which would integrate it into other tools of urban management, including environmental management.

* Many local authorities have prepared or are preparing Local Agendas 21. See also Chapter 28.

* Human settlements-related indicators are included in the ongoing project on sustainable development indicators which the MOE implements jointly with several Ministries and the Central Statistical Office.

Specific actions have been taken, including:

* Studies on the impact of the location of commercial services (large shopping entres, hypermarkets, etc.) and a proposal on instruments to guide their location are under preparation;

* Financial and other support to renovation and improvement of housing;

* A special Renovation Programme aimed at lengthening the life span of the existing housing stock and improving its energy efficiency and waste disposal systems;

* Projects aimed at integrated improvement of neighbourhood units;

* Projects aimed at promoting development of urban centres implemented by MOE, local authorities and the private sector;

* A number of pilot projects and architectural competitions on ecologically sound planning and construction; and

* Local actions aimed at reducing the amounts of solid wastes and improving the disposal systems, involving awareness-raising and education campaigns, recovery and recycling, separation and/or composting of household wastes at source, even in multi-storey buildings.

1. Decision-making Structure:

Closer linkages have been set up between the authorities responsible for natural environment and the authorities in charge of built environment. This development has taken place throughout the environmental administration: MOE, the Finnish Environment Institute, regional environment centres, and municipalities.

2. Capacity Building, Technology issues:

* A programme aimed at developing and commercializing environmentally sound construction products has been implemented by the Technology Development Centre (TEKES) since 1994.

* Experimentation of double water supply system and separation of "grey waters" in double sewerage networks has been initiated with the support by the MOE.

* The Ministry of Trade and Industries has continued the implementation of several programmes aimed at developing innovative energy supply solutions and promoting energy conservation (see Chapter 9).

* Awareness-raising campaigns, education and training are also carried out by many institutes, such as technical universities. The amount of relevant literature available in Finnish is increasing.

3. Finance

* Housing finance systems and other instruments have been developed with a view to creating an enabling policy environment for systematic maintenance and renovation of the housing stock.

* Financing instruments are also being developed as incentives to preventing further urban sprawl and to creating a barrier-free living environment for an ageing population.

4. International activities

* Finland paid great attention to the preparations of the Habitat II Conference. Most of these efforts were made through EU, but Finland could also make an impact beyond that: Finland's representative acted as Chair of the Preparatory Committee and Committee II at the Conference, and Finland represented the Western European and Others Group (WEOG) countries in the core group responsible for drafting the final document, Habitat Agenda. Throughout the process, Finland emphasized the environmental aspects of human settlements development.

* Finland also participates actively in human settlements -related cooperation in the Baltic Sea region, which takes place at all levels of the Government and involves all sectors of the society. Municipalities support, e.g. through twinning or other arrangements, their counterparts in Russia and Baltic countries in municipal management and improvement of environmental infrastructure. MOE, together with other agencies, provides funding for similar activities which usually include capacity-building measures.

* Finland has contributed to various international R&D projects on sustainable human settlements development executed by organizations, such as EU and OECD or by networks of municipalities.

* A number of relevant activities are also implemented through Finnish aid in developing countries. Examples of such programmes and projects are an extensive water supply programme in Hanoi and Haiphong, Viet Nam; a water supply and sanitation programme in Western Kenya; a comprehensive urban development programme in Nacala, Mozambique; and a comprehensive social development programme in Region V, Nicaragua. In all these actions environmental, social and economic problems are addressed in an integrated way.

The Montreal Protocol and its Amendments

Montreal Protocol (1987) ratified in 1988

London Amendment (1990) ratified in 1991

Copenhagen Amendment (1992) ratified in 1993

The latest report(s) to the Montreal Protocol Secretariat were prepared in 1996.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

UNFCCC was ratified in 1994.

The latest report to the UNFCCC Secretariat was submitted in 1995.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter

Montreal Protocol has been implemented in Finland by the EU Regulation 3093/93 on ozone depleting substances and by the Council of State decisions. Finland has reduced and phased out the consumption of ozone depleting substances earlier than stipulated in the Montreal Protocol. Finland has also been active in the field of scientific research related to the depletion of the ozone layer.Finland's emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) constitute some 0.3% of the total global emissions. The most notable greenhouse gases in Finland are carbon dioxide emissions, which account for some 82% of the total emissions. Other greenhouse gases are nitrogen oxides, methane and nitrous oxide.

The Inter-ministerial National Commission on Climate Change is currently preparing a Council of State's decision-in-principle on the objectives and guidelines for action of the GHGs in Finland for the years 2005, 2010, and 2020. The assignment follows the Berlin Mandate negotiations. In the 1980s, the CO2 emissions decreased significantly in Finland due to the increased use of nuclear power, bioenergy and natural gas, and due to the import of electricity. In the 1990s, the CO2 emissions from fossil fuels showed a significant increase again. According to the estimates, the carbon dioxide emissions will grow about 70 million tonnes by the year 2010. In the comparision year, 1990, the corresponding projection figure should have been 60 million tonnes.

Finland has a cold climate with corresponding heating needs. The considerable energy-intensive industry is largely based on forests, which cover more than two-thirds of the country. Nuclear and hydro power is used for 50-60% of the electricity generation. Biomass utilization, constituting 15% of the energy balance, is the highest among the OECD countries, and non-fossil fuels in total represent about 35% of the energy balance.

Finland has successfully introduced energy efficient technologies such as district heating, which cover 45% of the heat supply, and combined heat and power (CHP), which currently supplies 30% of the electricity. Finland was the first country to apply a CO2 tax, currently equivalent to about US$ 8.50 per tonne of CO2.

In addition, in 1991, the Government decided to draw up a ten-year programme aimed at reducing sulphur emissions by 80% from the 1980 level. Finland committed itself to the same goal by signing the second sulphur protocol in Oslo in 1994. The target was achieved in 1994, and a further reduction was recorded in 1995.

As regards nitrogen oxides, Finland committed itself under the Sofia Protocol, signed in 1988, to stabilize emissions to the 1987 level (288,000 tonnes) by the year 1994. Finland also stated that it would cut emissions of nitrogen oxides by 30% from the 1980 level by 1998. By 1995, the nitrogen oxide emissions from energy production had fallen by 26% from 1980, even though energy consumption had at the same time increased 46%. However, the emissions caused by traffic increased constantly until 1991, and started to decrease only after that.

Of the total emissions in Finland, traffic accounts for 25% of the carbon dioxide, 60% of the nitrogen oxides, 50% of the hydrocarbon, 75% of the carbon monoxide, and 5% of the sulphur dioxide. The upper limits on the emissions from vehicles have been made considerably stricter in the 1990s in order to reduce the pollution caused by road traffic. However, car emissions are controlled more extensively in Finland than in any other EU country by statutory annual car tests. The air quality is nowadays less frequently violated by traffic. Thanks to the improvements in fuels, carbon monoxide emissions seldom exceed the limits. Within the EU, the emission limits will be even stricter in the near future in view of the technical advances being made.

1. Decision-making: The following are in charge of protection of the atmosphere:

- Ministry of the Environment;

- Finnish National Commission on Climate Change;

- Finnish National Commission on Sustainable Development.

Legislation to protect the atmosphere has been reviewed and revised since UNCED. The revision on the Air Pollution Control Act entered into force in 1996.

2. Capacity-building/Technology Issues: The national early detection system, the capacity to predict changes and fluctuations and capacity building and training to perform observations and assessments are rated "good". In the area of transboundary atmospheric pollution control, the Government provides training opportunities. Research capacity on transboundary atmospheric pollution is rated "good", capacity for observation/assessment and information exchange is rated "very good".

In order to develop safe technologies, the Ministry of Trade and the Environment has launched eleven new energy technology development programmes for 1993-1998. The programmes focus on non-nuclear energy options, renewable energy sources, energy conservation, greater industrial efficiency and ways of reducing harmful environmental effects of the energy economy.

3. Major Groups: NGOs, the private sector and local authorities have participated in activities under all programme areas of this chapter.

4. Finance: For 1992-1995, US$ 4.1 million have been contributed to the Vienna/Montreal Trust Funds and the Interim Multilateral Ozone Fund. In 1989, US$ 2.4 million were contributed to UNEP and UNDP to support developing countries in their activities to protect the ozone layer.

5. International cooperation: Finland participates in the Preparatory Committee of the Regional Conference on Transport and the Environment to be held in 1996. In 1994, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change was ratified. The London Amendment to the Montreal Protocol was adopted in 1991, and the Copenhagen Amendment in 1993. Finland participates in the European Trace Experiment (ETEX) with WMO and EU. Finland signed the Air Pollution Control Agreement with Estonia (2 July 1993) and the Agreement on Cooperation in the Field of Environmental Protection with the Russian Federation (29 April 1992). Finland has also signed the Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution and contributes to the Nordic Environmental Strategy (1996), and to the EU activities in this field.

Relative contribution of national greenhouse gases 1990:

CO2: 73%; CH4: 7%; N2O: 9%; CFC: 11%.

Current priorities for the development of the land use planning system at the national level include, inter alia, the reform of the Building Act, the preparation of national spatial planning perspectives, integrating spatial planning and nature conservation, and developing tools to integrate land use planning and other tools of urban management.

One of the most important challenges for land use planning is urban sprawl (see Chapter 7) and an ever increasing number of secondary homes built on the shoreline. Legal reforms have been under preparation for several years to address these politically difficult issues. Key laws in this respect are the Building Act and the Nature Conservation Act. A task force was set up again in 1996 in order to review the reform of the Building Act, while a bill for the Conservation Act has been submitted to the Parliament.

In the meantime, several important amendments have already been made. Sustainable development was incorporated as a concept into the Building Act as early as 1990. After that, the goal of making sustainable development operational in spatial planning has been firmly set on the political agenda. Already now all plans are assessed in terms of their impact on nature protection, water and waste management, and air protection, for example. The EIA has gradually been integrated into land use planning. The principles of ecological land use have also been clarified through planning competitions and experimental development projects. (See Chapter 7.)

The Ministry of the Environment has prepared a plan, "Finland 2017: a national vision of the spatial structure and land use", for the time frame of 20 to 30 years. Likewise, the National Environmental Policy Programme 2005 (MOE, 1995) includes measures aimed at ensuring environmentally sound land use, such as pilot projects, information dissemination, financial instruments and new forms of partnerships in planning and decision making.

There are also special programmes on shoreline management, national parks and nature reserves, cultural heritage etc. which include a spatial planning element.

Land information systems including GIS applications, are well developed in Finland. During the past few years, new systems for monitoring changes in the settlement structure in urban regions, including land use in urban centres and neighbourhoods, and the quality of built-up environment, have been initiated. Related indicators are also being developed.

1. Decision-making Structure: The Land Use Department of the Ministry of the Environment is the Department primarily responsible for an integrated approach to the planning and management of land resources. The Ministry is a member of the national coordination mechanism for sustainable development.

In Finland, land use is guided through a hierarchical system of plans, in which the higher level plans are used to guide the preparation of lower level (more detailed) plans. The law does not recognize any land use planning at the national level, but the Ministry of the Environment prepares strategy documents for spatial development.

Planning itself is highly decentralized. Municipalities prepare and approve their own plans, which often need only sanctioning by higher level authorities. This feature has been further strengthened in the 1990s through gradual delegation of additional powers to lower level authorities. Today, sanctioning by the regional environmental centreis only needed for the most important local plans, while MOE sanctions plans only for regional capitals. Regional environment centres have been made responsible for integrating guidlines for land use with environmental and nature protection, protection of culturally valuable environments, and water resource management.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information.

3. Major Groups: (See 1 above).

4. Finance: No information.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Within the framework of its bilateral development cooperation, Finland supports various programmes and projects with objectives directly or indirectly related to the management and protection of land resources. There are also various projects with the object of developing mapping and cartography. Land use planning and protection of land resources is taken into account, when relevant, in all development cooperation activities. Special attention is given to this aspect is paid in projects related to rural development and forestry. In the nearby areas - in Russia, Estonia and Latvia - Finland has supported training activities in the field of land use planning and projects with aspects relevant to land resource management. In addition, Finland actively takes part in relevant international, regional and sub-regional activities, such as those carried out within ECE, EU, HELCOM and the Council of Baltic States. The Baltic Vision developed jointly with the other countries in the region, and regional planning in Estonia are examples of these activities.

In the follow-up process to the second Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe (held in 1993) a set of Pan-European criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management has been developed. With their help, it is possible to form a versatile picture of (1) the forest resources and their importance as carbon sinks; (2) the health and vitality of forests; (3) timber and other non-wood forest products; (4) the diversity of ecosystems; (5) the protective functions of forests and (6) the social and economic effects of forestry. Based on the Pan-European set of criteria and indicators, a national set of criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management has been developed in Finland. These are now being tested as policy tools at the national level and as a planning tool at sub-national and local levels.

Forest land covers 75% of Finland's total land area. Private citizens own 58% of commercial forest land, while companies own 8% and the State, 29%. This means that the responsibility and authority regarding the state of forests is to a considerable extent in the hands of private persons. About 0.7% of Finlands forest land is regenerated annually. These areas are always either replanted, sown or regenerated naturally. If forest exploitation in the economy remains at the present level, Finland's forest resources will continue to grow at least until 2030.

Finland's forests are substantial carbon dioxide sinks and contribute to combating the intensification of the global greenhouse effect. In 1990, the amount of carbon storage in forests, soil, and vegetation was some 5,600-8,000 million tonnes of carbon. The latest national forest inventory, done for 1986-94 covers the whole country and includes about 80,000 sample plots, satellite images and digital map data. The next inventory will cover the years 1996-2000. Action has been taken to improve forest productivity and tolerance to environmental stress: tree breeding, seed technology, seed procurement networks, germ-plasma banks, in-vitro techniques and in-situ/ex-situ conservation. Issues such as forest extension service, public education in forestry, research needs, review of research projects, analysis of existing forest programmes, geographic information on forests, remote sensing, multiple roles of forests, national plans for planted forests, environmental impact assessments and forest industry efficiency have been given special emphasis. Attention has also been paid to post graduate education in forestry, indigenous knowledge of forests, land classification, land use surveys and ecotourism. Information exchange linkages and the integration of social, economic and ecological values into national economic accounting systems were dealt with in part before UNCED and fully after, while investment analysis and feasibility studies as well as the promotion of small scale forest-based industries were addressed partly after UNCED. Logging, air pollution, acidification and natural causes have only a light impact on forest loss or damage.

1. Decision-making Structure: The Department of Forestry within the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry is primarily responsible for the forestry sector. Other ministries and institutions actively involved in forestry matters are the Forestry Development Centre, the Ministry of the Environment, the State Forest and Park Service, the Finnish Forest Research Institute, the Forestry Centres, the Forest Management Associations and the Finnish Environment Institute. Forestry legislation consists of 10 different acts while the forestry plan is based on the Revised Forest 2000 Programme and the New Environmental Programme for Forestry in Finland, which take into consideration other land use options. Part of the legislation has recently been revised to respond to the decisions made at UNCED and the second Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe. Extension has a key role in promoting sustainable forestry in Finland. The Forestry Centres control the implementation of laws and regulations at the local level. One of the main tasks of the Forestry Centres is to give forestry extension services. Also the Forest Management Associations, which are owned by the forest owners, give extension services at the local level.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: The focus of the sector has shifted from wood production towards management of the forest ecosystem. As Finland has been highly dependent on forestry, the institutional forestry structures are highly developed and sophisticated. Still, partly because of its commitments to UNCED and the Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe (1993), Finland is further developing its institutional structures, as outlined in the New Environmental Programme for Forestry in Finland, confirmed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, and by the Ministry of the Environment in July 1994. The total number of trained foresters is about 9,000; some 330 foresters graduate each year. The forestry sector is properly staffed at all levels.

3. Major Groups: The following major groups are important to sustainable forestry: the private sector, local communities, non-governmental organizations, indigenous people (the Sámi people) and youth.

4. Finance: Governmental funding of the forestry sector has declined due to the general recession in Finland.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Finland supports the effective implementation of the non-legally binding authoritative statement of principles for a global consensus of the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests, adopted by UNCED. Finland has proven its willingness to promote the implementation of the commitments made at the Rio Conference on the European level by co-chairing the second Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe and by guiding the follow-up work of this conference. Finland has committed itself to the Helsinki Resolutions and has signed the International Tropical Timber Agreement in 1996. Finland has actively supported the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests by hosting the Intergovernmental Seminar on Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Managements (ISCI) in August 1996. Finland cooperates actively with the other Nordic countries, as well as with the Baltic Countries and the Russian Federation.

and scrub land)

Number of people earning their living from the forest sector (Total number & % of population)

National income from forestry sector in % of GNP

Income from export of forest products, US$

Import of forest products, US$

International Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Drought and/or Desertification

Particularly in Africa

Convention signed in 1994; ratified in 1995.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter

There are no deserts or areas in danger of desertification in Finland.

1. Decision-Making Structure: No information.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information.

3. Major Groups: No information.

4. Finance: No information.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Finland has participated actively in the negotiation process of the Desertification Convention and provided financing to the voluntary fund of the negotiation process.

The winter is long, half a year, from October to May, when surface waters remain covered with ice. Mean temperatures are lowest in the middle of Lapland, in most continental parts -15 centogrades in January and February. In July the mean temperature is +14 centigrade. The precipitation is around 650 mm a year, one half being snows a consequence of Laplands location on the globe, the winter period means low light intensity and the summer season light nights (midnight sun).

Lapland is sparsly populated with the Sami people: slightly above 200,000 inhabitants, of which half lives in the two largest cities in the south, and 70 % in municipalities. The number of Sami people is just short of 7,000. Road systems are well developed with an 8,000 Km network of public roads as well as, in addition, a wealth of private and forestry roads. Although unemployment is higher, the standard of living equals the rest of Finland. Government assistance and development measures have an important role for the communal economy. Essential municipal infrastructure (i.e. water supply, waste treatment) and services (i.e. health care, organized waste collection) reach all population groups as well.

Service and tourism occupations are the most rapidly growing industries in Lapland. In the rural areas, the traditional way of life consists of a mixture of livelihoods i.e. reindeer and animal husbandry, minor scale agriculture, forestry and service. Big industry is concentrated in the Kemi-Tornio area on the cost of the Bothnian Bay, where there are forest and metal factories, and in the southeastern part of Lapland with forest industry. The share of exports on Laplands industrial output is nearly

43 %. Tourism employs 4,000 people. Nature and services connected to nature attractions are important: Lappish experiences with wintersport and sightseeing tour holidays are served by tourist centres, and also small family enterprises are also involved in the business.

The number of reindeer ranges from about 200,000 in winter to 350,000 in summer before slaughtering. The use by reindeer of natural lichen grounds as winter feeding sites and of fell tops as refuge from parasitic insects in summer has impacted posivively on the composition of species but negatively on vegetation and soil erosion. The problem of overgrazing is under investigation, and, as a consequence, the management of the reindeer husbandry is developing towards a more controlled and modest strategy; reindeer herds in many areas have been increased and the awareness of environmental affects is changing the practice of reindeer husbandry.

The Finnish Forest Research Institute's research station in Rovaniemi regularly publishes reports on forests and forestry in Lapland. The Lapland Forest Damage Project produced i.e. basic scientific knowledge about Laplands forest ecosystems and the changes taking place in them. Although forest growth in Lapland is a slow process, forests represent 16 % of the countrys timber resources and 10 % of its annual increment. Sustainability is a leading strategy in northern forestry.

The most prominent human impacts on natural waters are caused by intensive forest management areas, point loads to watercourses, water regulation for hydro energy purposes, and dredging waterways for timber floating routes. Long-range transport of air pollutants from Middle- and East-Europe, and local or regional emissions (the Kola Peninsula) have deteriorating effects on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The Lapland Regional Environment Centre, as a part of the environmental administration has a role in promoting an environment where the values of nature and human activity are in balance, in relation to the nature and the people of Lapland. The work is influencing environmental decision-making, supervision, control, reporting on the state of the environment and other measures for improving environmental awareness. Renovation projects related to improving the state of the environment, for example following forestry ditching and timber floating, lay the foundation for those livelihoods that have a sustainable way of utilizing the biologically diverse nature and the clean environment of Lapland.

1. Decision-Making Structure: See status report.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: See status report.

3. Major Groups: See status report and regional/international cooperation.

4. Finance: No information.

5. Regional/International Cooperation:

The Lapland Regional Environment Centres activities emphasize cooperation among municipalities, other authorities and research institutes, as well as international cooperation with neighbouring countries.

The Agri-Environmental Programme in Finland was prepared for the years 1995-1999 according to a European Commission decision, and is co-financed by the European Union. The programme was prepared in cooperation with the Finnish agricultural and environmental authorities.

The Finnish Agri-Environmental Programme consists of four elements: the General Agricultural Environment Protection Scheme (the GAEPS); the Supplementary Protection Scheme (the SPS); the Scheme for Advisory Services and Training; and the Scheme for Demonstration Projects. The Åland Islands have their own separate Agri-Environmental Programme. The objective of the Agri-Environmental Programme is to practise agricultural and horticultural production in a sustainable way to reduce the impact on the environment cuased by production, to protect the traditional agricultural landscape, and to preserve the preconditions for production in the long term. The objective is also to regulate the use of production methods in order to achieve the goals set for preserving biological diversity, and at the same time, to produce pure, high quality products using acceptable production conditions and methods. By the end of 1996, over 82 % of the active farms participated in the programme. Thus requirements of the GAEPS cover over 90 % of the arable land of the country.

The General Agricultural Scheme consists of various undertakings the producer has to follow in order to receive the Agri-Environmental premium. These include, e.g. joint preparation of an environmental management programme for each farm by the farmer and a trained advisor. The programme must examine the current level of environmental management of the farm and establish the environmental measures needed on the farm (e.g. individual fertilization levels, checking and designing filter strips, designing the environmentally best combination of winter plant cover).

The Supplementary Protection Scheme consists of aid for organic production and conversion to it, establishment of riparian zones along watercourses and brooks, treatment of runoff waters from arable land, balanced use of nutrients in manure, landscape management and enhancing biodiversity, extending agricultural production and maintaining local breeds in danger of extinction. Support to organic production and local breeds is available throughout the country. Riparian zones, treatment of runoff waters and extension are concentrated in focal areas of water protection and ground water formation areas defined by environmental authorities. About 18,000 applications for different SPS measures were returned in spring 1996 compared to 7,600 applications returned in 1995. Because of the budgetary limits, only contracts of organic production, riparian zones and landscape management and biodiversity could be made. The area of organic production totalled almost 100,000 hectares by the end of 1996.

In March 1996, the Finnish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry published a report on the sustainable use of biological diversity in agriculture, forestry, hunting and game management, reindeer husbandry, fisheries and water resources management. The report forms the basis for the preparation of a national action plan for the conservation of biological diversity in the field of the Ministry. It also implements the United Nations' Convention on Biological Diversity in this sector.

Rural and regional policies are being implemented through Finnish regional programmes, the EU's Objective 2, 5b and 6 Programmes and Community Inititives. These programmes aim especially at stimulating economic activity in order to create new jobs. Objective 5b for the EU Structural Funds is the development of rural areas; objective 6 is the development of sparsely populated areas. A new rural policy, the Rural Programme (1996), aims at achieving rural viability and improving rural areas by diversifying rural economic activities, creating networks and increasing interaction with towns.

1. Decision-making Structure: The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry is primarly responsible for agriculture and rural development in Finland. The Ministry of the Interior is responsible for coordinating regional development planning in cooperation with other ministries.

National legislation covering agriculture and rural development consists of the following laws:

(1) Act on Rural Industries; (2) Act on the Measures for Structural Policy in Agriculture; (3) Act on the Implementation of the Common Agricultural Policy in the European Communities; and (4) Act on Regional Development.

The laws have been reviewed and modified to meet the requirements for sustainable development. The Agri-Environmental Programme and its measures give an incentive to farmers to adopt practices that maintain the quality and quantity of natural resources. Loading of surface waters is regulated, and contamination of groundwaters is prohibited by the Water Act, but this has not prevented the problems caused by diffuse loading.

Finland, as one of the most rural member countries of the European Union, needs a reinforced rural policy. Horizontal rural policy has been implemented in Finland since 1988 in collaboration with several different branches of administration as well as regional and local organs. In consistency with the subsidiarity principle, the role of the provinces in programming has increased. In accordance with the partnership principle, the organisations concerned with employment or industry and commerce participate in the regional policy planning. In addition, municipalities and enterprises take part in the local development more than they did previously.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No specific information.

3. Major Groups: See status report above.

4. Finance: The General Agricultural Environment Protection Scheme (GAEPS) has been formulated so that all farmers have the possibility to apply for and receive compensation for carrying out environmental measures. The premium is differentiated by region and cultivated crops and calculated according to the additional costs caused by the requirements of GAEPS and the yield losses. The premium calculated for each measure of the Supplementary Protection Scheme is based on the costs of undertakings required by the scheme.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: The Environmental Support Programme of Agriculture has been prepared according to the regulations of the European Council.

Preservation of the genetic material of fields crops has been realised in cooperation with the Nordic countries and the Nordic Gene Bank (established in 1979).

Consumption of fertilizers (Kg P/ ha agricultural land as of 1990)

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) signed in 1992; ratified in 1994; entered into force 1 August, 1994

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora signed in 1976.

Latest report submitted in 1994.

Finland has been a Party to CITES since 8 August 1976. The country became a member of the European Union on 1 January 1995 and is therefore bound by EU Regulations 3626/82 of 31 December 1982 and 3418/83 of 28 November 1983 on the implementation of Cites in the Union.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter Finland has reviewed and revised its legislation and adopted various national programmes and decisions in accordance with the objectives of Chapter 15 and international agreements in this field. In 1994, the Council of State adopted a decision-in-principle on the implementation of the principles of sustainable forest management with special emphasis on the conservation of biological diversity and other environmental aspects. The aim is to preserve, and, if necessary, restore the unique diversity of the Finnish ecosystems, biotypes and organisms, and their populations.

In January 1995, the Ministry of the Environment adopted a decision-in-principle on valuable cultural landscapes of about 730,000 hectares in Finland for the promotion of landscape management. The aim is to develop a management system of cultural landscapes to keep open landscapes in production, and to preserve important habitats formed by traditional rural land-use methods, natural pastures, meadows and semi-open woodlands. Landscape managament relies upon cooperation between different authorities.

In December 1995, the Council of State adopted a decision-in-principle on the implementation of the bilogical Diversity Convention. In March 1995, the Ministry of the Environment prepared a strategy on different tasks and responsibilities for its implementation. A National Biodiversity Committee was set up by the Ministry of the Environment in March 1996 to prepare a national action programme by end March 1997 with cross-sectoral approach for biological diversity, and to follow the implementation of the programme. The programme will also identify the needs for research and capacity-building both at the national and international level.

There is a National Strategy to Conserve and Maintain Threatened Species and Ecosystems. In addition, special protection plans have been completed for many endangered species.

In June 1996, the Finnish Government adopted a decision-in-principle on the protection of old-growth forests in Finland. The aim is to preserve these areas in their natural state as conservation areas in accordance with the new Nature Conservation Act.

Both the Nature Conservation Act and the Forest Act have been revised, and they entered into force on 1 January 1997. Regulations related to the conservation of biological diversity are included in the Acts. The aim of the Nature Conservation Act is to maintain biological diversity, conserve nature's beauty and scientific value, to promote sustainable use of natural resources and environment, to raise public awareness about nature in general, and to promote scientific research. The implementation of the New Environmental Programme for Forestry in Finland is also important for achieving these targets.

As a member of the EU, Finland takes into account the EU directives on wild flora and fauna and birdlife when deciding on national conservation actions and areas to be included in the Natura 2000 network of protected areas currently being set up by the European Union. Numerous nature reserves have been set up to preserve biotopes and species typical to Finland. In order to preserve natural features of national interest, six national conservation programmes have been drawn up, namely the Peatland Conservation Programme, the Eskers Conservation Programme, the Bird Sanctuaries Conservation Programme, the Shoreline Conservation Programme, the Herb-rich Forest Programme, and the Old-growth Forest Programme. The total land area of nature reserves is 1,752,619 hectares. In addition, the Finnish Agri-Environmental Programme (EEC Reg. No. 2078/92) aims at protecting the genetic diversity of agricultural plant and animal species, and at preserving and restoring biotopes essential for agriculture-dependent, threatened wildlife.

According to the Water Act (1961), it is not allowed - without a permission - to build constructions or to discharge waste waters which may cause a decrease in natural resources or damage to the natural landscape, have harmful effects on fish or changes in water biology. During the past few years, Finland has harmonized its legislation on water protection in accordance with that of the European Union. According to the Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea (Helsinki Convention 1974, revised in 1992), the parties must conserve the biological diversity of coastal ecosystems. The revised Convention also calls for the protection of the whole catchment area of the Baltic Sea. In addition, the new Nature Conservation Act and the Forest Act, as well as the Building Act contain provisions on the conservation of biological diversity of coastal ecosystems. The new Water Protection Programme to the Year 2005, currently under preparation, emphasizes efforts to enhance research on aquatic nature and to intensify monitoring and assessment of conservation efforts.

1. Decision-making Structure: The Ministry of the Environment is responsible for the conservation of biodiversity and genetic resources. The Ministry is adequately involved in national decision-making concerning the sustainable use and management of natural resources. It shares this responsibility with the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. In the State Forest and Park Service Act (1994) the regulations related to the conservation of biological diversity are included.

3. Capacity-Building: In line with the decision-in-principle of 1995, the Academy of Finland has prepared a multidisciplinary biodiversity research programme (1997-2003). Finland emphasizes the need for multidisciplinary knowledge for the conservation and management of ecosystems and the development of data on the impacts of natural resources use and on indicators for biological diversity conservation and the economic value of natural resources. Information material and handbooks on nature conservation plans and programmes for biodiversity needs have been made for forestry and agriculture practices.

The Nature Research Unit under the Finnish Environmental Institute has coordinated the National Biodiversity Research Programme (LUMO) 1991-1996. The pool of scientists working in the field of biodiversity consists of approximately 500 persons. The taxonomical work concerning flora and fauna is carried out by the natural historical museums within the universities. In addition, the national forest inventories include data related to biodiversity. The data have been developed systematically in the 1990s. During 1993-1996, everyone working in the agriculture and forestry sectors received training and education on the maintenance and sustainable use of biological diversity.

4. Major Groups: As almost two-thirds of the forest area is owned by private forest owners, active participation and support at local and regional levels has a long history.

5. Finance: During the past ten years, over FIM 1 billion (appr. US$ 250 million) has been allocated for the acquisition of nature conservation areas and for compensation paid to the landowners. In addition, state-owned property has been used to exchange land in the acquisition of protection areas. Since 1996, the EU Committee on the Conservation of Nature has appropriated FIM 15.7 million, and in the year 1997, FIM 30 million was allocated from the EU LIFE fund to Finland for nature conservation purposes. The fund budget for 1997 amounts to 800 - 840 million, of which 50% will be allocated for protection projects complying with the environmental policy adopted by the EU.

6. Regional/ International Cooperation: Finland participates in the biodiversity projects of the EU/European Environment Agency; UNEP; the Council of Europe; and the Nordic Council of Ministers, and cooperates with the European Connect Network of Nature Conservation Research Unit, the Environmental Data Centre of the EU, the European Endangered Species Programme and the Species Specific Programme, as well as with the Arctic Environmental Protection Plan (CAFF). Finland also supports GEF, UNEP and international NGOs, for example the IUCN. There is also an active Finnish-Baltic cooperation as well as cooperation with Russia to inventory valuable nature areas and to plan a network of protected areas (e.g. Green Belt). Finnish bilateral development programmes directly or indirectly try to preserve the biological diversity in the target countries. Finlands proposal for the nature conservation area network, called for by the EU directives on nature conservation, is due to be ready in 1997 (see 1 and 5 above).

1995

Two successful and significant programmes are The National Development Programme on Biotechnology for which the Technology Development Centre is responsible and the Genome Research Programme for 1994-2000 conducted by the Academy of Finland. The evaluation has not yet been made.

1. Decision-making Structure: The official body established to deal with legal and policy issues related to environmentally sound management of biotechnology is the Board for Gene Technology which is subordinate to the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health. The Gene Technology Act (G.T.A.) is based on the two EU directives (90/219/EEC and 90/220/EEC). It entered into force the first of June 1995. In addition to the directives, the G.T.A. covers also contained use of plants and animals. The purpose of the Genetechnology Act is to promote safe and ethically acceptable use of gene technology.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: The Finnish industrial enterprises have specialized in enzyme and foodstuffs technology, and the universities in transgenic animals.

3. Major Groups: No information.

4. Finance: Public funding is to some extent available for public and private sector firms at the community level to innovate and market biotechnologies and to adopt effective measures for their environmentally sound application and management.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Finland participates in the Nordic Biotechnology Programme financed by the Nordic Industry Fund.

The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea

Signed in 1982; ratified in 1996.

See also the attached tables on the next pages.

A national policy on oceans is part of the National Sustainable Development Strategy. An integrated coastal area management programme is being planned through the European Union. Most activities under this programme area are rated "very important" and have been fully covered. Some gaps are being addressed. Finland has a fishery zone, but has not yet established an EEZ. Preparations for the establishment of an EEZ are in progress, and a declaration in accordance with international law can be expected in 1997.

The following economic incentives have been introduced for marine environmental protection: a municipal waste water charge, a water protection charge, an oil pollution fee, a compulsory waste reception fee for ships calling at Finnish ports irrespective of the amount of garbage received, and a CO2/energy tax on fossil fuels. Prior assessment is mandatory for activities with impact on the marine and coastal environment. Most activities under this programme area, including sewage-related issues, are rated "very important"; most have been fully covered; somegaps are being addressed.

"Analysis, assessments and systematic observation of the role of oceans as a carbon sink" is considered "very important" but is poorly covered. "Coordinating national and regional observation programmes" and "providing improved forecasts" are rated "important" and are well covered. Gaps are being addressed.

Finland participates in the development of socio-economic and environmental indicators in systematic observation systems in clearing houses and in the Global Ocean Observing System. The Government does not participate in mussel watch programmes.

As there is no fully integrated coastal management yet, there are also no data bases especially for this purpose. Existing data adequately cover habitats, protected areas, marine degradation caused by land- and sea-based activities, estuaries, wetlands, sea grass beds and other spawning and nursery areas in coastal zones.

Since the 1970's frequent comprehensive assessments of the state of and changes in the environment of coastal and marine areas have been carried out.

1. Decision-making Structure: The Ministry of the Environment is in charge of integrated coastal area management planning and is a full member of the National Commission for Sustainable Development.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: Finland has access to and applies the best available technology to prevent pollution of the marine environment.

3. Major Groups: Major Groups on the national and local level, including the private sector, are full members of the Advisory Board for the Marine Environment. Meetings are held with small-scale artisanal fishermen when relevant. Indigenous people participate in the programmes under the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS)/CAFF, Sustainable development and utilization of renewable resources.

4. Finance: No information.

5. Regional/International cooperation: Finland cooperates at the international level in addressing the prevention, reduction and control of the degradation of the marine environment from land- and sea-based activities.

Finland gives high priority to regional and subregional cooperation and cooperates intensively in marine environment approaches at the global level. EU common fisheries policy takes into account Finnish fishery policy as far as UN-resolutions related to sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources of the high seas are concerned. There are no plans concerning the FAO Code of Conduct of Responsible Fishing, as responses depend on EU policy. The World Bank Group participates in the "Programme Implementation Task Force/Baltic Sea".

total population)

The Finnish Ministry of the Environment is preparing long-term goals for the protection of waters for the year 2005. The goal setting is based on water use requirements and on safeguarding the functioning of ecosystems. The goals are based on the use of best technology or water protection practices. According to the National Water Protection Programme, the load from major pollution sources such as industry, agriculture and communities, will be considerably reduced during the programme period. The implementation of the first EU-based programme for reducing nutrition loads from agriculture run from 1995 to 1999.

One of Finlands priorities for freshwater resources is to cover all activities in society, in particular land use, agriculture and forestry, industry and energy generation, in such a manner as to introduce overall sustainable use of water resources. Water resources management plans will be developed in 1997 for the nitrogen sensitive water bodies that will be established according to an EU Directive.

In addition, the Environmental Programme for Forestry, the Environmental Programme for Rural Areas, and several major research projects promoting sustainable development as well as joint research projects concerning i.a. water conservation in agriculture and forestry have an impact on the quality of water resources. The state of water is under continuous monitoring so that the effects of water protection measures can be assessed.

Industry generated close to 900 million cubic meters of process and sanitary waste-water of which 700 million cubic meters were generated in the pulp and paper industry in 1994. Almost 80 per cent of the waste waters of pulp and paper industries are purified biologically, over 10 per cent chemically and 12 per cent by physical methods.

1. Decision-making Structure: The Finnish Environment Institute maintains national monitoring networks which cover all main components of the hydrological cycle and several chemical analyses of water quality.

Municipalities take care, by large, of the water supply and wastewater treatment of communities.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: Education for the sustainable use of water resources has been increased as part of implementing the Environmental Programme for Forestry, and the Environmental Programme for Rural Areas. The main areas of environmental expertise of Finnish industry lie in waste-water treatment, vaporization and measuring techniques, and methods of raising the efficiency of the forest industry and combustion technology. Demand for environmental technology on export markets will increase.

3. Major Groups: The Association of Finnish Local Authorities participates in decision-making under this chapter.

4. Finance: The municipal wastewater and water supply investment costs are financed mainly by municipalities themselves, and operation and maintenance costs including capital costs are mainly covered by the users in compliance with the Polluter Pays Principle. Industry invested FIM 424 million (US$92 million) in water protection in 1994.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Finland and Russia have agreed on an action plan for water pollution control for their common transboundary watercourses.

In the Finnish development cooperation, water sector has always played an important role. Seven per cent of the total aid has been allocated to water projects.

As a member of the European Union, Finland has implemented EU legislation on chemicals.

Finnish industry is working to reduce chemicals risks. An example is the Responsible Care Programme covering environment, health and safety, which has been introduced by the chemical industry.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The following ministries are involved in the decision-making: the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, the Ministry of the Environment, the Ministry of Labour, and the Ministry of Trade and Industry.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: See (5) below.

3. Major Groups: The private sector and NGOs participate in the activities under this Chapter.

4. Finance: No information.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: In the field of chemicals control, Finland participates in the work of the European Union as a Member State. Finland also has cooperation in this field with the other Nordic countries, with the neighbouring countries, within the OECD, and in the framework of UN (UNEP, WHO, ILO).

Finland has contributed to the following programmes and projects in the field of chemicals and pesticides management: the development of laboratory facilities and analysis of pesticides in products as a component of safe management of pesticides in Egypt; the development of information system on chemicals in the Eastern Africa and South East Asia in the context of an ILO project; the initiation of a programme on the collection and final disposal of obsolete agricultural chemicals in Nicaragua; the preparation of comprehensive guidelines on the safe use of hazardous chemicals, mainly pesticides, for the use in the development cooperation projects.

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal was signed by Finland in 1989; ratified in 1991 and the latest information was provided to the Basel Convention Secretariat in 1996.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter

According to the latest statistics (1992), the annual generation of hazardous wastes in Finland amounts to about 270,000 tonnes.

Finland has the capacity to dispose of almost all wastes, and especially hazardous wastes generated in the country.

A major part of the hazardous wastes is transported to the national hazardous waste treatment and disposal plant where wastes are incinerated under strict limits for emissions imposed by environmental authorities. The annual incineration capacity of the plant is 65,000 tonnes at present.

The Government has executed prohibitions and restrictions on the use of, among others, the following dangerous substances: PCBs and PCTs, arsenic and asbestos. According to the decision on waste oil management, waste oils shall primarily be regenerated and secondarily incinerated. The marketing of batteries and accumulators containing heavy metals is limited.

In the future, more activities are meant to be concentrated on the development of environmentally sound and economically efficient collection of hazardous wastes and of transport schemes to get all hazardous waste properly treated.

1. Decision-making Structure: The new Waste Act entered into force on 1 January 1994. The overall aim of the Act is to promote sustainable development through rational use of natural resources and through preventing and abating the danger of waste to human health and the environment. By implementing the new waste legislation, in addition to the measures taken so far, a majority of the requirements set in Chapters 20 and 21 of Agenda 21 can be fulfilled in Finland by the year 2000.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No specific information.

3. Major Groups: No information.

4. Finance: No information.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: In order to tighten the control and monitoring of transboundary movements of hazardous waste, Finland has ratified the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal. Finland has also implemented the OECD Council Decisions concerning hazardous waste.

The special EU directives on waste will mainly be implemented through Government Decisions under the Waste Act. As of 1996, the following Government Decisions concerning hazardous waste have been issued or were under preparation:

-Decision on batteries and accumulators

-Decree on transboundary movements of wastes.

Preparations for legislation will start shortly for

-New Decisions on PCB and PCT wastes

-Decision on incineration of hazardous waste

-Ministry of the Environment Decision on wastes and hazardous wastes.

The main disposal method for municipal waste is landfills. In 1992, there were a total of 585 active landfills for municipal waste in the country.

Municipal solid waste is mostly collected by compacting trucks based on entrance collection or other types of collection. The systems serve almost all of Finland's population.

The implementation of the new waste legislation will ensure that most of the requirements set in Chapter 21 of Agenda 21 can be fulfilled in Finland by the year 2000.

1. Decision-making Structure: The Ministry of the Environment, the Regional Environmental Centres and the municipalities are the bodies primarily responsible for waste management.

The new Waste Act entered into force on January 1, 1994. The overall aim is to promote sustainable development through rational use of natural resources and through preventing and abating such dangers and inconveniences that waste may cause to human health and the environment.

Where it is impossible to prevent waste generation, the waste generated shall be recycled or properly treated and disposed of. Recovery and recycling should be the first priority; a second alternative is conversion to energy. Waste or waste management are not allowed to cause environmental or health danger or inconvenience. Waste management should be based on the best economically available techniques and on sound practices for abating environmental and health risks. Anyone holding waste shall see to proper waste management. In some cases, however, municipalities are responsible for waste management.

The following Government decisions have been issued or are under preparation:

-Decision on emissions from incineration of municipal waste

-Decision on the use of sewage sludge in agriculture

-Decision on landfill requirements

-Decision on arrangements concerning packaging and packaging waste.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information.

3. Major Groups: No further information beyond what is stated above.

4. Finance: No information.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information.

New waste treatment and conditioning technologies have been introduced at the NPPs in the past few years, enabling a significant reduction of waste generation and environmental discharge.

The Finnish waste management policy is based on disposal of low and medium level waste into high standard rock cavity repositories located at the NPP sites. At the Olkiluoto site, the repository has been in operation since 1992. The repository at the Loviisa site is under construction and is scheduled to be commissioned in 1998.

The present Nuclear Energy Act calls for the disposal of the spent fuel into the Finnish bedrock. Before, the spent fuel from the Loviisa NPP was shipped to Russia, but this is no longer an option. Based on the Council of State's decision-in-principle (1983), a long-range programme for the implementation of spent fuel disposal is in progress.

1. Decision-making Structure: The Government grants licences for waste management facilities. The competent authority in matters pertaining to nuclear power is the Ministry of Trade and Industry, which oversees that the planning and implementation of any measures belonging to nuclear waste management are carried out in a timely and proper manner. The responsibility for the control of nuclear safety, including waste management, belongs to the Finnish Centre for Radiation and Nuclear Safety.

According to the legislation on nuclear waste management in Finland, each producer of nuclear waste is responsible for the safe management and disposal of the waste.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: See status report.

3. Major Groups: No information.

4. Finance: According to the legislation on nuclear waste management in Finland, each producer of nuclear waste is responsible for the financing of its operations. The nuclear power plants are obliged to levy funds for waste management during the operation.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Finland has supported IAEAs programmes (e.g. the RADWASS-programme). Finland has also participated in projects to improve the radioactive waste management practices in the North-Western parts of Russia.

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women was signed on 17 July 1980 and ratified on 4 September 1986.

24.b Increasing the proportion of women decision makers.

Percentage of women: 1992 1996

in government % 41 38

in parliament % 39.5 34

at local government level % (Municipal Councils) 30.6

Municipal elections held in October 1996 increased the proportion of women to 31.4%.

24.2.e assessing, reviewing, revising and implementing curricula and other educational material with a view to promoting dissemination of gender-relevant knowledge:

Curricula and educational material already promote gender relevant knowledge. (Centralized inspections of educational material does not exist in Finland.)

24.2.f and 24.2.c formulating and implementing policies, guidelines, strategies and plans for achievement of equality in all aspects of society including issuing a strategy by year 2000 to eliminate obstacles to full participation of women in sustainable development: Policies/strategies etc. are being drawn up.

24.2.d establishing mechanisms by 1995 to assess implementation and impact of development and environment policies and programmes on women: No plans at present.

Brief comments on this chapter (maximum 100 words) (please, do not exceed this page):

25.4 establishing processes that promote dialogue between the youth and government at all levels and mechanisms that permit youth access to information and opportunity to present their views on implementing A21.

Name relevant youth fora (3-4 most important):

There is no process established by the government, but several groups and organisations work on the issue and some have even received financial support. The Nature League and the Scouts have established a Youth Environmental Parliament, and there are some Local Agenda 21 information centres (for example in Åland Island). The National Board on Education has supported 10 schools in its environmental education efforts by providing funding and material.

Describe their role in the national process: They are full participants.

25.6 reducing youth unemployment

Youth unemployment 1992: 25 % 1996: approximately 30 % NOTE: in 1990 it was 6.7 %!

25.5 ensuring that by year 2000 more than 50% of youth -- gender balanced -- have access to appropriate secondary education or vocational training.

The goal set in Agenda 21 will be reached by year 2000.

Brief comments on this chapter (maximum 100 words) (please, do not exceed this page):

Different youth organizations and youth groups are active around Agenda 21 issues just by their own interest. The Government has also involved them in the Rio follow-up work by including them in the Finnish National Commission on Sustainable Development and its sub-committees as full members. Two youth representatives were also included in Finland's delegation to the fourth session of the CSD.

Some schools have taken the issue as a central element in their curricula, and there the involvement of the pupils has been strong. In 1995-1996, ten Finnish schools participated in the international Rescue Mission: Planet Earth project on sustainable development indicators. In Finland, the project was funded and facilitated by the Ministry of the Environment and the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, and it was included in the official work of the Finnish National Commission on Sustainable Development. As a part of the pilot phase of the project, a special event, Day of Access, was held in February 1996, when the participating schools gathered together with the deceion-makers, including Ministers, and discussed the status and implementation of sustainable development in Finland. In the second phase of the project, almost a hundred schools are participating in the project, and the Ministry of the Environment has translated the indicators into Finnish and Swedish, the two official languages. A new Day of Access will be organized in January 1997.

Some cities have established citizens' fora on sustainable development where young people are also involved, and the Helsinki City Youth Office has established a Youth Environmental House as a centre for activities of environmental organisations.

A special remark should be made concerning youth unemployment. It has grown to be among the highest in the industrialized countries during the 1990s. In 1990, the unemployment rate among 15-24 yearolds was 6.7%; today the rate is approximately 30%. This affects the perspectives young people have on their future and does not promote a sense of being part of the society or being able to influence policy decisions.

(See also Chapter 6.)

26.3.a establishing a process to empower indigenous people and their communities -- through policies and legal instruments: In place.

26.3.b strengthening arrangements for active participation in national policies: Indigenous people participate fully in appropriate national processes.

26.3.c involving indigenous people in resource management strategies and programmes at the national and local level: Indigenous people are fully involved.

Brief comments on this chapter (maximum 100 words) (please, do not exceed this page):

The "Saami Parliament" is a full member of the National Commission on Sustainable Development.

27.5 developing mechanisms that allow NGOs to play their partnership role responsibly and effectively.

27.6 reviewing formal procedures and mechanisms to involve NGOs in decision making and implementation.

27.8 promoting and allowing NGOs to participate in the conception, establishment and evaluation of official mechanisms to review A21 implementation: Mechanisms already exist, and NGO imputs are important.

27.7 establishing a mutually productive dialogue by 1995 at the national level between NGOs and governments.

Brief comments on this chapter (maximum 100 words) (please, do not exceed this page):

The Government has included NGO representatives both in the permanent committees, such as the FNCSD and the Commission on Climate Change, and Ad hoc Committees and Working Groups, such as the MOE Ad Hoc Committee on Acidification.

The government has included and will include representatives of major groups in CSD meetings, past and future. Since 1995, activities undertaken by major groups have received financial support amounting to some US$200,000. Government aid for NGO activities in developing countries amounted to some US$26 million.

28.2.d encouraging local authorities to implement and monitor programmes that aim to ensure participation of women and youth in local decision making.

There are at least 88 Local Agendas 21. They involve 50% of population.

Government supports of local agenda 21 initiatives.

The Association of Finnish Local Authorities started a pilot project, the Municipal Project for Sustainable Development, in 1992. The project ran through 1993, and although concrete changes in municipalities were minor, the project significantly prepared municipalities to develop local Agenda 21 programmes.

The Association of Finnish Local Authorities has promoted the implementation of the objectives of Agenda 21, and increased awareness and responsibility on sustainable development among office-holders by defining sustainable development in municipalities, organizing training courses, publishing articles, and creating tools for the promotion of sustainable development.

According to the mapping of the Association of Finnish Local Authorities, there were 41 municipalities working on Local Agendas 21 in autumn 1995. Although these municipalities comprised less than 10% of Finland's municipalities, some 38 % of the Finnish population lived in them. In autumn 1996, the number of municipalities preparing local Agendas 21 had increased to 88. Half of the Finnish population lives in these municipalities. Almost all larger municipalities are preparing them. Only about 10% of municipalities with a population of 2,000-6,000 are involved, but, among the smalles towns (fewer than 2,000 people), nearly 25% are working on Local Agendas 21.

Many municipalities have also actively participated in international cooperation to promote sustainable development in municipalities. By signing the so called Aalborg document, 22 municipalities have joint in the Sustainable Cities in Europe campaign.

In the near future, the Association of Finnish Local Authorities will support the participating municipalities by publishing a Local Agenda 21 guidebook, by helping them in developing local agenda programmes, by organizing a conference on climate change issues for the senior management of municipalities, and by arranging other seminars together with provincinal associations and regional environment centres.

29.2 full participation of workers in implementation and evaluation of A21.

29.3 a to e (By year 2000, (a) promoting ratification of ILO conventions; (b) establishing bipartite and tripartite mechanism on safety, health and sustainable development; (c) increasing number of environmental collective agreements; (d) reducing occupational accidents and injuries; (e) increasing workers' education and training efforts:

ILO Conventions have been ratified.

Workers take full part in National Agenda 21 discussions and implementation.

The degree of organizing in Finland is high, about 80 %. There are labour trustees, representatives, advocates and committees in the work places, taking care of working conditions and labour welfare. In addition to conventional duties, like ensuring that workers security and health are taken care of in the working environment, advocates and committees are also authorized to look after protection of the environment in broader sense.

Trade Unions and their local units are increasingly interested in environmental issues. They have their representatives in the Finnish Commission on Sustainable Development and in its divisions.

Young people in labour the market are typically persons who have graduated from vocational school after passing the comprehensive school. However, the educational gap threathens to get broader in older generations, especially if those in question are faced with the unemployment. The essential way of alleviating unemployment is to broaden the right to education, which will be the Trade Unions main mission during the upcoming years.

30.6 increasing the efficiency of resource use, including reuse, recycling, and reduction of waste per unit of economic output:

There are governmental policies encouraging the above objective and requiring recycling etc.

30.18.a Encouraging the concept of stewardship in management and use of natural resources by entrepreneurs.

Reducing the amount of waste and recycling of materials have become major goals. At the moment, half of Finland's industrial waste is recycled, a quarter is stockpiled and another quarter is transported directly to dumps or for other final treatment.

Due to its natural resources base, Finland's industrial production is based on energy-intensive heavy industry. The consumption of energy is nevertheless efficient by international standards. Environmental protection standards in heavy industry stand up well to international comparison also with respect to efficiency in use of raw materials as well as reduction in emissions. Water and air pollution have been reduced substantially both by improvements in processing techniques as well as by cleaning emissions.

The main focus in the development of environmental taxes has been placed upon the imposition of energy taxes. Fossil fuels are taxed consistently, using a single carbon coefficient. A consistent tax component proportional to energy content are fixed for all sources of primary energy except wood, wind power and waste.

The biggest Finnish enterprises have committed themselves to the ICCs Business Charter for Sustainable Development. In addition, major chemical companies follow the Responsible Care Programme. Many firms are introducing a variety of environmental management tools, such as environmental management systems, environmental auditing, and life-cycle assessment.

Particularly successful actions in the field of promoting ecological ways of production have been the Environmental Impact Assessment Act; financial incentives, subsidies, taxation, charges and return systems for recoverable goods on an environmental basis; voluntary agreements between business and Government in dealing with environmental problems; EU-regulation on environmental management systems; the new Waste Act (came into force 1 January 1994); the Nordic Eco-Labelling System, whereby a product is analyzed from the standpoint of its entire life-cycle; the Programme on Energy Conservation for 1992-96; and practices in enterprises (ICC Business Charter, RC, environmental monitoring systems etc.)

In 1995, the confederation of Finnish Industrial Employers launched its new environmental policy, entitled "Know-how, Partnership and Eco-competitiveness". One of its main messages is that environmental protection is not just a burden, but can be seen as an opportunity, too. Environmental soundness has become an important component of competitiveness, just like price and quality. Another central message is that success in environmental protection requires high level know-how as well as open and close cooperation - partnership - within business and industry itself and between industry and its stakeholders.

The new policy is being implemented e.g. through the work of industrial branch organizations. Special emphasis will be laid on small and medium-sized enterprises.

Small and medium-sized enterprises have adopted the sustainable development policies more slowly than bigger ones. However, over 90% of Finnish enterprises are small, comprising fewer than ten persons per enterprise. Exporting companies - big or small - are nevertheless obliged to take environmental issues into consideration because the environmental climate in many European countries is very stong. It can be said that the consumers in other European countries have had a positive impact on sustainable development policies in Finnish enterprises.

30.18.b Increasing number of enterprises that subscribe to and implement sustainable development policies.

Most big and a few small and medium sized enterprises have adopted sustainable development policies.

31.3.b improving exchange of knowledge and concerns between s&t community and the general public:

Scientific community has already established ways in which to address the general public and deal with sustainable development.

31.9 developing, improving and promoting international acceptance of codes of practice and guidelines related to science and technology and its role in reconciling environment and development.

The significance of the knowledge gained by research in supporting social, cultural and other societal development has increased. The Academy of Finland has promoted basic research and made its importance and outcome widely known. The Research Council for the Environment and Natural Resources of the Academy has taken the responsibility in studying the environment and natural resources in the context of sustainable development. The Research Councils fields of research (e.g. ecology, evolutionary biology and taxonomy, biochemistry, molecular biology, forestry, agronomy, ecotoxitology, biotechnology and environmental technology) bring together different perspectives on the conservation of the environment and on sustainable use of natural resources. This kind of research is either basic or applied, even though the emphasis is usually on the latter. However, in many fields it is not rational at all to distinguish basic and applied research. The Council also promotes cross-sectoral studies and adaptability of the research by supporting economic, technical and social research dealing with protection of the environment and the use of natural resources.

Advancement of a national innovation system has been vital in all future strategies in Finland lately. Research is an essential part of the system aiming to modify new thoughts, methods or products into practical and beneficial use. In order to utilize the results effectively in society, cooperation among universities, research institutes, administration and business has to be broad and fruitful. Finnish sponsors in science are therefore emphasizing multidisciplinary research and networking of the enterprises, universities and research institutes.

See also Chapter 35.

32.5.c promoting and encouraging sustainable farming practices and technologies.

32.5.e developing a policy framework that provides incentives and motivation among farmers for sustainable and efficient farming practices.

The Finnish Agri-Environmental Programme for 1995-1999 (FAEP) is designed to support farmers to undertake sustainable farmers practices and technologies. Some 80,000 Finnish farmers have already in 1995 joined General Agricultural Protection Scheme (GAEPS), which is a part of the programme. This is about 80 % of the farms in Finland and 90% of the total arable area. The GAEPS consists of financial support, and conditions for receiving it. At the moment, any stronger demand would harm the implementation of the programme

32.5.f enhancing participation of organizations of farmers in design and implementation of sustainable development policies.

The Central Union of Agricultural Producers and Forest Owners in Finland takes part in the design of sustainable development policies in many ways. It works together with the authorities and other central organisations in environmental projects. In addition to this, the Union has developed its own programmes and methods to encourage farmers and forest owners to conserve biodiversity and the agricultural landscape.

In the financial plan for 1994-1996, funds are earmarked for cooperation programmes in Africa to help the countries to comply with their responsibilities towards the global conventions.

Finland's economic assistance programme for Central and Eastern Europe consists of technical assistance and financial support. The aim of cooperation with the Russian Federation is to strengthen the foundations for economic activity and the preconditions for democracy and socially sustainable development. A programme for eliminating the most important environmental problems has been drawn up. There is also cooperation in the field of nuclear safety and energy matters.

The aim of cooperation between Finland and the Baltic Republics is to improve the preconditions for business and industry and to develop an infrastructure. Areas of cooperation include environmental protection, agriculture and forestry.

CHANGES IN NATIONAL BUDGET TO ADDRESS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: One of the main objectives of the Government policies is the strengthening of the principles of sustainable development in different sectors of society, especially with regard to the management of natural resources and the environment. The development of ecological accounting of both the economy and the Government sector is particularly important.

In Finland, economic data on environmental protection is collected from industries and the public sector. Data on environmental expenditure by industry, based on questionnaires sent to industrial establishments in a sampling survey, has been published yearly since 1994.

With regard to eco-industries, a pilot study was started in 1994, and the final report containing preliminary conclusions on the method of data collection was published in May 1995.

A study on the environmental expenditure in the public sector was started by Statistics Finland in January 1995, and it continued through 1996. The collection of data is based on the book-keeping of the municipalities and central government (Ministry of the Environment, Finnish Environment Institute, 13 regional environmental centres, use and maintenance of water resources, environmental protection, international environmental cooperation with Finland's neighbouring countries, water and environmental administrational, land-use and environmental protection by the communities, oil pollution fee and the nuclear waste fee).

By this method it is possible to derive rough estimates. In order to improve the quality and accuracy of information, questionnaires will also be needed to supplement available information.

in 1992-1994 (FIM million) US$ = 5.7 FIM. end 1993.

1992 1993 1994

Municipalities 456.7 481.8 531.3

Environmental investments 47.4 55.5 104.1

Running costs 409.3 426.2 427.2

Municipal federations 189.7 187.7 ..

Environmental investments 160.8 176.0 ..

Running costs 20.9 11.8 ..

State, total 864.3* 867.2* 1,010.2

Other (funds) 35.5 29.8 17.5

Public sector, total 1,502.7 1,536.7

* = estimate .. = not yet available

For the years 1995 and 1996 only State budget proposals are available at the moment. For 1995, the State targeted FIM 964.6 million to environmental protection expenditures and some FIM 1.105,8 million for the year 1996.

Finland also publishes a "green budget". "Finland's Natural Resources and the Environment" was first published as an annex for the Government proposal for the 1995 budget, and again as a separate publication for the 1996 budget. These reports review the trends in the main sectors of the economy - industry, forests, energy, transport and agriculture - from the environmental point of view. The next review is planned to be published in connection with the Government's budget proposal for 1997.

Surtax on soft drinks

Fertilizer tax

Pesticide fee

Electricity tax

Energy taxes, whereof

Carbon dioxide

Energy

Basic tax

Oil waste fee

Motorcar and motorcycle tax

Tax on charter flights

Water protection fee

Oil pollution fee

Vehicle tax (so-called sticker tax)

Motor vehicle tax (so-called diesel tax)

State waste duty (proposed)

TOTAL

R = revenue; B = budget; BP = budget proposal

19

516

6

656

8,404

..

-

..

21

1,609

111

2

34

-

885

-

12,279

19

267

6

56

9,815

1,140

760

7,915

19

2,054

80

2

31

618

844

-

13,856

16

-

6

-

12,500

1,600

850

10,050

20

3,030

-

2

31

1,030

890

-

17,615

16

-

6

-

13,550

1,700

900

11,723

20

3,600

-

2

31

1,040

860

300

19,515

In the case of subsidies for environmental protection, the basic principle is to support research and development, and demonstration plants. It is also essential to take into account the EU criteria for government subsidies, and to ensure that Finnish companies are not placed in a less favourable position than their competitors in other countries.

The Environmental Economics Committee proposal for making environmental protection a condition for receiving subsidies to agriculture and forestry in order to reduce point source pollution of the environment and encourage landscape management is an important means for promoting environmental protection in rural areas.

In the future, the precondition for subsidies paid out of various EU funds will be that environmental impact is taken more fully into account than hitherto. It is important for Finland that agricultural subsidies under national subsidy policy do not encourage action harmful to the environment. It is also vital for environmental subsidies to agriculture to reduce pollution effectively.

In the future, the subsidy and grant systems for the restoration and management of our architectural heritage will be developed to ensure that the action called for in the Building Conservation Act can be financially assisted.

Subsidy systems with a harmful effect on the environment, e.g. in the transport sector will be removed.

Environmental soundness is considered to be an integral part of any new technology, and accordingly this means that the development and transfer of EST's is supported in the same way as any new technology. Technology policy is one of the most important parts of Finland's industrial policy, and the Government is both increasing the funding of R&D as well as improving the effectiveness of the existing innovations. More financial and human resources, improved data bases and exchange of information sources/systems and study visits are proposed to improve access to and efficient use of information sources/systems related to environmentally sound technologies.

No case studies or surveys have been implemented assessing the available sources of information or supporting systems and inventories of environmentally sound technology.

The Finnish Foreign Trade Association publishes the Finnish Environmental and Technological Review (ENVIROTEC) yearly. Its sources of information are the following: Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTT); Technology Development Centre (TEKES); Chemical Industry Federation; Central Association of Finnish Forest Industries; Federation of Finnish Metal Engineering and Electrochemical Industries (FIMET); and the Finnish Foreign Trade Association.

Finland's share of environmental technology in the export markets can be raised especially in the markets in close proximity to Finland, provided that financing for the investment can be raised. The most important countries receiving support for the transfers of environmentally sound technologies from Finland are developing countries and the neighboring countries with economies in transition.

A great part of Finland's pre-mixed concessional credits of USD 693 million has been used for transferring environmentally sound technologies, such as pulp and paper, energy production and waste water treatment technologies to developing countries.

FINNFUND was established in order to promote economic and social development in developing countries by transferring human and material resources. Most of the funds have been utilized for projects in forestry as well as in energy and transportation.

In addition, the Technical Research Centre of Finland has actively participated in international cooperation in the field of clean technologies and waste minimization.

Finland has also supported several multilateral assistance programmes and organizations aiming at technology transfer, such as the Global Environmental Facility, the Ozone Fund, UNEP's Clearing house and UNDP.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION:

These include the application of energy and environmental taxes (see ch. 33) and support to the research programmes on alternative energy technologies, such as use of biomass support and impact upon the government initiatives. Although hundreds of post-graduate students have been trained in, e.g. environmental engineering, forestry and fisheries management in the Finnish Universities, problems which are relevant to the development and transfer of new technologies are relevant also to environmentally sound technologies, e.g. lack of financial and human resources as well as innovativeness, and communication problems. The main instruments of the Finnish Fund for Industrial Development Cooperation Ltd. (FINNFUND) are equity participation, loans, guarantees and the financing of feasibility and other pre-investment studies.

No information.

Provide information on the adoption of environmental management systems. National reaction to environmental management system standards such as the ISO 14000 Series and others. Please note efforts made at the national level to promote their adoption and the creation of certification infrastructure in order to facilitate access to these standards to local industry.

No information.

List and describe programs or work under way to facilitate the transfer of ESTs to small and medium sized enterprises. Please note efforts to facilitate access to financial resources and other transfer strategies.

In 1994-1995, the Confederation of Finnish Industrial Employers (TT), the Ministry of Trade and Industry, the Ministry of the Environment, and the Finnish Environment Agency carried out a joint project regarding sound management of environmental affairs by SMEs. After the cooperation project, further steps for improving environmental management in SME's are being planned. The steps under consideration are the improvement of environmental awareness of SME's as well as the development of tools for assistance and advice.

The Department of Higher Education and Research of the Ministry of Education, the Academy of Finland, and the universities are the bodies primarily responsible for natural and social sciences and related legislation. The science sector is an advisory member in the Finnish National Commission for Sustainable Development. There are also various scientific institutions directly involved and participating in national decision-making or policy formulation on environment and development.

The most important international programmes addressing science for sustainable development in which Finland participates are the EC Research Programme on Environment and Climate, the Energy Research Programme of OECD and the Nordic Environment Research Programme.

The Academy of Finland is funding research programmes to promote sustainable development. The Finnish Research Programme on Climate Change has been completed, the Research Programmes for Sustainable Development, for Ecological Ways of Building and for the Restoration of Damaged Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems are being implemented. LUMO, a joint national multidisciplinary biodiversity research programme of the the Finnish Environment Institute and the Ministry of the Environment, will be completed in 1996. Environmental and sustainable development research is multidiciplinary in character, and carried out across traditional disciplines. That is why no reliable statistics or figures on staff and funding are available. Evaluations to measure the payback level of financial investments allocated to the various initiatives in the area of science for sustainable development are made on university research.

One of the Academy's most important new projects on sustainable development is the Programme for Biodiversity 1996-2002. The programme is aiming at producing adaptable high-level knowledge on the different aspects of biodiversity. Adaptability means action for the protection of biodiversity and integration of protection and use. The Programme tries to create connections between the knowledge and understanding on biodiversity, and the issues concerning economic, juridical, ethical, technological and social problems in developing countries. In this way it is possible to secure the availability of knowledge in different parts of the world and to promote decentralization of natural benefits and transfer of technology to developing countries.

The Convention on Biological Diversity has increased the need for better basic information on biodiversity in decision-making procedures. In Finland, the specific concern in this regard is to get enough appropriate knowledge on the biodiversity of the forests.

The Academy of Finland has recently decided to finance a joint venture studying the Role of Knowledge in the Societies. In order to evaluate the importance of knowledge and research to society, the Academy has launched an evaluation of the state and the level of research.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UNESCO, has four environment programmes of which the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) is coordinated by the Committee on the Environment and Natural Resources Studies of the Academy. MAB is concentrated on supporting the biosphere areas which can be considered model areas of sustainable development.

STEPS TAKEN TO ENHANCE SCIENTIFIC UNDERSTANDING, IMPROVE LONG TERM SCIENTIC ASSESSMENT, BUILDING OF CAPACITY AND CAPABILITY:

Sustainable development as a way of life is one of the priorities of the development plan for education and university research for the period 1995-2000.

In research on the environment and natural resources and, to an increasing extent in technological research, the focus will be on the prerequisites of sustainable development.

In the European Union, Finland will work to introduce sustainable development into educational and research programmes both as a priniciple and as an object of cooperation.

Educational institutions from compulsory schools to universities will apply the principles of sustainable development to their everyday work (acquisition, waste disposal, energy management, transport, etc.) The results will be assessed in 1999.

The implementation of the Agenda 21 Chapter 36: In 1994-1995, the promotion of sustainable development has been included in the national framework of the curricula of comprehensive schools and upper secondary schools and in the core curricula of vocational institutions. The National Board of Education is in most cases the coordinator for Finnish educational establishments participating in international development projects on environmental education such as the MUVIN project (MiljöUnderVisning I Norden - Environmental Education in the Nordic Countries) set up by the Nordic Council of Ministers; the UNESCO Baltic Sea Project; the Finnish-Russian environmental education project on northern forest ecosystems; the GLOBE network for environmental science and education; and the OECD/CERI project on environmental education. Over two hundred educational establishments are participating in different international projects on environmental education.

The Global Challenge project with its national network of experts aims at integrating issues related to the developing world, development cooperation, cultural awareness and intercultural contacts, global topics, sustainable development and tolerance as part of the everyday learning process in comprehensive schools and vocational institutions. The project is sponsored by the National Board of Education and the Ministry for Foreign Affairs.

Cooperation between enviromental authorities and the education sector has increased and improved during the last years. Useful information about the state of the evironment has been produced for the educational institutions.

Finnish young people have actively been participating in the Rescue Mission:Planet Earth indicator project. The Ministry of the Environment financed the translation of the indicator package into Finnish and Swedish - the two official languages in Finland, and in the course of autumn 1996, the package was sent to over a hundred schools to encourage the pupils to develop local ideas for sustainable development. In January 1997, a second Day of Access was organized, where the pupils participating in the project had a chance to discuss sustainable development issues with the decision-makers, including ministers.

The Environment Parliament of the Youth has been organized twice by Finnish Scouts and the Nature League.

In April 1996, in the fourth session of the CSD, Finland gave a national presentation on the work of the Finnish National Commission on Sustainable Development and on environmental education in particular. Finland also included two youth delegates to its delegation.

The Northern Call for the Environment Conference on environmental education and the implementation of Agenda 21 was organized in Finland in summer 1996.

a) Reorientation of education towards sustainable development: Sustainable development as a way of life is one of the priorities of the development plan for education and university research for the period 1995-2000. A programme will be launched for developing didactics of sustainable lifestyles. In the European Union, Finland will work to introduce sustainable development into educational and research programmes both as a priniciple and as an object of cooperation. Educational institutions from compulsory schools to universities will apply the principles of sustainable development to their everyday work (acquisition, waste disposal, energy management, traffic arrangements, etc.) The results will be assessed in 1999.

b) Increasing public awareness: Many NGOs are implementing projects, working for action groups and producing material. Many citizens can be reached through, e.g. the recycling movement. In addition to environmental organizations and congregation, women's and consumer's organizations are also active in making sustainable development known. Since 1994, a magazine on environmental education has been published four times a year by the Finnish National Commission on Sustainable Development. On television, there are many environmental programmes such as the Environmental News every Sunday night at prime time.

c) Promoting training: (See above).

ROLE OF MAJOR GROUPS: There are several scientific associations of particular interest to environment and development, for instance the Association for Environment and Development, the Association for Environmental Education and the Association for Social Environmental Research.

FINANCING AND COST EVALUATION OF THE LABOUR ACTIVITIES: Research related to sustainable development and the environment is funded by several ministries, governmental organizations, the private sector and foundations in Finland. The universities are funded by the Ministry of Education and the Academy of Finland.

* State of the World's Children Report, UNICEF, 1996

Finland supports capacity-building both through multilateral and bilateral channels. One of the main multilateral channels is UNDP and its Capacity 21 programme.

In bilateral aid, one of the key goals is the reduction of poverty. In its efforts to achieve functional results in the alleviation of poverty the Government of Finland will, in accordance with the decision-in-principle on Finland's development cooperation (12.9.1996):

- channel assistance directly into the development of human resources and independent capacities of developing countries;

- emphasize the importance of basic education and health services as crucial for enabling the poor to participate;

- focus increasingly on the security of food supply in developing countries and its promotion by their environmentally sustainable independent production of food; and

- step up action aimed at strengthening the participation of women in social and economic activities.

Finland is also active in promoting sustainable development in developing countries. According to the above-mentioned decision-in-principle the Government will, for example:

- emphasize the importance of environmental considerations in all activities with a view to forestalling threats, and creating conditions conducive to prosperity based on the sustainable use of natural resources;

- support environmental programmes and the development of environmental administration;

- take into account the principles of sustainable development in supporting agricultural and forestry programmes;

- support developing countries in fulfilling their environmental obligations; and

- practise and further develop procedures emphasizing the independent decision-making authority and participation of the partner in cooperation and relevant interest groups.

Since 1992, Finland has provided new and additional grant funds for sustainable development as follows:

US$ 45.7 million for the Global Environment Facility GEF;

US$ 4.1 million to the Multilateral Ozone Fund (Montreal Protocol); and

US$ 77 million (credits converted to grants; Peru and Poland).

Observation:

The Nordic Research Project on the Effectiveness of Multilateral Environmental Agreements was commissioned by the Nordic Council of Ministers' environment sector in autumn 1994. It relates to the Nordic Strategy for the Environment, and is directed to the development and enhancement of implementation and verification of multilateral environmental agreements. The project is administered by the Finnish Ministry of the Environment.

A report released in November 1995 aims at presenting the general framework for the issues involved and deals with some of the important aspects related to the implementation, verification and enforcement of multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs). Another report, published in September 1996, provides a deeper analysis of seven specific treaties. The project continues until the end of 1997 with research on the Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area and the Convention on Biological Diversity.

The major Conventions:

* The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (entry into force in Finland 1.8.1994)

* The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (entry into force in Finland 25.10.1994)

* Convention to Combat Desertification (ratified in 20 September 1995).

See also Annex and Chapter 8.