| United Nations |
E/CN.17/1996/3/Add.1 |
Economic and Social Council
Distr. GENERAL
8 April 1996
ORIGINAL: ENGLISH
COMMISSION ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Fourth session
18 April-3 May 1996
Protection of the oceans, all kinds of seas, including
enclosed and semi-enclosed seas, and coastal areas and
the protection, rational use and development of their
living resources
Report of the Secretary-General
Addendum
CONTENTS
Paragraphs Page
INTRODUCTION ............................................... 1 - 4 2
I. GENERAL OVERVIEW ..................................... 5 - 26 3
II. COUNTRY EXPERIENCES .................................. 27 - 37 8
III. EXPERIENCES OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS ........ 38 - 45 12
IV. MATTERS RELATED TO FINANCE, TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER AND
CAPACITY-BUILDING .................................... 46 - 56 14
V. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND EXPERIENCES IN INTERNATIONAL
COOPERATION .......................................... 57 - 87 16
VI. CONCLUSIONS AND PLANS FOR THE FUTURE ................. 88 - 113 24
Annex. ACC SUBCOMMITTEE ON OCEANS AND COASTAL AREAS:
SUB-TASK MANAGERS .............................................. 34
INTRODUCTION
1. The building blocks for the present addendum have been prepared jointly
by those agencies that have cooperated in the work of the Subcommittee on
Oceans and Coastal Areas of the Administrative Committee on Coordination
(ACC), 1/ a subsidiary body of the Inter-Agency Committee on Sustainable
Development (IACSD), since its establishment in 1993 as task manager for
chapter 17 of Agenda 21. 2/ Within the ACC Subcommittee, and for each
programme area of chapter 17, coordination of inputs was allocated to various
United Nations agencies acting as sub-task managers, based on the lead agency
concept (see annex). As a complement to the report of the Secretary-General
(E/CN.17/1996/3), this addendum provides additional and more detailed
information on the implementation of chapter 17. 3/
2. The document is structured along the seven major programme areas of
chapter 17 of Agenda 21: (a) Integrated management and sustainable
development of coastal and marine areas, including exclusive economic zones;
(b) Marine environmental protection: (i) Prevention, reduction and control of
degradation of the marine environment from sea-based activities;
(ii) Prevention, reduction and control of degradation of the marine
environment from land-based sources of pollution; (c) Sustainable use and
conservation of marine living resources of the high seas; (d) Sustainable use
and conservation of marine living resources under national jurisdiction;
(e) Addressing critical uncertainties for the management of the marine
environment and climate change; (f) Strengthening international and regional
cooperation and coordination.
3. Following instructions from IACSD, the Subcommittee has not developed a
specific report on programme area G of chapter 17 (Sustainable development of
small islands), for which a special reporting process is in place. Most of
the information provided under programme areas A to F is fully relevant to
small island developing States and is even more critical to their development
than it is for other countries with larger continental masses.
4. This addendum includes (i) a general overview of main policy issues,
experience gained and progress achieved; (ii) country experiences in national
implementation (distinguishing, when relevant, between developed countries,
developing countries, small island developing States and countries with
economies in transition); 4/ (iii) experiences of major groups and
non-governmental organization (NGOs); (iv) matters related to finance,
technology transfer and capacity-building; (v) recent developments, activities
and experiences in international cooperation focusing on the activities of the
United Nations system; and (vi) conclusions and plans for the future. Because
of the broad scope and complexity of chapter 17, some of these sections have
been divided into subsections corresponding to the various programme areas
mentioned in paragraph 2 above.
I. GENERAL OVERVIEW
A. Integrated management of coastal areas
5. Approximately two thirds of the world's population live in coastal areas.
In the past few decades, various factors, such as (a) rapid and accelerating
economic development; (b) increasing and wasteful resources consumption;
(c) conflicts for resource allocation; and (d) use of the oceans for waste
disposal, have caused rapid deterioration of the coastal and marine
environment, jeopardizing its ecological integrity and the sustainability of
its resource base. After about two decades of experience in integrated
coastal area management (ICAM) and some years of effort in the development of
ocean management schemes, a significant amount of knowledge, experience and
expertise is available. Sectoral approaches to development planning have
failed to deal effectively with these problems.
6. Integrated management of watersheds, estuaries and coastal and marine
waters has gained recognition as a concept providing a comprehensive,
ecosystem-based approach to sustainable development and environmental
conservation. The approach is based on a dynamic decision-making process for
strategy development and implementation. It requires a policy framework,
institutional arrangements, planning capabilities, a solid scientific and
technological basis and enhanced international cooperation mechanisms, and
places the use of oceans and coastal areas within broader national policy
development, translating broad policy decisions into site-specific activities,
using local capacity for implementation.
7. However, despite the growing international acceptance of the concept of
ICAM, it appears that it has not, as yet, captured the full attention of
decision makers in either developing or developed countries. ICAM is not a
panacea for all problems of coastal areas but there are elements common to all
situations, such as (a) the need for a gradual process of ICAM implementation;
(b) the importance of individual natural resources; (c) the key role of
institutional arrangements; (d) the specificity and local possibilities of
implementation; and (e) the need for flexibility in the application of
recommended tools and techniques.
B. Marine environmental protection
1. Environmental protection from sea-based activities
8. A number of sea-based activities contribute directly to about 20 per cent
of marine pollution. Some cause harm due to the discharge of polluting
substances; others inflict a more insidious form of damage by disturbing the
natural order and altering habitat. Such changes may take months, years or
even decades to rectify, while some are permanent. Frequently an activity
gives rise to a combination of these effects. Maritime transportation,
offshore oil and gas exploration/exploitation (including accidental spillage
arising therefrom) and disposal of wastes and other matter by dumping at sea
are currently of the greatest concern, although such other activities as sand
and gravel extraction from the seabed and the laying of submarine pipelines
and cables can also have detrimental effects.
9. A precautionary and anticipatory approach is necessary to prevent
degradation of the marine environment. This requires, inter alia, the
adoption of environmental impact assessments, clean technologies and waste
minimization techniques, the proper handling, storage and transportation of
hazardous substances, and an environmentally acceptable means of disposal of
wastes. It also requires that due attention be given to (a) the accidental
transfer of species through ballast water; (b) ocean dumping of sewage, and
(c) air pollution from ships.
10. Well-established regulatory regimes have evolved at the global level in
respect of maritime transportation and waste disposal by dumping, while the
emergence of new issues, such as the shipment of irradiated nuclear fuel,
requires new thinking. While the solution to many problems is management-
related, access to scientifically derived data and information and due
consideration of socio-economic aspects are essential.
11. By and large, the problems that have to be dealt with in ensuring that
shipping, offshore oil and gas production, dredging and so forth are conducted
in an environmentally sustainable manner are the same for developed and
developing countries, and there should not be significant variations in
approach. Where differences do occur, they are in the developing countries'
access to the scientific and technological means required to achieve that end,
such as analytical laboratories and indigenous technical capability. This can
be dealt with through reliance on outside resources in the short term, but
sustainable development ultimately rests on the attainment of self-sufficiency
in human and other essential resources in the longer term. It is therefore
important to continue support for activities within the United Nations system
that specifically address the above aspects, including such well-proven
institutions as the World Maritime University.
2. Environmental protection from land-based
sources of pollution
12. Land-based sources contribute 80 per cent of marine pollution. The major
causes of immediate concern in the marine environment on a global basis are
coastal development and the attendant destruction of habitats, eutrophication,
microbial contamination of seafood and beaches, fouling of the seas by plastic
litter, progressive build-up of chlorinated hydrocarbons and accumulation of
tar on beaches. The contaminants that pose the greatest threat to the marine
environment are sewage, nutrients, synthetic organic compounds, sediments,
litter and plastics, metals, radionuclides, oil/hydrocarbons and polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Many of the polluting substances originating
from land-based sources, in particular persistent organic pollutants (POPs),
are of concern to the marine environment since they exhibit at the same time
toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulation in the food-chain. Human
settlements, land use, construction of coastal infrastructure, agriculture,
forestry, urban development, tourism and industry can also affect the marine
environment. Coastal erosion and siltation are of particular concern.
13. Although a number of international agreements now supplement national
regulations aimed at protecting the seas from sea-borne sources of pollution,
much remains to be done to control land-based sources, the main contributors
to contamination of the sea. But recent intergovernmental initiatives, in
particular the adoption in November 1995 of the Global Programme of Action for
the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities, are
encouraging (see paras. 29, 101-104 and 125 and 126). Part XII
(articles 192-237) of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea is
devoted to the protection and preservation of the marine environment, but only
two articles deal specifically with marine pollution from land-based sources.
Article 207 requires States to adopt laws and regulations and to take other
measures as may be necessary to prevent, reduce and control pollution from
land-based sources. Article 213 further requires States to enforce their laws
and regulations and to take legislative and other measures to implement
applicable international rules and standards.
14. While recognizing that the United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea provides the international legal basis upon which to pursue the protection
and sustainable development of the marine environment, chapter 17 of Agenda 21
calls upon States, in accordance with the provisions of the Convention, to
commit themselves, in accordance with their policies, priorities and
resources, to prevent, reduce and control degradation of the marine
environment so as to maintain and improve its life-support and productive
capacities. With regard specifically to prevention, reduction and control of
degradation of the marine environment from land-based activities, chapter 17
requires States, in carrying out their commitment to deal with such
degradation, to take action at the national level and, where appropriate, at
the regional and subregional levels, and, in so doing, to take account of the
Montreal Guidelines (see Agenda 21, para. 17.25), as well as other relevant
instruments such as the 1992 Paris Convention, the 1992 Baltic Convention, the
1993 Baltic Protocol and other general obligations of regional seas
agreements.
C. Marine living resources of the high seas
15. High seas fisheries account for about 10 per cent of total world marine
fish catches, and the state of many fish stocks is either unknown or of
concern. The effective conservation and management of high seas resources,
based on the Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the
Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory
Fish Stocks, adopted on 4 August 1995, 5/ are essential if these resources are
to continue to make a long-term and sustained contribution to food security,
international trade and economic development.
16. Demand for fish for food is increasing rapidly in line with a growing
world population. High seas fisheries are capable of contributing
significantly to food security, provided that resources are harvested in a
sustainable manner. Therefore, a primary objective of high seas fisheries
conservation and management should be to ensure that resources are exploited
in a rational and orderly way.
17. For the conservation and management of high seas fisheries to be
effective, international cooperation, and the role of subregional and regional
fisheries organizations and arrangements, must be strengthened. The focus of
attention in achieving enhanced conservation and management of high seas
fisheries rests principally with the flag state and in the responsibility
these States assume and the control that they exert over vessels flying their
flags. Since most vessels in high seas fisheries operate, or have the
capacity to operate, on a distant-water basis, it is not always easy for flag
States to exercise effective control over their fleets; some countries do very
little to check the standards of vessels flying their flag, the quality of
their crew and the appropriateness of their fishing techniques. Consequently,
a complementary role for port State measures in accordance with international
law was also considered by the United Nations Conference on Straddling Fish
Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks as a means of enhancing high seas
fisheries conservation and management.
D. Marine living resources under national jurisdiction
18. Marine fisheries yield 80 to 90 million tonnes a year (about 90 per cent
of which is taken from waters under national jurisdiction). About 25 per cent
of the fish stocks for which assessments are available are overexploited and
44 per cent more are at risk of being so if not immediately and properly
managed. Annual economic losses reach US$ 50 billion, fisheries are heavily
subsidized and conflicts are common within the sector, while the fisheries
environment is being damaged, mainly by other coastal and non-coastal economic
activities. The situation is globally unsustainable and progressively
worsening, leading to growing conflict, and the continuing demand for food
from the sea requires urgent action to improve fisheries management as well as
institutional and research capacities. Aquaculture will play an increasingly
important role in contributing to the food supply but serious problems have
been encountered with uncontrolled development of extensive coastal
aquaculture systems.
19. In order for coastal States to obtain the social and economic benefit
from the sustainable utilization of marine living resources under their
national jurisdiction, it is necessary to develop marine living resources to
meet human nutritional needs and other social and economic goals; protect the
interests of indigenous people; maintain or restore fish stocks at appropriate
levels; reduce the environmental impact of fishing gear and practices; protect
endangered species and ecosystems; develop aquaculture and small-scale
fisheries; strengthen legal and regulatory frameworks; reduce post-harvest
losses and discards; improve fish processing and distribution; and promote the
use of environmentally sound technology.
20. Attention to these issues has evolved in the context of international
activity aimed at rationalizing the conservation and sustainable use of the
fishery resources of the oceans. The 1982 United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea came into force in November 1994 and its provisions set forth
rights and obligations of States with respect to conservation and utilization
of living marine resources in the exclusive economic zones (EEZs). The
International Conference on Responsible Fishing was held in Mexico in 1992 and
resulted in the call for a Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, which
then was developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO) and adopted by the Conference of FAO in October 1995.
E. Critical uncertainties and climate change
21. The available data and knowledge regarding the dominating processes,
interactions and feedback mechanisms between the compartments of this planet
are not sufficient to provide an adequate basis for management and forecasting
in relation to climate change. The uncertainties are still too great,
although noticeable progress has been made in the past few years. These
uncertainties are being reduced through three main parallel courses of action:
(i) research and establishment of modelling tools; (ii) development of human
resources and capacity development to use those tools; (iii) development and
establishment of adequate observation systems leading to the Global Ocean
Observing System (GOOS).
22. Intergovernmental and non-governmental research is essentially carried
out through the World Climate Programme component on research (WCRP) and the
International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP). Additional programmes
deal with biological components, including the Global Ocean Ecosystem Dynamics
(GLOBEC), the Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine Environment
(GIPME) and the regional Large Marine Ecosystem (LME) programmes. The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established by the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO) to provide an authoritative global assessment of climate change and its
impacts and related socio-economic aspects. It is the main provider of
scientific information to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (see also the addendum to the report of the Secretary-General on
chapter 9 of Agenda 21 (Protection of the atmosphere) (E/CN.17/1996/22/Add.1),
which is before the Commission).
23. Human resources development and capacity-building address both research
and observational programmes, involving education, training and technical
assistance components, and capital assistance for infrastructure support and
development. The strategy to achieve the goals is based on using the existing
regional mechanisms, adjusted as necessary. The issues of the oceans will be
further highlighted in the preparations and celebrations for the International
Year of the Ocean, which the United Nations General Assembly has declared for
1998 (resolution 49/131). The developments of adequate observations are
mainly intergovernmental based on scientific findings and modelling
requirements, and are building on existing partial systems. A framework and
strategy for the gradual establishment of GOOS have been developed since the
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), including a
number of regional components.
F. International and regional cooperation
24. International cooperation is required to support and supplement national
efforts, and the effective implementation of strategies and activities under
programme areas A to E (and also G) of chapter 17 of Agenda 21 requires
active, efficient institutional arrangements at the subregional, regional and
global levels, as appropriate. Actions necessary to support the
implementation of chapter 17 include (a) integration of relevant sectoral
activities addressing marine and coastal activities at subregional, regional
and global levels, as appropriate; (b) promotion of information exchange and,
where appropriate, institutional linkages between subregional, regional and
global institutions; (c) promotion, within the United Nations system, of
regular intergovernmental review and coordination of relevant environmental
issues; (d) promotion of effective coordination between the components of the
United Nations system dealing with environment and development in marine and
coastal areas as well as links with relevant international development bodies.
25. Within the United Nations system, and in the field of oceans and coastal
areas, there is a long tradition of cooperation notably between those agencies
currently members of the recently established ACC Subcommittee on Oceans and
Coastal Areas. 1/ Other inter-agency mechanisms include the Intersecretariat
Committee on Scientific Programmes Relating to Oceanography (ICSPRO) 6/ and
the Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental
Protection (GESAMP). 7/ This cooperation was enlarged during the preparatory
phase of UNCED and, through Agenda 21, can base itself on a common approach to
issues of mutual interest.
26. There are also numerous regional and global intergovernmental
institutions, both within and outside the United Nations system, with sectoral
and intersectoral competence in ocean-related issues. However, there is a
need to improve coordination among them, as well as among their respective
constituencies, notably at the national level, and a need for significantly
increased financial support for them to discharge their role effectively. The
London Workshop on Environmental Science, Comprehensiveness and Consistency in
Global Decisions on Ocean Issues (December 1995) confirmed the role of the
United Nations system as a coordination mechanism for ocean affairs; it
recommended that the ACC Subcommittee on Oceans and Coastal Areas be
strengthened and that GESAMP, as a source of scientific advice for the
formulation of priorities for global action, be made more effective.
II. COUNTRY EXPERIENCES
A. Integrated management of coastal areas
27. Following UNCED, many Governments have adopted or strengthened their
policies in relation to the protection and management of marine and coastal
areas that further the process of integrated coastal area management.
Increased attention has been given to environmental legislation and the
establishment of environmental agencies. Only now, however, has it been
possible to harvest some of the results of national and international
initiatives that started more than a decade ago. Most of the effort - though
technically innovative and in various cases quite successful at the local
level (generally associated with small geographical areas and/or a limited
range of activities) - has not been effectively integrated into the national
development planning process and has not attracted a substantial commitment of
funds, with the result that these undertakings have not been as effective as
they could have been in the medium and long term. Less attention has been
given to the wider marine areas under national jurisdiction. However, with
the entry into force of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea,
and the full recognition of the relevance of marine areas in meeting essential
human needs (e.g., food, employment, resources and recreation), countries are
giving a new and expanded role to the integrated management of the
marine/coastal resources under national jurisdiction and to related
arrangements for regional and international cooperation (particularly for
shared resources).
B. Marine environmental protection
1. Environmental protection from sea-based activities
28. Important environment conventions adopted at the global and regional
levels enjoy a large measure of support from developing countries. In the
case of maritime transportation, the shift in emphasis from flag State to port
State control is expected to raise the safety and pollution prevention
performance of ships registered in developing countries. Current steps to
revise the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification
and Watchkeeping for Seafarers will have a similar effect on the competence of
sea-going personnel. This in itself will put additional financial demands on
developing countries while leaving some other aspects of the problem, such as
associated shore-based infrastructure, unimproved. In this latter respect,
current work carried out by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) in
association with the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
(UNCTAD) and others to develop financial mechanisms by which the necessary
funding for navigational safety and pollution prevention measures are
generated from the users of these facilities, in accordance with the Polluter
Pays Principle, promises to remove some of the financial burden from coastal
States. In many developing countries the existence of a safety and
environmental culture is still weak or missing altogether. Public awareness
and education, along with assistance for training institutions is necessary to
ensure that proper safety and environmental protection practices are followed.
2. Environmental protection from land-based
sources of pollution
29. The issue has been addressed through an intensive intergovernmental
process which followed on the efforts accomplished in Halifax, Canada (1991),
where experts developed principles for the protection of the marine
environment against land-based sources of pollution; and Nairobi (1991), where
experts formulated a draft strategy for the reduction of degradation of the
marine environment from land-based sources of pollution and activities in
coastal areas. The Meeting of Government-designated Experts Focusing on the
1985 Montreal Guidelines for the Protection of the Marine Environment against
Land-based Sources of Pollution took place in Montreal, Canada from 6 to
10 June 1994 and it decided that the 1985 Montreal Guidelines could serve as
one source of material to draw on in preparing a global programme of action
for the protection of the marine environment from land-based activities.
Following an intensive process of negotiation, a Global Programme of Action
for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities was
adopted in November 1995 in Washington, D.C., which will provide the basis for
national and international action towards reduction of pollution of the oceans
from land-based activities, contributing, inter alia, to (a) improvement of
coastal habitats and productivity; (b) reductions of threats to food security
and safety; (c) reduction of hazards to human health; and (d) reversing
present trends of uncontrolled practices and physical alterations in the
coastal zone.
30. The Global Programme of Action is designed to assist States in taking
action individually or jointly within their respective policies, priorities
and resources which will lead to the prevention, reduction, control and/or
elimination of the degradation of the marine environment, as well as to its
recovery from the impacts of land-based activities.
C. Marine living resources of the high seas
31. Some developed countries exercise reasonable levels of flag State control
over their fleets that operate on the high seas. In these countries national
systems of authorization are in place and comprehensive reporting is required.
However, there is scope for improving systems of administration in developed
countries relating to high seas fisheries, and for information collected to be
provided to subregional or regional fisheries organizations or arrangements
for conservation and management purposes. The special needs of developing
countries with respect to high seas fisheries have been identified by the
international community. Efforts to strengthen national capacity and
institutions in these countries is required so that they can meet obligations
with respect to the conservation and management of high seas resources and, as
appropriate, participate in high seas fisheries. This consideration is
particularly important for those small island developing States that are
heavily dependent on high seas fisheries resources for their social and
economic development. Many of the countries with economies in transition have
been, or continue to be, important high seas fishing countries. As a result
of economic rationalization and adoption of market economies, the activity of
these fleets on the high seas has declined, partly as a consequence of a
reduction, or elimination, of industry subsidies. This reduction in fleet
sizes in these countries should enable them to further rationalize their
fleets and high seas operations.
D. Marine living resources under national jurisdiction
32. The catch by the developed countries has decreased since 1992, partly
because of a number of fisheries collapses or crises in the North Atlantic, as
a result of a combination of overfishing and unfavourable environmental
conditions. Despite the difficulties encountered, efforts are being made to
reduce excess fleet capacity and investment and to improve management. More
efficient management techniques are being adopted, such as effort quotas,
individual transferable quotas (ITQs) and limited entry into fisheries.
Research is being redirected towards management needs, with greater attention
to uncertainty and its impact on decision-making and to impacts of
environmental degradation and change. Developing countries significantly
increased their share of the total world catch and international trade during
the 1970s and 1980s, surpassing developed countries in 1985. The trend
continued after 1992 despite an overall stagnation of world landings. A few
countries are developing adequate fishery research and management capacity.
In many others, the fishery data acquisition system is not properly maintained
and the research capacities in support of sustainable development and
management are insufficient. In countries with economies in transition - for
example, in Eastern Europe - fisheries have undergone major changes. Long-
range fleets have been forced by the new economic policies to retrench in
national EEZs and surrounding waters, sometimes increasing effort levels
beyond sustainability and requiring major fleet decommissioning or other
effort-reduction policies.
E. Critical uncertainties and climate change
33. Many developed countries have established national coordination
mechanisms and institutions to deal with marine observations in coastal zones
for research, quality assessments and the provision of improved forecasts for
safety on land and afloat. They have also adopted some measures in an attempt
to adapt to potential climate changes and sealevel rise. Some developed
countries are carrying out specialized research as regards the effects of UV
radiation on the marine environment. Most developed countries participate in
ocean research oriented towards climate variations and the role of the oceans
in the CO2 budget, and are developing vulnerability assessments for coastal
zones, including marine pollution. The experiences demonstrate very clearly
the benefits of cooperation and the need for regional joint actions, as
illustrated by the regional conventions dealing with the Baltic and North
Seas. Many developed countries are participating in the development of GOOS.
34. Several developing countries have established national marine policies,
including those relating to science and services. Many are actively involved
in coastal zone research, observations and assessments. Many participate in
specific, dedicated observations of sealevel (Global Sea-level Observing
System (GLOSS)), nutrient contents, marine debris and oil pollution, for
example. Many developing countries strongly support the development of GOOS,
but participation is limited. Some developing countries are associated with
large-scale research projects in climate change, oceans and CO2, effects of
pollution and effects of UV radiation. They focus on the regions of oceans
directly related to their interests. The experiences clearly show the
benefits of cooperation and the need to use an intergovernmental mechanism to
reach agreements.
35. The participation of small island developing States in the relevant
activities is limited. Experience suggests that further efforts are required
to associate these States with the relevant regional programmes. However,
several of these States are participating in dedicated activities - for
example, sealevel observations (GLOSS), assessments of marine debris and
pollution and waste management.
36. Several countries with economies in transition have traditionally been
strongly involved in most of the relevant research programmes. They carried
out extensive ocean observations and had national coordination mechanisms.
Due to current economic conditions, however, a marked decrease in these
activities is noticeable internationally. For instance, this is shown in the
decrease in the exchange of international oceanographic data since the
initiation of the transition period. Experiences with international
cooperation also identify the need for large amounts of technical and
financial assistance to achieve adequate attention to the coastal areas of
many of these States (e.g., Black Sea and Baltic Sea).
F. International and regional cooperation
37. Developed and developing countries (as well as countries with economies
in transition) have long collaborated in the establishment of a number of
intergovernmental bodies to deal with sectoral and intersectoral issues in
relation to oceans. Since UNCED, the functioning and performance of many of
them, particularly in terms of their capacity to manage natural resources and
environmental issues, have been reviewed. Experience shows that these bodies
have been efficient in raising awareness, developing databases, promoting a
common understanding of issues and potential solutions and mobilizing the
limited research capacity available (particularly in the developing
countries). Experience also shows that these bodies have been rather
inefficient at making and implementing effectively the politically difficult
decisions required for resource allocation and for constraining rates of use
to sustainable levels. It also shows that the role of NGOs and the private
sector in such bodies need further strengthening.
III. EXPERIENCES OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS
38. The NGOs with ocean and coastal expertise participating in the work of
the governing bodies of organizations of the United Nations system are
international and national associations representing both environmental
protection interests and various facets of maritime industry, both at
artisanal and industrial levels. Among the more active international
organizations are environmental groups, such as Friends of the Earth
International, Greenpeace International, the International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), and the World Wide Fund
for Nature; animal welfare groups, such as the Humane Society International
and the International Fund for Animal Welfare; industry associations, such as
the International Association of Independent Tanker Owners (INTERTANKO), the
Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF) and the Exploration and
Production Forum; and artisanal groups, such as the International Collective
in Support of Fishworkers. While national and regional groups have also made
important contributions in relation to the implementation of chapter 17 of
Agenda 21, the present review highlights initiatives that are more
international in scope.
39. Although further improvements in the mechanisms of collaboration between
NGOs and the United Nations system (and the intergovernmental system in
general) are still needed, the interaction has been reasonably effective. The
granting to NGOs of consultative status with the United Nations and its
agencies has enabled NGOs to attend key meetings on oceans, to receive
documentation and to contribute actively by participating in plenary meetings
and working and drafting groups, preparing technical reports and newsletters
such as ECO and by convening round tables and other informal discussions with
government and United Nations system officials. NGOs have also been highly
effective in acting through national delegations for the development of
national positions at key international conferences.
40. In the area of fisheries, national and international environmental and
fisheries NGOs were involved in the United Nations Conference on Straddling
Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks and in the drafting of the FAO
Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. NGOs contributed important policy,
technical, scientific and legal input on issues such as the precautionary
approach, ecologically acceptable and selective fishing gear and techniques,
overfishing and excess of capacity, and aquaculture, and have been
instrumental in generating public awareness and media interest in the global
fisheries crisis. In regional and national forums, fisheries NGOs have been
active in defending the role and rights of small-scale and indigenous
fisheries.
41. Within the International Whaling Commission (IWC), NGOs have sponsored or
carried out scientific work, including a follow-up to a pioneering study of
DNA methods for monitoring and control of whaling and surveys of whales in the
IWC Southern Ocean and Indian Ocean whale sanctuaries, on humane killing
techniques, inspection and observation requirements and international commerce
in whale products.
42. NGOs have addressed the regulation of offshore activities, such as ocean
dumping, shipping, pollution from ships, and offshore oil and gas activities.
Within the 1972 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of
Wastes and Other Matter (London Convention), which functions under the
auspices of IMO, environmental NGOs have supported bans on ocean dumping of
radioactive and industrial wastes, and incineration at sea as agreed in 1993.
43. NGOs were instrumental in developing the Washington Declaration and
Global Programme of Action for the recent UNEP Conference on Protection of the
Marine Environment from Land-based Activities, in particular regarding the
development of pollution prevention programmes by promoting clean production
and reduced dependence on toxic substances, including persistent organic
pollutants (POPs) and alternatives thereto; technical assessments of the harm
caused by POPs; special consideration of financing and institutional
considerations (as recommended by UNCED); alternative technologies; exchange
of information; public access to information and registers; and habitat
restoration programmes; and by contributing to a new global agreement on POPs.
44. NGOs have contributed significantly to the promotion of marine and
coastal protected areas (MPAs) globally and, in many cases, they manage or
support them, and produce awareness materials and education programmes to
enable local users and activity-based groups to understand the importance of
protected areas as a management tool for the protection of marine and coastal
biodiversity. In the Caribbean, NGOs are responsible for managing national
protected areas, including the Bahamas, Saint Lucia and Montserrat national
trusts. Internationally, NGOs have stressed the need for a special study on a
global representative system of MPAs, offering recommendations related to
their establishment and effective management.
45. Overall, NGOs have made and continue to make significant contributions to
decision-making processes concerned with marine and coastal issues. As one of
the major groups addressed in Agenda 21, NGOs are key stakeholders in the
effective implementation of chapter 17 and their effective participation in
the development and implementation of policies and programmes related to
oceans should be further facilitated.
IV. MATTERS RELATED TO FINANCE, TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
AND CAPACITY-BUILDING
46. Finance, technology transfer and capacity-building are major issues that
affect significantly the capacity of countries, particularly developing
countries, to implement Agenda 21. The following sections review these
issues, based essentially on experiences within the United Nations system.
A. Finance
47. Most United Nations agencies have not received any particular increase in
their regular programme budgets to support the effort required of them in the
implementation of Agenda 21. As a consequence, the normative and technical
assistance given to countries has had to come from within existing means,
usually decreasing in real terms. Modest additional support has often come
from the extrabudgetary resources of agencies' field programmes.
48. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) has become a critical, albeit
diminishing, source of funding with regard to ocean-related activities under
the international waters and biodiversity components, as reflected in its 1995
operational strategy. GEF was originally established as a pilot programme in
1991. In March 1994 participating Governments successfully concluded
negotiations to restructure the Facility into a permanent funding mechanism
and replenished its Core Fund with over US$ 2 billion to be committed over a
three-year period. Currently, of the US$ 911 million allocated to GEF
projects, about 14 per cent or US$ 130 million is dedicated to the
international waters component and 44 per cent (US$ 400 million) to
biodiversity. Resources devoted to international waters have fallen sharply,
however, from about US$ 127 million in the pilot phase (1991-1994) to US$ 4
million in the post-pilot phase (1995-1998).
49. Further development and eventual application of the concept of
sustainable financing to rectify present deficiencies in the provision of
facilities in ports for the reception of ship-generated wastes can be expected
to produce marginal increases in freight charges, for which the consumer will
ultimately pay. Acceptance of this concept could pave the way for the
development of a system of charges to cover the provision of other essential
maritime services, such as the provision of hydrographic surveys and
navigational and other safety aids in international straits, as well as
necessary anti-pollution measures such as salvage capacity and oil-spill
combating equipment.
50. With the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea now in
force, and in order to face their responsibilities in line with the provisions
of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, States require financial
assistance to support their efforts to make full and sustainable use of their
resources - for example, to strengthen their monitoring, control and
surveillance capacity, and to start the process of effort-reduction, which
should lead to improved economic viability of fisheries and to initiatives for
revitalizing fishing communities. Financial resources are also needed to
support research efforts, particularly to develop GOOS and its living
resources module, and the regional networks of research institutions working
on living resources recommended by the World Bank/UNDP/European Community/FAO
Study of International Fishery Research (SIFR).
B. Technology transfer
51. Effective control of pollution from ships and offshore oil and gas
platforms is highly dependent on the availability of up-to-date technologies
in a number of subject areas. Of greatest significance in terms of investment
by the maritime industry was the adoption by IMO in March 1992 of amendments
to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
(MARPOL Convention), requiring oil tankers delivered after July 1996 to be of
double hull or mid-height deck construction. The International Convention on
Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Cooperation (OPRC), 1990, which
entered into force on 13 May 1995, in addition to requiring adequate
capability to deal with pollution emergencies, calls on Governments and IMO to
play an active role in the promotion of research and development relating to
the enhancement of state-of-the-art oil pollution preparedness and response
through information exchange. In this connection IMO has co-sponsored the
First (June 1992) and Second (May 1995) Oil Spill Research and Development
Forums, covering such topics as bioremediation, mechanical containment and
recovery, surveillance techniques and equipment (e.g., remote sensing) and
chemical countermeasures.
52. The Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine
Environment from Land-based Activities, adopted in Washington, D.C., in
November 1995, makes provisions for promoting access to cleaner technologies
and expertise to address land-based activities that degrade the marine
environment, in particular for countries in need of assistance. Priority is
given to environmentally sound, appropriate and affordable technologies needed
for the adequate treatment of sewage and waste water as well as for the
development and production of substitutes for persistent organic pollutants
still in use in many countries all over the world.
53. During the past 20 years developments in the field of fishing technology
have greatly increased the effectiveness of fishing activities. Although, in
principle, this is economically positive, improved technology, if not paired
with effective fisheries management, results in overexploitation of stocks and
economic degradation of fisheries. Low-cost, high technology solutions to
improve real-time monitoring of fishing activities are available through the
use of transponders to assist conservation and management of high seas
fisheries. Technological developments are needed to improve fishing gear
selectivity and to reduce negative environmental impacts. Satellite vessel
tracking offers an unprecedented opportunity to improve the real-time
monitoring of fishing fleets and effort control.
C. Capacity-building
54. Ongoing human resource development in relation to research and climate
change is mostly implemented at the regional level through regional bodies.
The programmes of IOC regional subsidiary bodies provide a comprehensive
approach for meeting the core human resource needs in marine sciences. Since
UNCED, regional information and communication networks of national
institutions have been, or are being, developed, often through the regional
bodies of United Nations agencies. These networks provide a means of
exchanging data and scientific information and organizing regional cooperative
activities. Support has been given to the development of non-United Nations
regional bodies as a means to strengthen regional capacity. FAO, for
instance, has enhanced the functioning of many non-FAO fishery bodies,
particulary in West Africa, Latin America and the South Pacific.
55. The national and international institutional mechanisms required to
implement chapter 17 of Agenda 21 need to be strengthened in most cases. The
intersectoral nature of the oceans requires functioning coordination and
cooperation mechanisms, also at the national level. Several Member States
have established such bodies, which provide the national link with the related
international organizations and programmes.
56. UNCHS has developed mechanisms for human resource development and
capacity-building for ICAM, built within each of its programmes and projects.
IAEA carries out extensive capacity-building and assessment programmes in the
area of marine radioactivity. Building on its considerable experience
gathered during 19 years of cooperation with the Mediterranean Action Plan
(MAP), the IAEA Marine Environment Laboratory in Monaco has contributed to
assessments of all forms of pollution in the marine environment (PAHs,
oil/hydrocarbons, synthetic chemicals, sewage, metals, radionuclides, for
example) mostly through cooperation with developing countries. The World
Health Organization (WHO) is sponsoring and/or organizing courses and
workshops on environmental impact assessment of coastal developments, for
either urban or tourist areas. UNESCO has carried out numerous activities in
support of ICAM through its programmes COMAR (Coastal marine programme),
PROMAR (Promotion of marine sciences) and TREDMAR (Training and education).
Coastal and marine remote-sensing learning modules are used by around 600
institutions worldwide. The Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea
has set forth the Action Plan for Human Resources Development and Capacity-
building for the Planning and Management of Coastal and Marine Areas
(1993-1997) and launched jointly with UNDP, in 1993, the TRAIN-SEA-COAST
Programme to strengthen the existing capabilities of local and regional
training institutions and individuals in the field of coastal and ocean
management. The programme benefits from the technical experience and course
materials from the TRAINMAR and TRAINFORTRADE Programmes of UNCTAD.
V. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND EXPERIENCES IN INTERNATIONAL
COOPERATION
57. International cooperation has progressed in areas of importance for the
oceans and coastal areas, which should be mentioned here even though they do
not form part of chapter 17 of Agenda 21, such as the conventions on climate
and biodiversity. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,
which was signed by 155 countries participating in UNCED, recognizes that
oceans are a major sink for carbon oxide and a powerful thermic regulator of
climates. All countries ratifying the Convention agree to take climate into
account when developing natural resources and managing coastal areas. The
Convention on Biological Diversity was drafted during the period 1990-1992 and
opened for signature at UNCED. The Convention entered into force on 29
December 1993. It stresses an ecosystem approach to development and is of
great relevance to oceans and coastal areas. The establishment of protected
coastal areas will contribute to the in situ conservation of the fauna and
flora of the ocean and coastal areas.
58. At the second session of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention
on Biological Diversity (Jakarta, November 1995), Governments, when addressing
conservation and sustainable use of marine and coastal biological diversity:
(a) Encouraged the use of integrated coastal area management as the most
suitable framework for promoting conservation and sustainable use of coastal
biological diversity;
(b) Supported the implementation of the FAO Code of Conduct for
Responsible Fishing, the Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of
the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982
relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and
Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, 5/ and the Washington Declaration and Global
Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from
Land-based Activities;
(c) Invited the United Nations General Assembly, United Nations
specialized agencies and other intergovernmental and non-governmental
organizations to review their programmes of work with a view to improving
existing measures and developing new actions that promote conservation and
sustainable use of marine biological diversity.
59. In chapter 17 of Agenda 21, the special needs of small island developing
States were stressed, and it was recommended that a global conference be held
on the subject. This was agreed to by the General Assembly in December 1992
(resolution 47/189) and the Conference was held in Barbados in 1994, raising
awareness about the special needs of small island developing States, providing
the basis for the harmonization of efforts by the United Nations system,
addressing the issue of communication between those States (e.g., through
networking), establishing a focal point in the Department for Policy
Coordination and Sustainable Development of the United Nations Secretariat,
and giving visibility to the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS).
60. The United Nations and its specialized agencies have developed subsidiary
regional mechanisms (FAO regional fishery bodies, United Nations regional
commissions, UNEP regional seas coordination units, IOC regional bodies) to
deal with sectoral and cross-sectoral issues of regional interest and to
ensure an appropriate interface with their global governing bodies. There is
need, however, to encourage, at both the programme and policy levels, a
greater interface between the regional bodies of United Nations agencies as
well as between their counterpart organizations and institutions and
representatives at the national level. Intergovernmental subsidiary bodies
have been established for most of the major oceanic regions and provide a
forum for the exchange of views as well as for the harmonization of national
and regional priorities and policies with those emerging at the global level.
However, the lack of adequate means for the secretariats of these bodies to
implement decisions and start catalytic activities remains an impediment to
effective implementation.
61. The United Nations regional commissions address ocean and coastal area
concerns within a wider mandate and the activities undertaken in this context
would benefit from a closer interface with counterpart regional mechanisms of
the agencies as well as from increased contact with global and
intergovernmental initiatives. The participation of the regional commissions
in other regional meetings and, particularly, in inter-agency consultations is
affected negatively by the lack of financial resources.
62. Liaison between United Nations secretariats and national counterparts is
facilitated by the designation of national representatives or focal points
and, in some cases, by established agency representation at the national
level. Some countries have established internal coordination mechanisms, the
mandates of which do or could apply to the oceans and coastal areas. In the
vast majority of cases, however, the communication between the various sectors
at the national level is not sufficient to deal with the basic issues embedded
in chapter 17 of Agenda 21. The resulting discordance in policy is sometimes
reflected in decisions taken by the governing bodies of organizations of the
United Nations system, as well as in bilateral and multilateral funding.
Thus, although there is a firm basis of cooperation between secretariats at
the inter-agency level, there remains an urgent need for Governments to
reflect a wide and comprehensive intersectoral approach in their establishment
of national policy.
63. The ACC Subcommittee on Oceans and Coastal Areas was established to
(a) monitor and review progress in the implementation of chapter 17 and
related matters of Agenda 21 and report thereon to IACSD; (b) prepare
proposals for IACSD and other relevant bodies to enhance the effectiveness of
cooperation and coordination, and facilitate such in the implementation of
chapter 17 of Agenda 21, including financial means; (c) consider and give
effect to the possibilities and means of joint activities and programming for
the implementation of chapter 17; (d) identify the needs for and facilitate
the coordination of activities of the United Nations system relating to
chapter 17; (e) interact with joint scientific and advisory bodies, which is
expected to provide the scientific basis for policy recommendations; (f)
enhance the exchange of information, including information on relevant
intergovernmental agreements and decisions, existing and proposed programmes,
operational activities, and cooperative and coordinating arrangements; and
promote, where appropriate, harmonized and shared information systems; and (g)
assist in the preparation of system-wide reports, as required, on developments
with respect to oceans and coastal area issues and the implementation of
Agenda 21 as regards the protection of the oceans, all kinds of seas,
including enclosed and semi-enclosed seas, and coastal areas, and the
protection, rational use and development of their living resources and related
capacity-building.
64. The ACC Subcommittee on Oceans and Coastal Areas itself has facilitated
and improved cooperation among bodies of the United Nations system and, apart
from joint integrated reporting on progress achieved in the implementation of
Agenda 21, has the potential to become a forum for joint programming. As a
first step, a Cooperative Programme Framework for Integrated Coastal Area
Management is being developed. GESAMP, the
IMO/FAO/UNESCO-IOC/WMO/WHO/IAEA/UN/ UNEP Joint Group of Experts on the
Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection, originally established
to advise solely on marine pollution issues, has broadened its terms of
reference to be able to fully respond to the needs of its sponsoring agencies
for scientific advice on all aspects of marine environmental protection and
management. The Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Information System (ASFIS),
co-sponsored by the Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea of the
United Nations Secretariat, IOC/UNESCO, FAO and UNEP, is responsible for the
production of the Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries database (ASFA), which is the
largest and most widely used database on fisheries and aquatic science. It
has recently concluded a new agreement to produce, in addition to the printed
version, a CD-ROM version, thus making the database available to a much wider
community.
65. The detailed contributions to international and regional cooperation in
relation to the various programme areas of chapter 17 are summarized below.
A. Integrated management of coastal areas
66. Collaboration between United Nations agencies is active. UNEP, IOC and
IAEA cooperate in support of the IAEA Marine Environment Laboratory, which
provides technical backstopping to both UNEP and IOC monitoring programmes in
the marine environment and coastal areas for validation and data quality
control. UNESCO/IOC has started a new project on environment and development
in coastal regions and in small islands (1996-2001). WMO collaborates with
the IOC marine observing systems and services. United Nations agencies have
cooperated on ICAM with intergovernmental organizations outside the United
Nations system as well. In addition, United Nations organizations have worked
together with NGOs, universities and research institutions.
67. Several activities in ICAM have been undertaken at the country level
within the framework of the UNEP Regional Seas Programme and in cooperation
with United Nations and other organizations. These activities include (a) the
preparation of planning and management documents in selected areas and in
support of coastal area management plans (CAMPS), primarily in Mediterranean
countries; (b) the development and application of selected tools and
techniques for ICAM - for example, geographic information systems (GIS),
carrying capacity assessment (CCA) for tourism and hazard assessment and risk
management (HARM), at a number of sites in the Mediterranean; and (c) the
improvement, updating and expansion of the methodological basis for ICAM,
including the preparation of guidelines for ICAM, which are being applied and
tested within the Regional Seas Programme.
68. UNDP has currently a portfolio of technical assistance programmes
amounting to US$ 70 million, mostly through the Global Environment Facility
(GEF). The goal is to develop an integrated management system for the
sustainable use of resources at the regional, national and local levels. The
span of the UNDP portfolio runs from freshwater basins to coastal areas to the
200-mile exclusive economic zones and beyond.
69. Some other agency activities include country case-studies undertaken by
UNESCO in Asia and the Pacific on mangrove research and management, in Africa
on coastal zone research and management, in the Caribbean on coastal
productivity and beach stability, and in Venice, Italy, on "high" water
issues. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) has long offered
assistance to developing countries for improving their maritime
radiocommunication facilities. The World Telecommunication Development
Conference (Buenos Aires, 21-29 March 1994) approved the Buenos Aires Action
Plan (BAAP) composed of 12 programmes, one of them (programme 4) dedicated
exclusively to the development of maritime radiocommunications. Each year,
WMO organizes a number of conferences, seminars and workshops on storm surge,
wave and flood forecasting, pollution transport modelling, climate data
management, water quality assessment, meteorological/oceanographic design
studies and so forth. Technical guides and handbooks have been published, and
fellowships awarded for study in ICAM-related fields.
70. The Call To Action of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) of
June 1995, draws attention to the significance of coral reef ecosystems for
food production, tourism, recreation, aesthetics and shoreline protection.
Coral reefs worldwide are threatened, 10 per cent of them already seriously
degraded. Consequently, ICRI Governments endorsed the incorporation of
integrated coastal management measures in coastal development plans and the
establishment of coral reef initiatives to include programmes for community-
based management or co-management of reef resources. Such initiatives are to
include capacity-building, research and monitoring and periodic reviews.
B. Marine environmental protection
1. Environmental protection from sea-based activities
71. With the entry into force in November 1994 of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982, Parties to that Convention are
required to adopt laws and regulations in respect of many areas of marine
pollution prevention.
72. Current work within IMO is expected to culminate in the adoption of two
new regulatory instruments. The draft text of an annex to the MARPOL
Convention on air pollution, covering ozone depleting substances, incineration
of wastes on ships, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), sulphur dioxide,
nitrogen oxides and fuel oil quality, is scheduled for formal adoption during
the biennium 1996-1997. A conference to be convened early in 1996 will
consider the adoption of an international convention on liability and
compensation for damage in connection with the carriage of hazardous and
noxious substances (HNS) by sea.
73. Following the adoption in 1993 by the IMO Assembly of a code on the
carriage at sea of irradiated nuclear fuel and other nuclear material (INF
Code), IMO and IAEA are cooperating in the development of complementary
requirements to the Code, such as liability, and emergency measures should INF
containers be lost at sea. In February 1994, amendments to the 1972 London
Convention entered into force, prohibiting sea disposal of radioactive and
industrial wastes and incineration at sea of industrial wastes and sewage
sludge. IAEA, through the Arctic Seas Assessment Project, is evaluating the
health and environmental risks posed by the dumping of radioactive wastes in
the Arctic Seas.
74. Reference methods for marine pollution studies have been developed and
promulgated by UNEP/IAEA at the Marine Environment Laboratory (MEL) in Monaco.
The IOC/UNEP International Mussel Watch will assess the global distribution of
persistent organochlorine pollutants. Networks of laboratories will also be
used for observations of other contaminants as part of the IOC/UNEP/IMO/IAEA
Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine Environment (GIPME) programme.
2. Environmental protection from land-based sources
of pollution
75. During the preparatory process for UNCED in 1990, GESAMP completed its
second review of the state of the marine environment. The intergovernmental
Meeting of Experts in Halifax, Canada in May 1991, considered the development
of principles for the protection of the marine environment against pollution
from land-based sources. UNEP convened, at Nairobi in 1991, a meeting of
Government- designated Experts to Formulate a Draft Strategy for the Reduction
of Degradation of the Marine Environment from Land-based Sources of Pollution
and Activities in Coastal Areas, including a targeted and costed programme of
action.
76. Based on the UNCED recommendation (Agenda 21, para. 17.26) the UNEP
Governing Council, at its seventeenth session, in May 1993, decided 8/ to
organize an intergovernmental meeting on those issues in 1995. Following a
series of intergovernmental and expert consultations (Nairobi, 1993; Montreal,
1994; Reykjavik, 1995) the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of
the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities was adopted on 3 November
1995 by 109 States participating in an Intergovernmental Conference hosted by
the Government of the United States of America in Washington, D.C.
77. The Global Programme of Action provides an excellent opportunity for
strengthening international cooperation and establishing new, effective
arrangements to support States and regional groups in their efforts to
maintain and, where appropriate, restore the productive capacity and
biodiversity of the marine environment, thus ensuring the protection of human
health, as well as promoting the conservation and sustainable use of marine
living resources.
78. The Global Programme of Action also calls for a concerted international
effort to address the questions of waste-water treatment and management. It
also recognizes the need to develop a global, legally binding instrument for
the reduction and/or elimination of emissions and discharges and, where
appropriate, the elimination of the manufacture and the use of persistent
organic pollutants (POPs), identified in UNEP Governing Council decision
18/32. 9/
C. Marine living resources of the high seas
79. There has been a strong intergovernmental response to the development of
detailed conservation and management provisions for straddling fish stocks and
highly migratory fish stocks. The United Nations (Division for Ocean Affairs
and the Law of the Sea) and FAO contributed significantly to the United
Nations Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks
and other measures such as reporting on the use of large-scale pelagic drift-
nets in high seas fisheries. The Conference adopted the Agreement for the
Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law
of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management of
Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks 5/ in 1995. The
Agreement, properly implemented by fishing nations, will promote the rational
utilization of high seas fisheries resources. In collaboration with other
relevant United Nations agencies, this work by the United Nations and FAO will
be continued in the post-Conference period in terms of regular reporting,
possibly to the United Nations General Assembly and/or the Commission on
Sustainable Development, on the implementation of measures agreed on by the
Conference.
80. In addition, the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, adopted by
the Conference of FAO in 1995, will serve to enhance the sustainable
utilization of all fisheries resources including those in the high seas, and
the legally binding Compliance Agreement it contains should improve the
control of reflagging for the purpose of avoiding internationally agreed
management measures.
D. Marine living resources under national jurisdiction
81. FAO has revised its 1984 World Strategy on Fisheries Development and
Management and has developed a Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. It
has provided technical assistance in the development of national fishery
policies and management plans as well as in aquaculture development and
related environmental protection. Priority has been given to artisanal
fisheries, their improvement through better fishing and fish-handling methods
and their integration in coastal area management. FAO also collaborated with
the Government of Japan in the organization of the World Conference on the
Role of Sustainable Fisheries in Food Security (Kyoto, 1995) and is preparing
for the World Food Summit (Rome, 13-17 November 1996). In addition, following
up on the Study of International Fishery Research (SIFR), the FAO Advisory
Committee on Fishery Research (ACFR) has identified priorities for applied
fishery research. In cooperation with the Economic Commission for Africa
(ECA), the European Union and others, it has identified the priorities for
aquaculture research in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Three new independent
intergovernmental bodies dedicated to international fish trade have been
created by FAO in the Middle East (INFOSAMAK, 1993), Africa (INFOPECHE, 1994)
and Latin America and the Caribbean (INFOPESCA, 1994). Through its
Subcommittee on Fish Trade, the FAO Committee on Fisheries has promoted free
trade of fishery products in cooperation with the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT) and the recently created World Trade Organization.
82. IMO and FAO cooperated in promoting the concept of cleaner harbours and
landing places for fishing vessels and in the implementation and monitoring of
international agreements concerning reflagging of fishing vessels. The World
Bank contributed to the rationalization of investment policies in fisheries
with the aim of reducing chronic overcapacity of fleets, improving the control
and reduction of fishing effort and promoting the establishment of fishing
rights. It assisted in the development of sound mariculture and coastal
aquaculture programmes and provided financial support for the development and
use of environmentally friendly technology. The United Nations (Division for
Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea) has promoted the application of the
relevant provisions of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea, monitoring State practice, publishing legislative material and advising
Governments on the implementation of Convention provisions.
E. Critical uncertainties and climate change
83. Cooperation and coordination within the United Nations system are assured
through joint sponsorship and implementation of the relevant programmes. This
also implies the pooling of resources at the international level. Cooperation
is normally based on formal memorandums of understanding and agreements, which
identify responsibilities and resources. Basic to many scientific programmes
in the oceans is a knowledge of the sea floor topography. IOC has for many
years worked with the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) in a
programme of systematic ocean mapping, known as GEBCO (General Bathymetric
Chart of the Oceans). As an extension, attention must now be given to
improving the knowledge of the sea floor topography of coastal waters. At the
regional level, coordination takes place between the UNEP Regional Seas
Programme and the regional IOC subsidiary bodies, including the network of
national institutions. Regional intergovernmental organizations, such as the
International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (CES) play an important
role and are often partners with the relevant United Nations counterparts.
84. Regarding the state of the marine environment, the Global Investigation
of Pollution in the Marine Environment (GIPME) programme, jointly sponsored by
IOC, UNEP and IMO and partly by IAEA, is providing baseline information on
ocean and coastal zone contamination and the effects thereof on the marine
environment and ecosystems, on regional and global scales. This includes the
development of reference methods, standards, training and the establishment of
systematic observations - for example, the International Mussel Watch. The
IAEA Marine Environment Laboratory has, through inter-agency cooperation,
established a programme on standards and intercalibrations.
85. The Programme of Ocean Science in Relation to Living Resources (OSLR)
developed in cooperation with FAO, has addressed (a) scientific uncertainties;
(b) data and information bases; (c) the influence of ocean processes on
distribution and production of living marine resources; (d) climate
variability and change; (e) the influence of marine pollution and land
run-off; and (f) changes in UV radiation. OSLR cooperates with the regional
Large Marine Ecosystem (LME) programme developments in West and East Africa
and the Eastern Asian Seas. The component concerned with evaluations of the
harmful algal bloom (HAB) problem has established since UNCED a common
approach to assessing this global problem and elucidating its relationship to
changing conditions. This latter problem is mainly considered by IMO through
its Marine Environment Protection Committee, which has published the existing
IMO guidelines.
86. The Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) was initiated by IOC and is now
jointly developed in a step-wise and modular approach by efforts of IOC, WMO,
UNEP and ICSU. It is part of the United Nations system-wide Earthwatch
coordinated by UNEP. The modular approach has been adopted because it can
specifically address different user communities. This is also a reflection of
the multisectoral coverage and interests as regards ocean uses. The five
modules considered at present are oceans and climate (jointly with the Global
Climate Observing System (GCOS)); health of the oceans; living marine
resources; coastal zones; and ocean services. GOOS will make use of, and
reinforce where necessary, existing ocean monitoring systems and programmes,
including the Global Sea-level Observing System (GLOSS) of IOC; the Integrated
Global Ocean Services System (IGOSS) of IOC and WMO; parts of the World
Weather Watch (WWW) of WMO, including the voluntary observing ship network and
the operational drifting and moored buoy networks, the Global
Telecommunication System (GTS) and associated data management facilities; the
International Mussel Watch of IOC and UNEP; the International Oceanographic
Data and Information Exchange (IODE) system of IOC; ocean observation
components of long-term global research programmes such as WOCE and CLIVAR,
including XBT lines and buoys in the surface velocity programme.
87. While GOOS is global in concept and scope, implementation must take place
(and is taking place) at the national and regional levels. National
implementation mechanisms involve close coordination between GOOS and GCOS.
Regional cooperative mechanisms have been or are being established in Europe,
the North Pacific and South-East Asia. Regional implementation will also take
place through the existing regional bodies of IOC, WMO and UNEP. Substantial
economic and other benefits of systematic, operational ocean monitoring are
already being demonstrated, particularly at the regional and national levels
in such areas as short-term climate prediction impacts on agriculture and
fisheries. Similar benefits are also evident in continuing improvements in
oceanographic and meteorological services relating to ship management and
safety and coastal inundation (storm surges).
VI. CONCLUSIONS AND PLANS FOR THE FUTURE
88. The United Nations system has contributed to raising awareness of
sustainable development issues in the oceans and coastal areas. Institutional
set-ups and management processes have been reviewed (e.g., establishment of
the Commission on Sustainable Development and the ACC Subcommittee on Oceans
and Coastal Areas and replenishment of the Global Environment Facility (GEF),
particularly in the areas of international waters and biodiversity) and the
coordination of United Nations agencies has been further improved. Legal
frameworks and conventions have been developed and strengthened (e.g., on
climate change, biodiversity and straddling and highly migratory fish stocks).
Even though more progress is needed, the participation of NGOs in the
international debate has been promoted and enhanced while more transparency
has been achieved (e.g., in the straddling fish stocks issue).
89. A concern, however, may come from (a) the lack of much additional support
for the burden that the various post-UNCED activities represent for countries
and for United Nations agencies; (b) the insufficient flow of financial
resources in support of national implementation (e.g. to reduce overcapacity
in fisheries); (c) the relatively slow pace in the development of national
capacity, particularly in the areas of information systems, research and
institutions (despite the establishment of numerous new national institutions
to guide the post-UNCED policy processes). The needed modifications of
consumption (and trade) patterns have not yet been made (e.g., on overused
coastal and fishery resources) but are being addressed by the Commission on
Sustainable Development as well as by other bodies and organizations (e.g., in
the context of ICAM) and in negotiations (e.g., on the Code of Conduct for
Responsible Fisheries).
A. Integrated management of coastal areas
90. The understanding and appreciation of the value of ICAM is a critical
matter. The concept has to be understood before it can be accepted as a
development policy. Developing the concept and disseminating information on
it and its application would therefore need priority attention. It would
appear, however, that the development of a dual approach is necessary, further
raising the awareness of policy makers about the benefits of ICAM while
building up the capacity to apply ICAM in practice (strengthening national
educational and training mechanisms is considered a matter of priority in the
implementation of effective solutions). This requires a concerted effort from
national and international organizations, and more inter-agency cooperation
within the United Nations system is needed to harness existing capabilities
better. Similarly, at the national level, intersectoral cooperation and
coordination is needed to address current human resource development needs.
The magnitude of such a task, in both its quantitative and qualitative
aspects, calls for further strengthening and formally establishing effective
communication networks between United Nations and non-United Nations
organizations working in human resource development. Cooperation between
developing countries and between developed and developing countries is
essential in order to share experiences, information, materials and personnel.
91. Existing United Nations experience and expertise as well as the existing
databases within the United Nations system have not always been utilized in
the most effective manner. In addition, existing coordination mechanisms have
not been fully used; linkages among organizations are often narrowly centred
on one or a few projects and weakened by the absence of an overall strategy
and a programme of action geared to assist countries in the application of
ICAM. A major breakthrough in the establishment of a coordinated approach to
coastal and ocean management within the United Nations system is therefore
crucial and highly recommended.
92. Action required in the future includes:
(a) Development of plans for integrated coastal area, EEZ, and ocean
management within national development plans, promoting human resource
development through appropriate education and training;
(b) Development of appropriate administrative and legislative
arrangements to assign rights and duties to coastal dwellers and users in
order to regulate their activities;
(c) Improvement and better use of recently developed databases covering
such areas as ICAM programmes, projects, courses, scientific data and
information;
(d) Increased cooperation and coordination between organizations,
arrangements and mechanisms dealing with water resources management and water
resources development, drawing on the recent successful experience of the
Black Sea and the Red Sea programmes and using other available mechanisms such
as the UNDP/World Bank local donor groups.
B. Environmental protection from sea- and land-based activities
93. The Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine
Environment from Land-based Activities, adopted in Washington, D.C., on 3
November 1995, identifies actions to be taken at the national, regional and
global levels, as follows:
(a) At the national level the development of pragmatic and integrated
plans for identifying and assessing (a) the problem areas, such as sewage,
persistent organic pollutants (POPs), heavy metals and physical alteration of
habitats; (b) the ecosystems of concern, including watersheds, coral reefs,
mangroves and small islands; and (c) the sources of contaminants and other
forms of degradation. States should also focus on setting their management
objectives for priority problems related to land-based activities;
(b) At the regional level States should, among others things: (a)
pursue more active participation in existing regional and international
conventions and programmes of action; (b) develop, adopt and implement new
comprehensive regional and subregional programmes on land-based activities;
and (c) establish or strengthen regional networks for information management
and capacity-building;
(c) At the global level there is a need for (a) regular reviews of the
state of the world's marine and freshwater environment; (b) the development of
a clearing-house mechanism through which decision makers can be provided with
up-to-date information, practical experience and scientific and technical
advice and expertise. The clearing-house, to be established through an
inter-agency arrangement, would involve a data directory and information
delivery mechanism.
94. The Programme of Action recommends approaches for each of the land-based
sources/activities leading to the degradation of the marine environment
falling under the following nine categories: (a) sewage, (b) persistent
organic pollutants, (c) radioactive substances, (d) heavy metals, (e) oils
(hydrocarbons), (f) nutrients, (g) sediment mobilization, (h) litter and
(i) physical alterations and destruction.
95. The development of a universally acceptable funding formula that will
permit developing as well as developed countries to afford the necessary
investment for port waste reception facilities is being pursued by IMO in
cooperation with UNCTAD. Similar schemes might be devised for funding other
essential maritime services, such as navigational aids and other
anti-pollution measures.
96. Similarly, there seems to be a bias on the part of the international
community towards regulating offshore oil and gas activities in seas adjacent
to developed countries, for example the North, Baltic and Mediterranean Seas,
while ignoring the fact that in many regions of the world there is no
regulatory framework. The apparent lack of commitment by Governments to widen
environmental controls over offshore oil and gas operations through regional
cooperation may be interpreted as strengthening the argument for developing
such regulations at the global level.
97. While training facilities in developing countries in general require
continuing and urgent technical assistance and support, the response to
paragraph 17.38 (e) of Agenda 21, which calls upon States to provide secure
financing for new and existing specialized international centres of
professional maritime education, is of special significance in the context of
future funding of the World Maritime University and other global institutions
established under the auspices of IMO. Development of a funding mechanism
based upon a levy on seafarers serving in foreign flag vessels could, if
implemented, provide regular and complementary financing for the training and
higher education of maritime personnel in developing countries.
98. Bearing in mind that the safety and environmental performance world wide
of merchant ships and fishing vessels is primarily dependent on the
professional standards of personnel serving on board, the adoption by IMO in
1995 of amendments revising the 1978 International Convention on Standards of
Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers and the similarly
styled International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and
Watchkeeping for Personnel on Fishing Vessels, 1995, will eventually have
beneficial consequences for the marine environment. States are therefore
urged to ratify or accede to these Conventions, and to implement their
provisions as soon as it is practicable to do so.
99. Action required in the future includes:
(a) The establishment of self-sustaining financial mechanisms in support
of, inter alia: (a) training of personnel; (b) navigational safety and
anti-pollution measures in international straits; (c) waste reception
facilities in ports; and (d) salvage and emergency response facilities and
capacity-building in hydrographic survey and nautical charting. Where
appropriate, existing cooperation arrangements should be used; for example,
the UNCTAD/IMO/ILO Working Group on Coordination of Activities on Ports;
(b) The development, at the global level, of a regulatory framework for
offshore oil and gas extraction activities, using IMO as the most appropriate
lead body to undertake this task;
(c) Early ratification of the 1995 International Convention on Standards
of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Personnel on Fishing Vessels
and the amendments revising the 1978 International Convention on Standards of
Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers;
(d) The development and implementation of measures to control pollution
from land-based sources and activities through (i) effective participation in
and implementation of the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the
Marine Environment from Land-based Activities; and (ii) strengthening existing
arrangements and infrastructure within the United Nations system for marine
pollution data quality control and the relevant training and capacity-building
at the national and regional levels.
C. Marine living resources
100. Major conservation and management efforts are necessary if high seas
fisheries are to continue to contribute in a sustainable way to feeding the
world's growing population. Measures need to be enacted that will ensure that
resources are not exploited excessively and that high seas fishing fleets
acknowledge that the right to fish on the high seas is a conditional right.
101. To achieve the sustainable use of high seas resources (a) international
agreements on measures governing resource use must be acceded to and ratified;
(b) both flag and port States must ensure that measures agreed internationally
are implemented fully and effectively; (c) subregional or regional fisheries
management organizations or arrangements need to be further strengthened or
established in order to carry out conservation and management functions.
Immediate objectives are the assurance of ongoing international support for
conserving and managing high seas fisheries, the provision of assistance to
developing countries and, possibly, countries with economies in transition
towards fulfilling their obligations with respect to high seas fisheries
conservation and management and, where appropriate, assistance to enable these
countries to participate in high seas fisheries.
102. Despite relatively intense activities along the lines recommended in
Agenda 21, the utilization of many marine living resources under national
jurisdiction is not yet sustainable. Further efforts are needed from all
countries; developing ones require particular technical and financial
assistance if effective action is to be taken to follow up on the
implementation of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the
Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries.
103. In the high seas, there is a need to (a) formalize working relations
between United Nations agencies and non-United Nations organizations concerned
directly with high seas fisheries conservation and management as a means of
improving collaboration and technical and scientific exchanges; (b) develop a
programme of technical assistance (e.g., regional workshops, national
assistance, technical cooperation among developing countries (TCDC)
programmes, and training) for developing countries and countries with
economies in transition so that they can fully meet international obligations
with respect to high seas and participate in such fisheries.
104. In the areas under national jurisdiction, there is a need to improve
(a) information systems on resources, environment and fisheries;
(b) capabilities in fisheries research and management; (c) the state of marine
living resources and environment; (d) the general economic status of
fisheries, adopting effective schemes to regulate fishing effort and allocate
resources; (e) the protection of endangered species; and (f) the approach to
the management of small-scale fisheries.
105. Action required in the future includes:
(a) Adopting and implementing relevant international agreements and
conventions, including (i) ratifying the 1982 United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea; (ii) ratifying or acceding to the Agreement for the
Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law
of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management of
Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks 5/ and in the mean
time, applying it provisionally; (iii) applying the Code of Conduct for
Responsible Fisheries adopted by the Conference of FAO in October 1995; (iv)
acceding to the FAO Agreement to Promote Compliance with International
Conservation and Management Measures by Fishing Vessels on High Seas; (v)
ratifying the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity and applying the Jakarta
mandate on coastal and marine biodiversity, adopted at the second session of
the Conference of the Parties, in November 1995;
(b) Establishing or strengthening of subregional or regional fishery
management organizations or arrangements to carry out conservation and
management measures, particularly for transboundary and shared fishery
resources with a view to improving significantly their level of effective
implementation;
(c) Developing or strengthening national fishery management authorities,
with active participation of the fishing communities, recognition of
indigenous people's rights, and in the context of Integrated Coastal Fisheries
Management (ICFM);
(d) Enhancing aquatic living resources (e.g., for human nutrition needs)
through sustainable mariculture/aquaculture practices, minimizing any adverse
impact on coastal systems;
(e) Adopting a precautionary approach to fisheries, as provided for in
the 1995 Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the
Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory
Fish Stocks and the 1995 FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries;
(f) Assisting developing countries with the financial assistance
required to support their efforts to make sustainable use of their resources,
for example, to start the process of effort-reduction, which should lead to
improved biological and economic viability of fisheries.
D. Critical uncertainties and climate change
106. Most of the ongoing or planned programmes require a medium- to long-term
effort to yield optimal results. Systematic observations will continue to be
needed to follow the changes and refine the forecasts and the related response
strategies or control measures. The increasing food and energy production
requirements of a growing population will continue to require refined
assessments of food and energy production capacities. There is a need for
periodic review and adjustment of activities. Substantial research efforts
will have to continue in order to understand and model complex interactions
between ocean, atmosphere, land and ice as a basis for monitoring and
predicting changes in the oceanic environment. The operational availability,
for use by all countries, of a large variety of oceanic analysis and
prediction products covering physical, chemical and even biological variables
is now approaching reality. Further efforts are required by Governments to
ensure that all can make the best use of these products as part of sound
environmental management policies and practices.
107. The most important gap in the intergovernmental machinery is the lack of
adequate mechanisms to support the institutional and infrastructural
strengthening and developments required to give complete effect to programme
area E of chapter 17 of Agenda 21, in particular as regards systematic
observations. The United Nations system-wide programmes, together with the
programmes of bodies outside the system, provide a good framework. However,
the awareness among decision makers of the potential applications for
management and development must be increased to ensure that the enormous
potential benefits of recent scientific results (e.g., from TOGA on GIPME),
will be applied to the extent required. The communication gaps must be
addressed and the related institutional mechanisms strengthened. The
capabilities, in particular of developing countries, to manage and apply data
and products derived from systematic ocean monitoring must be substantially
augmented if these countries are to benefit in a significant way from their
own environmental and development programmes. Finally, it should be
emphasized that financial resources need to be secured for research and
observation programmes far above what is currently available.
108. Action required in the future includes:
(a) Strengthening relevant national institutions and their
infrastructures to promote, in particular, interdisciplinary trained expertise
and the development of the interface between research and the decision-making
process. Ocean environmental subjects as part of overall sustainable
development issues should be introduced in school curricula at all levels (see
also the report of the Secretary-General on chapter 36 of Agenda 21 (Promoting
education, public awareness and training) (E/CN.17/1996/14 and Add.1), which
is before the Commission);
(b) Ensuring, through the provision of sufficient resources to national
institutions, that ongoing and planned cooperative research on the oceans can
be completed for the benefit of all;
(c) Supporting, through national institutions, the continued gradual
establishment of a Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS), building on the
existing systems so as to form a globally coordinated strategy to secure
sufficient information for adequate management, forecasting and periodic
scientific assessments of the state of the marine environment;
(d) Strengthening national institutions' capability to manage and use
data and products derived from systematic monitoring, especially through GOOS,
of marine environmental changes and commit themselves to high-level
intergovernmental cooperation in the exchange of data and information.
E. International and regional cooperation
109. Implementation of a coherent strategy at the national, regional and
international levels, as reflected in Agenda 21, would be reinforced by an
approach aiming at (a) improved sectoral integration, using regional
mechanisms where appropriate and with ICAM as the first priority; (b) improved
information exchange, taking the opportunity of the potential offered by the
new information technologies and taking into account especially the problems
of developing country institutions and scientists; (c) ensuring regular
intergovernmental review at the United Nations level; (d) effective
coordination of the components of the United Nations system, through the ACC
Subcommittee on Oceans and Coastal Areas, ICSPRO and common programme
frameworks; and (e) enhancing the work of subregional and regional centres and
networks.
110. The experience of the ACC Subcommittee on Oceans and Coastal Areas as
task manager in preparing the report for the Commission on Sustainable
Development on progress made in implementing chapter 17 in general has been
positive. Sharing work between the participating organizations on a
lead-agency basis turned out to be an effective tool for dealing with a
subject as complex as oceans and coastal areas. The initiative taken by the
Subcommittee in designing a Cooperative Programme Framework for Integrated
Coastal Area Management is promising for future, more effective, collaboration
between United Nations agencies; its potential for successful implementation,
however, will still have to be proved in practice. The 1995 London Workshop
on Environmental Science, Comprehensiveness and Consistency in Global
Decisions on Ocean Issues recommended that the Subcommittee, in conjunction
with relevant NGOs, be asked to suggest ways to make its work more effective
and to give it more prominence.
111. Initially, a possible overlap of the task of the Subcommittee with that
of ICSPRO was perceived. In practice, however, this did not occur, in
particular since ICSPRO is a more task-oriented body, coordinating activities
of joint interest and reporting directly to heads of ICSPRO agencies rather
than through a higher layer of coordination. A typical example of a task of
ICSPRO is the joint preparations for the International Year of the Ocean in
1998.
112. Action required in the future, at the regional level, includes:
(a) Reflecting the provisions and priorities of chapter 17 of Agenda 21
in the programmes and workplans of regional organizations and sectoral
intergovernmental bodies;
(b) Facilitating regional technical and institutional collaboration,
with associated assistance for human and infrastructure development;
(c) Monitoring of and advising on the implementation of chapter 17 at
the regional level, identifying gaps and opportunities for joint programmes
and using, to the extent feasible, the lead agency concept.
113. Action required in the future, at the global level, includes:
(a) The establishment of appropriate national policy mechanisms on
oceans and coastal areas to harmonize national positions at the United Nations
and its specialized agencies;
(b) Appropriate use of the technical competence of United Nations
specialized agencies by the Global Environment Facility to support the process
of priority setting, formulation of proposals and project execution,
particularly in the biodiversity and international waters components;
(c) Use of existing effective mechanisms for inter-agency cooperation,
such as the ACC Subcommittee on Oceans and Coastal Areas; GESAMP (the
IMO/FAO/UNESCO-IOC/WMO/WHO/IAEA/UN/UNEP Joint Group of Experts on the
Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection); GIPME (Global
Investigation of Pollution in the Marine Environment); and other agreements
(e.g., memorandums of understanding) for issue-oriented action at all levels;
(d) Development of mutually beneficial partnerships between Governments
and the private sector, on the one hand, and regional organizations and United
Nations agencies, on the other, to achieve the implementation of chapter 17 of
Agenda 21;
(e) Improvement of mechanisms for collaboration between NGOs and
intergovernmental bodies to address more effectively the protection and
development of the marine environment and its resources;
(f) Increased awareness of the impact of the ocean and coastal areas on
the life of the planet, taking advantage of the opportunities presented by the
International Year of the Ocean in 1998 and the 1998 World Exposition in
Lisbon (Expo '98) which will have as its theme "The oceans, a heritage for the
future".
Notes
1/ The Subcommittee is composed of the following organizations:
Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea of the Office of Legal
Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, United Nations Conference on Trade
and Development (UNCTAD), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), United Nations Centre for Human
Settlements (Habitat) (UNCHS), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO), Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), World
Health Organization (WHO), World Bank, International Telecommunication Union
(ITU), World Meteorological Organization (WMO), International Maritime
Organization (IMO), United Nations Industrial Development Organization
(UNIDO), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The International
Hydrographic Organization (IHO) and the International Council for the
Exploration of the Sea (ICES) have participated in the sessions of the
Subcommittee.
2/ Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development, Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992, vol. I, Resolutions Adopted by
the Conference (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.93.I.8 and
corrigendum), resolution 1, annex II.
3/ Further details may be obtained from the agency that has assumed the
lead responsibility for each of the programme areas of chapter 17 (see annex
below). Inquiries of a general nature may be addressed to the secretariat of
the Subcommittee (Ms. N. Philippon-Tulloch at IOC/UNESCO) or its Chairman
(Mr. S. M. Garcia, Director, Fishery Resources Division, FAO).
4/ Detailed information on achievements at the national level were not
available through the process of national reporting in time for inclusion in
the present document.
5/ A/50/550, annex I.
6/ ICSPRO is composed of the following organizations: United Nations,
UNEP, FAO, UNESCO (secretariat), WMO, IMO and IAEA.
7/ The following organizations are sponsors of GESAMP: United Nations,
UNEP, FAO, UNESCO/IOC, WHO, WMO, IMO and IAEA.
8/ Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-eighth Session,
Supplement No. 25 (A/48/25), annex, decision 17/20.
9/ Ibid., Fiftieth Session, Supplement No. 25 (A/50/25), annex.
ANNEX 1.
ACC Subcommittee on Oceans and Coastal Areas: Sub-Task Managers
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Programme Area Lead Agency Contact Point Address Fax/e-mail/tel
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
A: Integrated United M. Hayashi, Division for (1-212) 963
management Nations/UNEP Director Ocean 5847
and sustainable Affairs and doalos@un.org
development of the Law of (1-212) 963
coastal areas, Ms. T. the Sea. 39 75
including Melvasalo, Office of
exclusive Director Legal
economic zones (see below) Affairs.
DC2-0450
UNITED
NATIONS. New
York 10017
USA
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
B: Marine
environmental
protection
B(i): Sea- IMO Mr. O. Marine (44-71) 587
based Khalimonov, Environment 3210
pollution Director Division e-mail not
4 Albert avail.
Embankment (44-71) 735
London SE1 7SR 7611
UNITED
KINGDOM
B(ii): Ms. T. OCA/PAC UNEP (254-2) 622
Land-based Melvasalo, P.O. Box 30552 788
pollution Director Nairobi KENYA e-mail not
avail.
(254-2)
622034/5
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
C:Sustainable FAO/United H.Naeve, Senior Fishery (39-6) 5225
use and Nations Fishery Resources 3020
conservation of Resources Division. heiner.naeve
marine living Officer FAO @fao.org
resources of the Via delle (39-6) 5225
high seas Terme di 6442
Caracalla
00100 Rome
ITALY
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
D:Sustainable FAO idem
use and
conservation
of marine
living
resources
under
national
jurisdiction
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
E:Addressing IOC G.Kulenberg Intergovernmental (33-1) 4065
critical Executive Oceanographic 9976
uncertainties Secretary Commission g.kullenberg
for the (IOC) UNESCO @unesco.org
management 1, Rue Miollis (33-1) 4568
of the marine 75732 Paris 3983
environment Cedex 15
and climate FRANCE
change
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
F:Strengthening ACC N.Philippon- IOC-UNESCO (33-1) 4065
international Subcommittee Tulloch (see above) 9976
and regional on Oceans (Secretary) n.philippon
cooperation and Coastal -tulloch
and Areas @unesco.org
coordination (33-1) 4568
3986
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