The Present Status of
Gender Equality and Measures

- Second Report on the Plan for Gender Equality 2000 -

This document has been produced by the Prime Minister's Office as a summary of the Present Status of Gender Equality and Measures (Second Report). For quotations, etc., please refer to the actual report.

Prime Minister's Office

July 1998

Introduction

The Headquarters for the Promotion of Gender Equality (with the Prime Minister acting as President), finalized in December 1996 the Plan for Gender Equality 2000: National Plan of Action for Promotion of a Gender Equal Society by the Year 2000 (hereinafter referred to as the Plan for Gender Equality 2000).

The Plan for Gender Equality 2000 was created on the basis of two documents: the platform for action adopted by the Fourth World Conference on Women held in Beijing in 1995; and Vision of Gender Equality: Creating New Values for the 21st Century, a report submitted to the Prime Minister in July 1996 by the Council of Gender Equality (established in line with the Council of Gender Equality Ordinance [Government Ordinance 190, 24 June 1994] and terminated on 31 March 1997; chaired by Yoko Nuita). This is the fifth such National Plan of Action. The Plan for Gender Equality 2000 gives maximum priority to the goal of women's participation in policy decision-making processes, and stresses the review of social systems and practices in all areas from the perspective of gender equality toward building social systems which promote gender equality. New challenges such as eliminating all violence against women, respecting the human rights of women in the media and supporting life-long health for women are also highlighted as major objectives.

The 1998 Report is the second report on the Plan for Gender Equality 2000 and the 11th report on gender-related national action plans to date.

The first part of the Report, Present Status, reviews the current status of gender equality in Japan as the background on which the objectives in the Plan for Gender Equality 2000 are based, including, where possible, the situations in the respective prefectures. As the process of creating a gender-equal society must take into consideration the different circumstances of the various prefectures, grasping the situation in each prefecture was felt to be a meaningful exercise.

The second part of the Report, Promotion of Measures, compiles measures focusing on the situation between December 1996 and March 1998, using Plan for Gender Equality 2000 objectives as a framework.

It is hoped that by clarifying the current state of gender equality in Japan and progress with measures in this regard, the Report will provide a useful follow-up in ascertaining progress made on the Plan for Gender Equality 2000.

THE PRESENT STATUS OF GENDER EQUALITY AND MEASURES

PART I PRESENT STATUS

Chapter 1 Women's Participation in Policy Decision-Making Processes 1

1. Women's participation in national policy decision-making processes 1

2. Women's participation in local policy decision-making processes 2

3. Awareness of women's participation in policy decision-making processes 4

Chapter 2 Gender Equality in the Workplace, at Home and in the Community 8

1. Gender equality in the area of work 8

2. Family life and community life 14

Chapter 3 Human Rights of Women 24

1. Violence against women 24

2. Human rights of women in the media 27

3. Life-long health for women 29

4. Education and learning to promote gender equality 29

PART II PROMOTION OF MEASURES

Chapter 1 Building Social Systems that Promote Gender Equality 31

1. Expanding women's participation in policy decision-making processes 31

2. Reviewing social systems and practices and reforming awareness from the perspective of gender equality 31

Chapter 2 Realizing Gender Equality in the Workplace, Home and Community 31

1. Securing equal opportunity and equal treatment in employment, etc. 31

2. Building partnerships in agriculture, forestry and fishing villages 31

3. Supporting men and women in harmonizing their working lives with home and community lives 32

4. Developing the conditions to allow senior citizens to live with peace of mind 32

Chapter 3 Creating a Society Which Promotes and Protects the Human Rights of Women 33

1. Eliminating all forms of violence against women 33

2. Respecting the human rights of women in the media 33

3. Supporting life-long health for women 33

4. Promoting gender equality and making possible a diversity

of choices through improved education and learning 34

Chapter 4 Contributing to the Equality, Development and Peace of the Global Community 34

Chapter 5 Promotion of the National Plan of Action 34

1. Active development of measures and regular follow-up 34

2. Collecting, compiling and releasing survey results and information 34

3. Strengthening the structures and functions of national organizations 35

4. Strengthening liaison among national and local governments

and NGOs, and enhancing nationwide efforts 35

PART I

Present Status

Chapter I Women's Participation in Policy Decision-Making Processes

1. Women's participation in national policy decision-making processes

International comparison of women's participation

The indices developed* by the United Nations Development Programme in regard to human development rank Japan seventh in the world in terms of the Human Development Index (HDI) and 12th on the Gender-Related Development Index (GDI), but Japan sinks to 34th place on the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) scale. (Figure 1)

Figure 1: International comparison of HDI, GDI and GEM

Notes: 1. The indices and measures within parentheses indicate Japan's ranking.

2. Japan's HDI, GDI and GEM rankings are among the 175, 146 and 94 countries, respectively, where measurement was possible.

Source: Human Development Report 1997, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

Human Development Index: HDI

HDI is a composite index which measures the degree to which basic human capabilities have been extended on average, with the three principal criteria of "healthy lifestyle allowing longevity," "knowledge" and "average living standard." Specific factors from which HDI is calculated include average life expectancy, education levels (adult literacy rates and school attendance) and GNP.

HDI gives a median value for the entire population of a given nation, and does not reflect unequal opportunity distribution across different social groups.

Gender-Related* Development Index: GDI

While GDI is similar to HDI in that it represents the degree to which basic capabilities have been extended, GDI focuses on the inequality factor reflected in men's and women's respective levels.

Like HDI, GDI is also based on average life expectancy, education levels and GNP, deducting, however, disparities between men and women as a penalty. GDI could therefore be defined as HDI adjusted for gender inequality.

* The term "gender" distinguishes the sexes on a social and cultural basis, as opposed to "sex," which is based on biological factors.

Gender Empowerment* Measure: GEM

GEM evaluates whether or not women are able to participate actively in economic and political activities and take part in decision-making. While HDI and GDI focus on the extension of capabilities, GEM looks principally at whether such capabilities can be utilized and whether advantage can be taken of the various opportunities in life.

Specific factors used in calculating GEM include the ratio of income earned by women in the workplace, the ratio of women specialists, technical experts and managers, and the ratio of women parliamentarians.

* "Empowerment" means "to give power," and specifically refers to raising one's consciousness and capabilities to become a powerful political, economic, social and cultural presence.

Two GEM elements are the ratio of women in government and managerial positions and the ratio of women parliamentarians. Looking at the top 50 GEM-ranked countries, even countries such as Malaysia, the Dominican Republic and Zimbabwe, which have a lower GEM ranking than Japan, still have higher ratios than Japan in this regard. (Figure 2)

Figure 2: GEM constituents by country ("Ratio of women parliamentarians"/ "Ratio of women in government and managerial posts")

Notes: 1. Numerals within parentheses are GEM rankings.

2. The top 50 GEM-ranked countries are shown.

3. The ratio of women parliamentarians is as of 1 January 1997. The percentage of women in government and managerial positions is for the most recent fiscal year for which the UNDP could obtain data when compiling these materials.

Source: Human Development Report 1997, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

2. Women's participation in local policy decision-making processes

Ratio of women members on Councils, etc., shows wide disparities among prefectures

There has been an overall increase in the ratio of women on Councils, etc., established under Article 202.3 of the Local Autonomy Law, and Committees, etc., established under Article 180.5 of the same law. However, there are major disparities among prefectures, with high representation in areas such as Okinawa Prefecture (24.8% representation on Councils, etc., and 15.6% representation on Committees, etc., as of 31 March 1998) and representation of less than 10% in others. (Figure 3)

Figure 3

1. Ratio of women members on councils, etc. (by prefecture)

(2) Ratio of women members on committees, etc. (by prefecture)

Notes: "Councils, etc." refers to those based on Article 202.3.4 of the Local Autonomy Law, while "Committees, etc." refers to those based on Article 180.5 of the same law.

Source: Prime Minister's Office

Women in local public service

35.1% of public service personnel in local public organizations across the country are women, with this figure on the rise. (As of 1 April 1993.)

There are prefectural disparities in the percentage of women in managerial positions (director-level or above). (Figure 4)

Figure 4: Ratio of women in managerial positions in local

public service (by prefecture)

Notes: 1. "Managerial positions" refers to managerial positions in prefectural and government offices (equivalent to director-level or above in prefectural offices).

2. While the base date for the survey was 31 March 1998, this is not always consistent due to prefectural circumstances.

Source: Prime Minister's Office

3. Awareness of women's participation in policy decision-making processes

More than 50% feel that women's views are not reflected in policy

More than 50% feel that women's views are not reflected in national or local policy. Still, more people feel that women's views are not reflected at the national level. (Figure 5)

Figure 5: Degree to which women's views and opinions are reflected in national and local government policy

Source: Compiled from Public Opinion Survey on Gender Equality (1997), Prime Minister's Office

Expectations for greater participation in government assemblies

When asked in which areas women's social participation needs to be advanced, the highest percentage of responses indicated prefectural and municipal assemblies, followed by the Diet, specialized occupations such as lawyers and doctors, and then prefectural and municipal offices and halls. (Figure 6)

Figure 6: In which areas should women's social participation be advanced?

*1 Company management, officers in labor unions and agricultural cooperatives.

*2 Students in university departments with few women, such as science and engineering.

Source: Public Opinion Survey on Gender Equal Society (1995), Prime Minister's Office

One out of every two persons perceives structures and operations designed in favor of men as an impediment

In terms of reasons why women have not become more involved in policy and decision-making processes, more than half of respondents-both women and men-pointed to structures and operations designed in favor of men, making this the most popular response. Consciousness of stereotyped gender roles and gender discrimination in the home, workplace and community received the next largest response. (Figure 7)

Figure 7: Reasons why women have not become more involved in policy planning processes (multiple response)

Source: Compiled from Public Opinion Survey on Gender Equal Society (1997), Prime Minister's Office

Difficult to balance other activities with household responsibilities

When women of local government assemblies, women in management positions in local government, and leaders of women's groups were asked whether they experienced any personal difficulties in regard to their activities in these capacities, 38.0% said they experienced no particular difficulties. On the other hand, 20.7% said they had heavy housework and child-rearing burdens, and 17.5% noted that they were responsible for caring for elderly parents. A significant 20% of respondents therefore pointed to the difficulty of balancing their activities with household responsibilities. (Figure 8)

Figure 8: Impediments to women's participation (multiple response)

Notes: "Assembly members" refers to women members of the Tokyo Metropolitan or Municipal Assemblies, while "local government managerial posts" refers to women in managerial positions in the Tokyo Metropolitan or Municipal Government Offices and "organization officers" to women leaders or officers of national women's organizations.

Source: Compiled from Women's Political and Social Participation (March 1994), Tokyo Women's Foundation

Expectations regarding the introduction of positive action

Positive action entails progressive measures taken with the aim of actual equalization of opportunities by providing groups (women and ethnic minorities) currently disadvantaged by past social and structural discrimination with, for example, special opportunities within a certain range. When survey targets were asked how they felt about the introduction of positive action, more than half of both male and female respondents said that they approved. (Figure 9)

Figure 9: Positive action

Notes: Because the figures produced (%) were rounded up or down slightly, breakdown totals do not add up to 100% in some instances.

Source: Compiled from Public Opinion Survey on Gender Equal Society (1995), Prime Minister's Office

Chapter 2 Gender Equality in the Workplace, at Home and in the Community

1. Gender equality in the area of work

Women's employment

Rising labor force participation rates of women

The female workforce in Japan has been gradually increasing since 1975, with the percentage of women in the labor force (comprising persons of 15 years and above) now having reached 49.1% (Population Census of Japan, 1995).

The number of women employees is also growing every year, totaling 21.27 million, or 39.5% of all employees, in 1997 (1997 Labor Force Survey Report).

Type of M-shaped curves differ by prefectures

When a labor force participation rate graph is drawn up on women by age group and by prefecture, all prefectures basically present an M-shaped curve, but its shape differs significantly (Figure 10).

Figure 10: Women's labor force participation rates by age

Source: Population Census (1995), Management and Coordination Agency

Women's labor force participation rates over the period when women are generally bearing and raising children were compared on a prefectural basis with the same rates before and after that period to see how far rates fall (Figure 11). This was measured by calculating the area of the M-shaped curve (a, in Figure 11), that is, by drawing a line between the two peaks in the employment rates of women between 20 and 40 in the various prefectures and calculating the area within that line and the valley formed where employment rates fall away between the peaks (the M-shaped curve).

In prefectures where the ratio of the M-shaped curve is smaller, the ratio of households with three generations under the same roof tends to be high, which could mean an environment with greater family support available for women within the general child-bearing and child-rearing age bracket.

Moreover, the more childcare facilities a prefecture has and the more children using these, the smaller the area of the M-shaped curve for that prefecture. (Figure 12)

Figure 11: Area of M-shaped curve (by prefecture)

Notes: 1. The M-shaped curve area is the area ("a" in the figure) where employment levels fall away between the two employment peaks (A and D) for women between 20 and 40 in an employment rate graph.

2. In terms of women's employment rates by age, in many prefectures the first peak is between the ages of 20 and 24, and the second between 45 and 49 years, with the exception of the following cities and prefectures.

* First peak between 25 and 29 years

Tokyo

* Second peak between 40 and 44 years

Aomori Prefecture, Iwate Prefecture, Akita Prefecture, Yamagata Prefecture, Niigata Prefecture, Toyama Prefecture, Fukui Prefecture, Kochi Prefecture, Kumamoto Prefecture

Source: Compiled from Population Census (1995), Management and Coordination Agency

Figure 12: Relation between M-shaped curve area and number of regular childcare staff and children in childcare facilities

Notes: The estimation formula for the regression line in the figure is as follows:

y = -0.1039 x +0.1723

(t = -7.061) (t = 16.816)

R2= 0.5256

y = Ratio of M-shaped curve

x = Capacity of children and the total number actually cared for in childcare facilities/Women between 25 and 29

Sources: Compiled from Population Census (1995), Management and Coordination Agency and the Survey Report of Children and Families Bureau (Ministry of Health and Welfare)

Women in agriculture, forestry and fishing villages

Of those women working in agriculture, forestry and fishing, 2.227 million are involved in agriculture, with women comprising 56.7%, close to 60%, of the total agricultural labor force. Fourteen thousand women are engaged in forestry (16.6% of the total labor force) and 52,000 in fishing (18.1% of the total labor force).

In terms of women's participation in decision-making processes in the production activities in the region, etc., in 1996 women comprised around 0.7% (compared to 0.3% in 1995) of agricultural committee members, and around 13.3% (compared to 13% in 1995) of full members of agricultural cooperatives. These figures are slowly increasing.

Women's participation varies according to the prefecture, with a relatively high percentage of women serving as full members of agricultural cooperatives in Yamagata Prefecture (27%), Kochi Prefecture (23.5%) and Hiroshima Prefecture (23%) (Figure 13).

Figure 13: Ratio of women who are full members of agricultural cooperatives (by prefecture)

Source: Comprehensive Statistical Tables of Agricultural Cooperatives (FY1996), Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries

While more than 1.0% of agricultural committee members are women in Nagano Prefecture (4.7%), Tokyo (3.4%), Kagoshima Prefecture (2.0%), Okinawa Prefecture (1.8%) and Osaka (1.2%), in most prefectures the ratio of women members falls below this level.

Systems involving work and other lifestyle choices

More than 60% of respondents feel that if systems change, women's work patterns will change

An increasing number of people feel that pension and taxation systems will affect women's work patterns.

Taxation system (marital exemptions and special marital exemptions)

Application of marital exemptions and special marital exemptions

The income bracket with the highest ratio of marital exemption recipients is the 10-15 million yen bracket, with 68.7% of persons within this bracket receiving marital exemptions. The income bracket with the highest ratio of special marital exemption recipients is the 9-10 million yen bracket, of which 68.6% are receiving such exemptions (Figure 14).

Figure 14: Application of marital exemptions and special marital exemptions

Notes: 1. The left scale (corresponding to the bar graph) shows the ratio of persons who received marital exemptions or special marital exemptions among all salary-earners who worked throughout 1996 and made a year-end tax adjustment, with these divided into income classes. The right scale (corresponding to the line graph) shows the percentage by salary class of all salary-earners who worked throughout 1996 and made a year-end tax adjustment.

2. Those whose spouses received an annual salary of less than 1.03 million are included in the categories of those who received marital exemptions and special marital exemptions.

Source: Compiled from the Report on Results of Statistical Survey on Actual Private Sector Salaries: State of Private Sector Salaries as Reflected in 1996 Taxation Statistics, National Tax Administration Agency

Advice on income and work patterns

Part-time workers in particular seem to be receiving guidance or advice from their husbands concerning their income and work patterns in order to be eligible for the marital exemption and special marital exemption systems (Figure 15).

Figure 15: Whether or not married women receive guidance or advice on their income and way of working

(by occupation) (multiple response)

Notes: 1. 1,500 women between the ages of 24 and 34 (in 1993) were drawn from the first survey (implemented in 1993). Of those, 1,289 responded (of which 994 had spouses).

2. The total is of married women who responded that they were aware of the marital/special marital exemption system (571).

3. "Part-time, etc." refers to part-time workers and other non full-time workers. "Self-employed, etc." refers to those who are self-employed, work for their families, freelance or doing paid work at home.

Source: Fourth Panel Survey on Consumption Life-Life and Work of Women Today (FY1997), Household Economy Research Institute

Pensions (Type three insurance system)

Persons insured under the national pension system

Under the national pension system (basic pension), most men (around 26 million) fall within the type two category (private sector white-collar workers, public service personnel and others insured under employee pension plans, as well as members of benefit societies, etc.), followed by women in the same category (around 13 million). However, around 12 million women are in the type three insurance category (dependent of a spouse with type two insurance; annual income of less than 1.3 million yen), with women forming the bulk of those with type three insurance.

Opinion towards type three insurance system differs by the position of people

The majority of those who saw the current type three insurance system as acceptable were male workers with wives who were full-time housewives, followed by full-time housewives themselves, and male workers with wives in part-time paid employment (Figure 16).

Figure 16: Opinions on the type three insurance system

Notes: These are responses to the question, "Under Japan's current pension system, if a woman is married to a salaried worker and has an income of less than a certain amount, she can receive a pension without making national pension payments. Which of these choices is closest to your thinking on this system? (Please choose one.)."

Source: Compiled from FY1997 Survey on Degree of Satisfaction with National Lifestyle (February 1998), Economic Planning Agency

Not enough knowledge concerning type three insurance system

In terms of shouldering costs for those with type three insurance, around 80% of women responded that women didn't have to pay because husbands were paying for their wives. This indicates insufficient knowledge of the system itself, which covers these costs through a pension system joined by those in the type two category supporting persons with type three insurance (Figure 17).

Figure 17: Public pension payments for full-time housewives (by working status)

Notes: 1. 1,500 women between the ages of 24 and 34 (in 1993) were drawn from the first fiscal survey (implemented in 1993). Of those, 1,289 responded.

2. "Part-time, etc." refers to part-time workers and other non full-time workers. "Self-employed, etc." refers to those who are self-employed, work for their families, freelance or are doing paid work at home.

Source: Fourth Panel Survey on Consumption Life-Life and Work of Women Today (FY1997), Household Economy Research Institute

2. Family life and community life

With whom did you spend your time?

Whom people spent their time with during the course of a day's activities was examined in three age brackets-25-29 years, 45-49 years, and 65 years and above-and according to gender and state of employment. Results revealed significant changes according to the age bracket (Figure 18).

Figure 18: Who did you spend your day with?

Notes: 1. This figure looks at how much overall average time is spent in one day and with whom (alone, with family, with people at work or at school, with other people) in primary activities (sleeping, general chores, eating), secondary activities (commuting to school or work, work, household chores, etc.) and tertiary activities (hobbies, volunteer activities, etc.).

2. "Men or women with jobs" refers to those who as a general circumstance work on a continuous basis to receive compensation, and includes those who work on the side at home in addition to doing housework and those who work on the side while attending school. "Men or women without jobs" refers to those outside the category of "employed."

Source: Compiled from 1996 Survey on Time Use and Leisure Activities, Management and Coordination Agency

Families

More frequent late marriages

More than 70% of respondents either agreed or generally agreed that marriage was a personal choice, so individuals could marry or not marry as they saw fit.

As attitudes toward marriage become more flexible, the average age for first marriages for both men and women has been rising in recent years.

The most popular reason among women (close to 70%) for late marriages was that more women are working and have greater economic power, while more than 50% felt that a single life offered more freedom. The most popular reason among men (close to 60%) for late marriages was that a single life offered more freedom (Figure 19).

Figure 19: Attitudes on late marriages (multiple response)

* Because fewer children are being born, with more families having only one child, the customary change of name through marriage is becoming a problem where families want to preserve the family name.

Source: Compiled from Public Opinion Survey on Gender Equality (1997), Prime Minister's Office

Marriage brings major changes to women's division of time

Looking at how men's and women's division of time changes before and after marriage, married women spend less time on work, etc., while there is a marked increase in the amount of time consumed by housework, etc. This results in more time spent on semi-compulsory activities as a member of society such as paid work and housework (secondary activities), with major changes accordingly caused in the division of women's time (Figure 20).

Figure 20: How is time division changed by marriage?

Notes: 1. "Primary activities" include sleeping, general chores and eating. Of secondary activities, "work, commuting, etc." refers to commuting to school and work, work and study, while "housework, etc." refers to housework, family care and nursing, child-rearing and shopping. "Tertiary activities" includes hobbies and volunteer activities, etc.

2. Married women are assumed here to have employed husbands.

Source: Compiled from 1996 Survey on Time Use and Leisure Activities, Management and Coordination Agency

Equal participation in family life

Men work; women work and also do housework

Both women and men seem to share the attitude that women may work but housework and child-rearing must also be properly attended to; when compared with survey results on the same subject in 1992, this tendency has in fact grown stronger. This consciousness among both men and women of "men working and women working and also doing housework" as the new division of gender roles seems likely to be placing a burden on working women in particular (Figure 21).

Figure 21: On the notion that women may work, but that housework and child-rearing should be properly attended to

Note: Households where both spouses work are indicated either in the sub-totals or by the type of employment in which the wife is engaged.

Source: Compiled from Public Opinion Survey on Gender Equal Society (1997), Prime Minister's Office

No changes in couple's division of time

Figure 22 compares the division of time for couples in households where both spouses have paid work with households where the wife is a full-time housewife and the husband has paid work.

Comparing men's division of time in 1986 with that in 1996, time reduced from paid work and commuting, etc., is being spent on primary and tertiary activities rather than housework, etc., with the result that within secondary activities, the amount of time spent by women and men respectively on paid work, etc., and housework, etc., has remained virtually unchanged (Figure 22).

Figure 22: Couples' use of time

Notes: "Primary activities" include sleeping, eating, etc., which are physiologically necessary for human beings. "Secondary activities" constitute semi-compulsory activities as a member of society such as paid work and housework. "Tertiary activities" refer to activities other than primary and secondary activities which are carried out in one's free time. "Housework, child-rearing, family care, etc." include nursing and shopping.

Source: Compiled from Survey on Time Use and Leisure Activities (1986, 1991 and 1996), Management and Coordination Agency

Necessary elements in promoting men's participation in housework, child-rearing and education, etc.

In terms of what is needed to promote men's participation in child-rearing, housework and education, etc., a growing number of respondents feel that in addition to the importance of opportunities for individual couples to discuss and decide on their respective roles, changes in the modes of thought and practices, etc., of society as a whole would also have an impact on determining the division of roles in individual households (Figure 23).

Figure 23: What is needed in order for men to participate in housework, child-rearing and education, etc. (multiple response)

Notes: Figures within parentheses indicate the change in statistical values compared to the 1993 survey.

Source: Public Opinion Survey on Gender Equal Society (1997), Prime Minister's Office

An increasingly aged society

As of 1 October 1997, 19.76 million of Japan's total population of 126.17 million were aged 65 years and above. Senior citizens therefore now comprise 15.7% of Japan's total population (aging rate).

Looking at aging rates by prefecture, Shimane Prefecture has the highest rate, at 26.4% for women and 19.4% for men, followed by Kochi Prefecture (24.9% for women and 18.4% for men), Akita Prefecture (24.0% for women and 18.1% for men) and Yamagata Prefecture (24.3% for women and 17.8% for men).

Elderly households

Looking at elderly households (those comprising only men of 65 years and above and women of 60 years and above, including unmarried household members under 18) by prefecture, rates seem to be higher overall in west Japan (Figure 24).

Figure 24: Ratio of elderly households to total households (by prefecture)

Notes: 1. Hyogo Prefecture has not conducted this survey.

2. "Elderly households" refers to those households comprising only men of 65 and over and women of 60 and over, or such elderly households where single persons under 18 are also in residence.

Source: Comprehensive Survey of Living Conditions of the People on Health and Welfare (1995), Ministry of Health and Welfare

Care of parents and spouses

In terms of who should care for parents and spouses when care becomes necessary, a high ratio of those in the "elderly" bracket felt that families and relatives should take on this task. By region, the ratio of those who felt it was the responsibility of family and relatives was comparatively high in the Tohoku and Chugoku regions, etc. (Figure 25).

Figure 25: Nursing where a family member becomes bed-ridden

Notes: 1. "Middle-aged" refers to those between 40 and 59, while "elderly" refers to those 60 and above.

2. The total is calculated from total replies from both the "middle-aged" and the "elderly" categories.

3. The survey divides responses from 1,392 men and women of 60 years and above from around the country by region. "Hokuriku" includes Niigata, Toyama, Ishikawa and Fukui Prefectures, while "Higashiyama" includes Yamagata, Nagano and Gifu Prefectures, and "Tokai" covers Shizuoka, Aichi and Mie Prefectures.

Source: Compiled from Survey on Awareness of Aging Issues among the Middle-Aged and Elderly (January 1998), Management and Coordination Agency

Time spent on care

Of those 15 years and above, around 3.7 million people (3.6% of the total population of 15 years and above), are involved on a daily basis in family care and nursing, of which around 2.35 million are women (around 4.4% of the total population as defined above) and 1.35 million are men (around 2.7% of the total population as defined above). The number of those nursing or caring for family members of 65 years and above has also risen to around 2.86 million.

Overall, women are spending more time than men on nursing and care (Figure 26).

Figure 26: Ratio of those engaged in family care or nursing and the time given to this (average time per day)

Notes: 1. People surveyed were 15 years or older.

2. The ratio (line graph) comprises those persons surveyed who were engaged in nursing or caring for family members.

3. The time (bar graph) refers to the average amount of time spent by those who, of all those usually involved in nursing or caring for family members, were actually doing so on the day of the survey.

Source: 1996 Survey on Time Use and Leisure Activities, Management and Coordination Agency

Gender equality in the community

Participation in social activities by prefecture

Looking at the ratio of persons who are engaged in social activities over the previous year, where the activity rate was high for men, it also tended to be high for women (Figure 27).

Figure 27: Men's and women's participation rates in social activities

Notes: This graph shows by prefecture the rate of women participating in social activities on the vertical axis and the rate of men on the horizontal axis. "Participant rates" refers to the ratio of the population of 10 years and older who are involved in social activities in the various prefectures. "Social activities" refers to the act of providing one's own efforts, time, knowledge or skill for society or community without receiving remuneration.

Source: Compiled from 1996 Survey on Time Use and Leisure Activities, Management and Coordination Agency

Women's participation in decision-making processes in the community

In terms of women's participation in the decision-making processes in groups working in communities, the ratio of women varies greatly according to the type of group, with women leading more than 40% of child-related groups, with low ratios continuing in neighborhood councils and commercial groups (Figure 28).

Figure 28: Sex of Chairpersons (by type and by age group)

Notes: "Neighborhood group" refers to neighborhood groups and town meetings; "PTA" refers to PTAs and parents' associations; "child-related group" refers to child-related groups and education associations; and "commercial group" refers to commerce-related organizations.

Source: Survey on Gender Equality in Local Groups (December 1996), Tokyo Metropolitan Government

Chapter 3 Human Rights of Women

1. Violence against women

Matters involving women that are perceived as human rights issues

Discriminatory treatment of women in the workplace was the foremost matter involving women which was perceived as a human rights issue. This was followed by sexual harassment in the workplace, stereotyping of gender roles ("men work and women stay in the home," etc.) and prostitution (including high school girls having casual sexual relations with older men), etc. (Figure 29).

Figure 29: Matters relating to women which are perceived as human rights issues (multiple response)

Notes: *1 Sexual harassment in the workplace.

*2 Forcing stereotyped gender roles on others ("men work, women stay at home," etc.)

*3 Domestic violence against wives by husbands (hitting one's wife when drunk, etc.)

*4 Terms which are only applied when speaking about women such as "someone else's wife," "wife," "widow," etc.

*5 Ads using women in bathing suits, nude or in sexually suggestive poses which have nothing to do with the content of the ad.

Source: Compiled from Public Opinion Survey on Human Rights' Protection (1997), Prime Minister's Office

Rape and indecent assault

The number of cases reported and the number of arrests made increased during 1997 compared to the previous year for both rape and indecent assault (Figure 30).

Figure 30: Trends in number of arrests, etc., for rape and indecent assault

Notes: "Rape" numbers include mugging and rape.

Source: National Police Agency statistics

Actual situation in terms of sexual crimes

In terms of the time periods in which rapes occurred, more than half of rapes were committed over the eight hours between eight in the evening and four in the morning, while the most common location was the house, followed by the street. More than half of indecent assaults occurred over the eight hours between mid-day and eight in the evening, with the most common location being the street, followed by the house (Figure 31).

Figure 31: (1) Ratio of known cases by time period (2) Ratio of known cases by location

Source: National Policy Agency statistics (1997)

Attitudes to prostitution

In regard to prostitution and the parties involved, a larger ratio of respondents felt that compared to cases where both parties were adults, prostitution was not acceptable where one party was underage, with the number of respondents condoning prostitution decreasing (Figure 32).

Figure 32: Attitudes to prostitution

Note: "Other" responses have not been included here.

Source: Compiled from Public Opinion Survey on Gender Equal Society (1997), Prime Minister's Office

Dividing into age-groups those respondents who condoned prostitution (those who thought that where there was consent by both parties, prostitution was not good but couldn't be helped, or else was not to be censured at all), particularly where there was consent by both parties, more than half of male respondents condoned prostitution. More than 20% of men in their 20s and 30s responded that they condoned prostitution even where one party was underage (Figure 33).

Figure 33: Attitudes to prostitution by sex and age

Notes: This figure is the result of a simple calculation of the ratio of those who, when questioned on their attitude to prostitution and the parties involved, responded either that where both parties consented, there was no need for censure or that where both parties consented, it wasn't good but couldn't be helped, with this then divided into cases of prostitution between adults and cases where one party was underage.

Source: Compiled from Public Opinion Survey on Gender Equal Society (1997), Prime Minister's Office

Stalkers

While few respondents had personal experience of stalkers, those who tail their victims and make persistent phone calls, etc., around half were aware of stalkers in one form or another (Figure 34).

Figure 34: Experience with stalkers (multiple response)

Notes: *1 Know someone who is being or has been pursued by a stalker.

*2 Don't know anyone who is being or has been pursued by a stalker, but know that stalkers are being discussed by TV and newspapers.

1. "Other" and "No Opinion" responses have been omitted.

2. Because responses were multiple, the total exceeds 100%.

Source: Compiled from Public Opinion Survey on Gender Equal Society (1997), Prime Minister's Office

A characteristic of this issue is that the younger the respondents, the greater the ratio of those (both men and women) who either have had personal experience of stalkers or know of persons who have been stalked.

2. Human rights of women in the media

Marked number of excessive expressions

In terms of attitudes toward descriptions of sex and violence in the media, a high ratio of respondents (more than 50%) felt that there were a marked number of excessive expressions, over-emphasizing women's sexual aspects, etc. (Figure 35).

Figure 35: Attitude to media descriptions of sex and violence

Source: Compiled from Public Opinion Survey on Gender Equal Society (1997), Prime Minister's Office

The Internet

Harmful information on the Internet

Among suppliers of harmful images over the Internet, some not only supply images of adults but also supply child pornography (Figure 36).

Figure 36: Image subjects

Notes: 1. Source: National Police Agency survey(1997)

2. Of all sites providing domestic services and registered with application registration-type search engines (104,521 as of 15 December 1997), the National Police Agency looked at all homepages categorized as containing adult images and photographs (1,721), and surveyed all sites constituting commerce in harmful images (632 sites), excluding those which are only collections of links or provide free service. "Adults," "junior and senior high school students" and "elementary school students and younger" were categorized based on the advertising slogans, etc., of the relevant homepages. Of foreign commercial servers, those obviously targeting a foreign audience were excluded from totals.

3. Life-long health for women

High check-up rates in Tohoku, etc.

Check-up rates are higher for men (61.5%) than for women (50.7%). By prefecture, check-up rates are relatively high in Tohoku, etc. (Figure 37).

Figure 37: Health check-up rates (by prefecture)

(1) Women

Notes: Hyogo Prefecture has not conducted this survey.

Source: Comprehensive Survey of Living Conditions of the People on Health and Welfare (1995), Ministry of Health and Welfare

Maternal and child health-related indexes

The infant mortality rate was 3.8% (ratio to 1000 births) in 1996, with the neonatal mortality rate at 2.0% (ratio to 1000 births) and the perinatal mortality rate at 6.7% (ratio to 1000 births), while the maternal mortality rate was 5.8% (ratio to 100,000 births). Maternal and child health-related indexes such as infant and perinatal mortality rates, which are strongly affected by the mother's state of health and the conditions in which a child is raised, are all falling.

4. Education and learning to promote gender equality

Gender disparities in major field of study

While more women are aiming to attend four-year universities, differences have been noted between the areas of specialty chosen by women and men in their universities (university departments). Those areas of specialty characteristic of women students are also reflected in women researchers' specialty areas, and a look at full-time researchers at universities, etc., by specialty reveals high ratios of women in health-related areas outside medicine and dentistry (pharmacology, nursing, etc.), education and home economics, etc., and humanities, etc. (Figure 38).

Figure 38: Ratio of male and female researchers by area of specialty at universities, etc.

Source: Survey of Research and Development (1996), Management and Coordination Agency

Ratio of female-teaching staff

Women comprise 60% of teaching staff at elementary schools, with this ratio decreasing markedly the higher the grade at junior and senior high school. Compared to teaching staff, the ratio of women principals and vice principals is also low overall.

Looking at the ratio of women principals of elementary schools by prefecture, there are major disparities among prefectures (Figure 39).

Figure 39 Ratio of women principals of elementary schools (by prefecture)

Source: Schools Basic Survey (1997), Ministry of Education

Even in higher education institutions, while women teachers comprise 40% of teaching staff at junior colleges, this ratio is only a little over 10% in the case of four-year universities, with a low percentage of women presidents and vice-presidents in particular.

PART II

PROMOTION OF MEASURES

Chapter 1 Building Social Systems that Promote Gender Equality

1. Expanding women's participation in policy decision-making processes

The Headquarters for the Promotion of Gender Equality has been working on the appointment of women to councils, etc., toward achieving the objective (decided on 21 May 1996) of 20% female membership of national councils, etc., by the end of FY2000 at the latest. As of the end of March 1998, this figure was 17.7%.

2. Reviewing social systems and practices and reforming awareness from the perspective of gender equality

In June 1998, the Economic Planning Agency released its estimated monetary evaluations of unpaid work such as housework.

Chapter 2 Realizing Gender Equality in the Workplace, Home and Community

1. Securing equal opportunity and equal treatment in employment, etc.

At the 140th regular Diet session, the Ministry of Labour submitted a bill for the development of Ministry of Labour-related laws to ensure equal opportunity and treatment, etc., of men and women in employment. This included strengthening the Equal Employment Opportunity Law and Other Measures (the Equal Employment Opportunity Law), to dismantle the restrictions on women's overtime, work on days off and late-night work for women workers and the development of substantial measures for protecting motherhood. The bill was passed on 11 June 1997, and went partially into effect as of 1 April 1998.

To assist companies in taking concrete measures for positive action, since FY1997 the Ministry of Labour has been holding "Top Seminars," which target corporate leaders, as well as business-specific employer conferences for corporate personnel managers, etc.

To popularize and promote telework, the Ministry of Labour has been working with companies to implement and examine model projects putting telework into practice. The Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications has also set up a telework center for postal workers, implementing telework from the home.

2. Building partnerships in agriculture, forestry and fishing villages

Since FY1997, the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries has been working toward the realization of a society where women in agricultural villages can participate actively together with men in the development of agriculture and agricultural villages. To achieve this, the Ministry has been implementing projects for the promotion of partnerships in agriculture and agricultural villages, including educating families and local communities in this regard, developing indexes and objectives for gender ratios of board members in agricultural cooperatives, etc., and implementing surveys to ascertain the extent to which these ratios have been met.

3. Supporting men and women in harmonizing their working lives with home and community lives

The Ministry of Health submitted to the 140th Diet session a bill for amendment of the Child Welfare Law, including (a) introduction of a mechanism whereby care-takers can send their child/children to a childcare facility they have selected on the basis of information provided by such facilities; (b) clarification of the status of after-school activities for children under the Child Welfare Law; and (c) strengthening of local counseling and support systems through the establishment of support centers for families with children. This bill was passed in June 1997.

The Ministry of Education is supporting the development of home education projects at prefectural and local levels through, for example, a project designed to support and promote home education and child-rearing. Measures under this project include the expansion of learning opportunities for home education, and support for the creation of local networks through, for example, the establishment of "child-rearing plazas" at kindergartens and community centers where parents can get together to discuss child-rearing.

The Ministry of Labour is promoting the further establishment of child care leave systems and the early introduction of the family care leave system which will become compulsory from 1 April 1999. The Ministry is also promoting projects which support workers in harmonizing their working lives with home lives.

In FY1997, the Economic Planning Agency implemented surveys on individual awareness of grassroots activities and the actual state of these activities, etc., and conducted economic analyses of the activities of private-sector non-profit organizations, etc., in order to create a multi-faceted picture of volunteer and other grassroots activities.

4. Developing the conditions to allow senior citizens to live with peace of mind

Since FY1995, the Ministry of Health and Welfare has been implementing the New Gold Plan (a new 10-year strategy for the promotion of the health and welfare of senior citizens) and working on a major expansion of home help services, short stay services and day services, the three mainstays of in-home welfare services.

The Ministry of Health and Welfare submitted to the 139th Diet session a nursing care insurance bill and related bills providing comprehensive and integrated care services for the elderly across the spectrum of health, medical care and welfare. These bills were passed in December 1997.

Chapter 3 Creating a Society Which Promotes and Protects the Human Rights of Women

1. Eliminating all forms of violence against women

The police promote structuring responses to crime victims during investigations through the creation of an environment in which women victims of sexual crimes find it easier to report such crimes by expanding the mechanism whereby interviews are conducted by women police officers, etc., as well as encouraging interviewing techniques which consider the emotional state of crime victims. The police also conduct public relations and advertising activities through various media in order to encourage victims to file criminal reports and to raise social awareness of sexual crimes.

The police are making maximum use of existing laws to crack down on prostitution involving young girls, as this is an act which severely impedes their healthy development. In the same context, the police are also working with related institutions to increase public awareness toward the protection of children's rights, with the goal of creating a society which does not permit child prostitution.

The amended Equal Employment Opportunity Law (which will enter into effect on 1 April 1999) makes it obligatory for employers to exercise care in management of employees to prevent sexual harassment in the workplace.

The Council for Gender Equality has established a committee on violence against women, which is surveying and discussing basic policies to ensure a proper response to the changing situation brought about by people's awareness and internationalization in regard to prostitution and other forms of violence against women which impede the achievement of a gender-equal society.

2. Respecting the human rights of women in the media

Responding to the report produced by the Round Table Conference on Audiences and Broadcasting in the Multi-Channel Era (held to explore the sound development of broadcasting toward the 21st century), etc., the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications had the Broadcasting Law amended in May 1997 and put into force in October the same year to further stimulate the program deliberation bodies which each broadcaster is obligated to establish, as well as to make the content of broadcast programs more appropriate.

To ensure the healthy development of young people, the Youth Affairs Administration within the Prime Minister's Office is seeking voluntary regulation on the part of those involved with books, videos and the Internet, etc., as well as working to ensure effective use of the system for designating harmful written materials under the Youth Protection Ordinances and to educate the public toward development of a morally healthier community environment.

The Law Regulating Adult Entertainment Businesses was amended to include new articles such as obligatory notification to the Public Safety Commission of businesses transmitting pornographic images to clients via the Internet, etc., and prohibition of sales to persons under 18 years old.

3. Supporting life-long health for women

The Ministry of Education is encouraging municipal governments to establish classes and lectures, etc., designed to meet specific objectives and for specific groups. For example, in home education classes for parents with children, parents learn about sex and sex education in the home, while lectures for newly-wed couples and couples expecting their first child discuss pregnancy and childbirth issues, including reproductive health and rights.

The Ministry of Health is providing health education at public health centers, etc., targeting specific stages in women's lives. Mechanisms are also being developed to allow women to consult more freely on women's health issues, such as contraception, pregnancy, infertility, sexually transmitted diseases, women's diseases and menopausal disorders.

4. Promoting gender equality and making possible a diversity of choices through improved education and learning

The National Women's Education Centre has been holding gender equality education seminars for teachers since FY1997 as part of life-long learning for teachers and with the aim of improving instruction on gender equality in school education. Moreover, November 1997 saw publication of the Handbook on Women's Studies Education and Learning: Toward a Gender-Free Society as the result of surveys and research on the content and methods involved in women's studies in social education.

Chapter 4 Contributing to the Equality, Development and Peace of the Global Community

Based on the results of and follow-up to the Fourth World Conference on Women, Japan has been engaged in the following kinds of efforts: (a) cooperating actively in the activities of the various United Nations institutions; (b) advancing support of women in developing countries; (c) promoting women's contributions to peace; and (d) advancing international exchange, working closely with domestic and foreign NGOs in the above. The thrust of these efforts has been to achieve the goals of equality, development and peace in the global community toward improving the status of women.

In July 1997, the Headquarters for the Promotion of the United Nations Decade for Human Rights Education compiled and announced a national action plan for the United Nations Decade for Human Rights Education.

Chapter 5 Promotion of the National Plan of Action

1. Active development of measures and regular follow-up

The Headquarters for the Promotion of Gender Equality has been comprehensively promoting measures based on the National Plan of Action for Promotion of a Gender Equal Society by the Year 2000 (adopted in December 1996).

2. Collecting, compiling and releasing survey results and information

The Office of Gender Equality within the Prime Minister's Office has established a Gender Information Site on the Internet, from which information in Japanese and English is widely disseminated both within Japan and abroad on Japan's efforts to realize a gender-equal society, as well as related data, etc.

3. Strengthening the structures and functions of national organizations

The Council for Gender Equality, newly established on the basis of the Law Concerning the Establishment of the Council for Gender Equality (passed on 19 March 1997 and put into force on 1 April 1997), has been requested by the Prime Minister to examine (a) basic issues related to policies for promotion of the achievement of a gender-equal society, as well as (b) basic policies to ensure a proper response to the changing situation brought about by people's awareness and internationalization in regard to prostitution and other forms of violence against women which impede the achievement of a gender-equal society. The Council has since been conducting surveys and deliberating on these issues. The Subcommittee for the Consideration of Basic Laws was also established under the auspices of the Committee on Basic Issues on 16 February 1998, and is now considering basic laws concerning a gender-equal society.

In September 1997, the Prime Minister's Office invited senior officials of national organizations for the advancement of women in nine Asian countries to Japan to discuss women's issues in East Asian countries. Participants engaged in an exchange of views on their respective national organizations for the advancement of women, etc.

4. Strengthening liaison among national and local governments and NGOs, and enhancing nationwide efforts

In September 1996, the Prime Minister's Office established the Liaison Conference for the Promotion of Gender Equality (Egalit* Network) to promote wide-ranging liaison among various fields and levels of society toward advancing nationwide efforts to create a gender-equal society. Two plenary meetings were held in FY1997, as well as three planning committee meetings. Participants not only exchanged views and information, but also created and widely distributed a poster using the design and catchphrase which won the top award (the Prime Minister's Award) in a contest for designs, photographs and catchphrases on a gender-equal society. Six meetings for exchanges of information and views among people from a wide range of fields and levels were also held between April 1997 and April 1998.