UN Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
with support from the UN Population Fund (UNFPA)
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| UN Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, with support from the UN Population Fund (UNFPA) |
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This document is being made available by the Population Information
Network (POPIN) Gopher of the United Nations Population Division,
Department for Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis,
in collaboration with the Population Programme Service, Sustainable
Development Department, United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization. For further information, please contact: Mr. Jacques
du Guerny, email:
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WHAT HAS AIDS TO DO WITH AGRICULTURE?
Brochure by Martina Haslwimmer
September 1994
Introduction
The purpose of this brochure is to create awareness about the
effects of the pandemic HIV/AIDS on agriculture in sub-Saharan
Africa. It should stimulate consideration being given by the
readership to improve programmes and project design thus to
contribute to the mitigation of the impact of HIV/AIDS on rural
farm households.
This brochure is based on a study undertaken by FAO in 1993 and
financed by UNDP to assess the impact of HIV/AIDS on
agricultural production systems in Uganda, Tanzania and Zambia.
It summarizes the results gained in a Rapid Rural Appraisal
exercise which generated the necessary qualitative and quantitative
information. This document is meant for policy makers and
planners, agricultural researchers and extension staff, staff of
agricultural and rural development projects, multi- and bilateral
donors, Non-Governmental Organizations, medical personnel with
an interest in development issues and anybody else interested in
the problem.
The brochure was prepared by Martina Haslwimmer of FAO's
Farm Management and Production Economics Service (AGSP) with
the editorial support of Alison Small.
==================================================================
Contents
Page
WHAT HAS AIDS TO DO WITH AGRICULTURE? 1
The impact of HIV/AIDS on the rural household 2
The impact on labour 4
THE IMPACT OF HIV/AIDS ON SMALL FARMERS 6
The impact on crop production 6
Decline in crop yields 7
Decline in soil fertility 7
Increase in pests and diseases 7
Decline in the variety of crops grown 8
The impact of HIV/AIDS on livestock production 9
The impact of HIV/AIDS on pastoralists 9
The impact of HIV/AIDS on agricultural extension
services 10
The loss of agricultural knowledge and management
skills 10
THE CONSEQUENCES OF HIV/AIDS 11
The consequences of HIV/AIDS on farming systems 11
The declining status of nutrition and health 11
The problem of orphans 12
Coping mechanisms: the role of NGOs and self-help
groups 12
The impact of HIV/AIDS on programmes and projects 13
RECOMMENDATIONS 15
General recommendations at the planning and policy
level 15
The incorporation of HIV/AIDS in the project cycle 15
Vulnerability mapping 16
Determining epidemic impact on labour availability 17
Focus on women 17
Exploring and disseminating existing coping
strategies 18
Cost recovery 18
At the micro level 18
Income-generating activities 19
Health 19
Nutrition 20
LITERATURE CONSULTED 21
==================================================================
What has AIDS to do with agriculture?
- the case of sub-Saharan Africa
Since the first case of Anti-Immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
was recognized in 1981 in the United States, the Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) has spread, largely unnoticed in the
beginning, throughout the world. By the year 2000, the current
projection of the World Health Organization (WHO) is that there
will be a cumulative total of 30 - 40 million HIV infections in
men, women and children, the projected cumulative total of adult
AIDS cases is close to 10 million worldwide. The WHO estimates that
10 million people have been infected by HIV as of mid-1994 in sub-
Saharan Africa. It is further estimated that more than 2.5 million
AIDS cases had occurred in this region as of mid-1994. The
predominant way of transmission is heterosexual. The disease
affects the most productive age group in the population - those
between 15 and 49 years of age, a fact which is unique to
HIV/AIDS in comparison with other diseases such as malaria or
cholera.
HIV/AIDS is a medical problem, but has social and
economic dimensions as well. In most sub-Saharan African
countries small farmers are not part of a fully operating medical
care system. At the family level, medical costs associated with
caring for the sick and bedridden have to be borne along with the
funeral expenses of family members who die of the disease.
Besides the costs of drugs, conventional and traditional medical
treatment, households caring for AIDS patients are often faced with
meeting expenses for additional special foods to comfort the sick
or for items such as extra blankets.
The impact of HIV/AIDS on the rural household HIV/AIDS causes
direct costs, mostly medical and funeral expenses, and indirect
costs, which are mainly labour-related. Potential income is lost
due to illness and death of individuals and the task of caring for
these patients. If no safety net is present or is incomplete,
small-scale households and rural communities have to bear these
costs by themselves. The impact can also affect the development of
off-farm activities; the degree to which extension reaches, in
particular the small farmer, and the provision of social services.
Virtually no sector or sub-sector involved in the planning, design
and implementation of agricultural development projects and
programmes may thus be regarded as being beyond the reach of effect
of the HIV/AIDS epidemic.
HIV/AIDS intervenes and effects farm households, their
different sub-systems and their interlinkages as demonstrated in
Figure 1 below. Cash income and labour are partly diverted to cope
with and/or compensate for the effect of HIV/AIDS, leaving less
labour for farm and off-farm activities as well as reducing the
amount of money available to the household. Cash, which is
exchanged by the farm and off-farm system in purchasing fertilizer
or other inputs or financing investments in off-farm activities,
may have to be used to pay for AIDS-related expenditures. Where
households own livestock, and there is no cash income, cattle may
be sold to pay for medical and funeral expenses.
The high cost of treating AIDS and the expenses incurred
through the death of an AIDS victim, mean that households either
require assistance or cash incomes to cope with these additional
expenses.
===================================================================
Figure 1: Resource diversion due to AIDS in a farm-household
system
====================================================================
At the national level, HIV/AIDS requires budgeting for
health and for health education programmes. These expenses
involve not only treatment programmes but awareness-building and
information campaigns. While much of this work is being
undertaken by non-governmental organizations (NGOs), the
effective dissemination of information requires the support of
governments. Additional costs to governments may also arise from
the loss of skilled labour in certain areas, to be replaced by
higher-paid international employees and by the import of foodstuffs
or other items which may be needed to supplement the loss of
production.
The impact on labour
In some rural communities of sub-Saharan Africa, HIV/AIDS is
now resulting in labour shortages for both farm and domestic work.
Besides the labour loss of the AIDS patient through sickness and
subsequent death, family members have to divert time to care for
the sick and eventually neglect farm or off-farm activities. This
results in a loss of potential income. The situation is aggravated
in farming systems with pointed labour peaks in the year and by a
marked gender division of labour. With the death of a spouse the
widow or widower does not necessarily take over the work of the
deceased spouse. Labour-intensive farming systems with a low level
of mechanization and agricultural input use are particularly
vulnerable to the impact of HIV/AIDS as the economic return to
labour tends to be low. In addition, traditional customs like the
extended time of mourning, where no farming activities can be
carried out, can have an adverse effect on labour availability
during periods in which deaths are frequent.
The impact of HIV/AIDS on small farmers
The impact on crop production The impact of HIV/AIDS on crop
production relates to a reduction in land use, a decline in crop
yields and a decline in the range of crops grown.
The reduction in land use is attributed to a number of
factors which have occurred as a direct result of the HIV/AIDS
epidemic. These include: sickness and death in households,
leading to fewer family members being available to work in the
fields and thus in the size of land that can be cultivated; the
limitations of land inheritance and land tenure systems, especially
as they may affect widowed and orphaned households; poverty,
resulting in malnutrition, which in turn affects the health of
family members and their ability to perform agricultural work, and
which leads to reduced cash incomes needed to purchase inputs such
as seed and fertiliser; and the loss of soil fertility on farms
with limited areas cultivated.
The effect of HIV/AIDS in reducing the number of family
members needed to cultivate larger areas of land, has led to
substantial reductions in land use in many communities. In some
communities, where land tenure and inheritance traditions favour
male inheritance, the effect of the HIV/AIDS epidemic may be
especially severe. As increasing numbers of women are left
widowed, and their right to land is already constrained by
traditional inheritance customs, their access to land becomes
extremely difficult.
Decline in crop yields
In several farming systems examined by the FAO study, a
decline in the crop yield per area, especially in the last five
years could be observed. The factors for the decline include:
o a decline in soil fertility
o increases in pests and diseases
o changes and delays in cropping practices
o decline of external production inputs.
These factors are in part attributed to the effects of
HIV/AIDS in limiting the availability of labour for tasks like
weeding, mulching, pruning, as noted above, and the clearing of
land. These tasks are either inadequately carried out, or
completely neglected. Declines in yields result in a reduction in
household spending power. Cash from the sale of products to buy
basic items like soap and paraffin and to hire occasional labour,
or to purchase inputs such as seed and fertiliser as well as
agricultural implements may not sufficiently available anymore.
Decline in soil fertility
There are signs that the HIV/AIDS epidemic is reducing soil
fertility. This appears to be due, in part, to a reluctance by
farmers to carry out long-term soil conservation measures because
such measures do not yield an immediate income and are labour
demanding in an environment in which the farming system is already
short of human resources.
Increase in pests and diseases
One of the phenomena occuring in crop production systems which
are highly dependent on farm labour, is the increasing incidence of
pest and plant diseases. The loss of labour, as a result of AIDS,
has reduced the amount of time, care and cash required to
effectively carry out cultural practices and/or pesticide use by,
in particular, small farmers. In the coffee-banana system the
banana weevil which destroys banana plantations, and stinging ants
which make it difficult to work on coffee plantations are affecting
yields. Banana weevils used to be controlled either by traditional
means, which are labour-intensive, or with the use of chemicals. A
shortage of human resources hinders farmers from controlling
weevils using traditional methods moreover they do not have the
financial resources to purchase chemicals. Similarly, in the
coffee plantations, increasing infestations of large stinging ants
are believed to be symptomatic of poor cultural practices. In some
cases this has resulted in the plantations having reverted so far
that it is no longer economic for all but the wealthiest or most
labour-endowed households, either to recover their old coffee trees
or open new lands for coffee production.
Decline in the variety of crops grown
A general shift was observed away from crops that are labour
demanding, like bananas and coffee, to those that are easy to plant
and maintain, require less labour and are also drought resistant.
A narrower range of crops are being grown in East Africa, with
greater emphasis on sweet potatoes, cassava, and maize. Other
reasons for the decline in the range, as well as in the volume of
crops include: the depletion of soils, lack of labour, the high
incidence of pests and diseases, are at least partly attributable
to the frequent deaths and sickness of farmers and their children
caused by AIDS.
In order to adapt to factors caused by AIDS farmers have
responded by changing their cropping patterns. In some farming
systems this has resulted in a shift away from the cultivation of
cash crops such as coffee in order to concentrate all available
labour on the production of subsistence crops like sweet potatoes
and cassava.
The impact of HIV/AIDS on livestock production
The impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic on livestock-raising
practices has been felt in several ways: cattle are frequently sold
to pay medical bills and funeral expenses and decreases in labour
availability result in lower levels of care of livestock. Partially
as a result of the latter, there appears to be a parallel trend
towards the keeping of smaller stock, most notably pigs and
poultry, which are less labour demanding.
The impact of HIV/AIDS on pastoralists
Little is known about the impact of HIV/AIDS on pastoralists. One
example from Uganda's Rakai District, a predominantly pastoralist
tribe, maintains close relationships with the crop farmers and
practices social traditions which favour the spread of HIV/AIDS:
several brothers may share one wife. Among these pastoralists
there has been a tendency for herd sizes to become smaller. While
one of the reasons given was due to the outbreak of the disease,
Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia, another reason is
HIV/AIDS. As with sedentary cattle keepers, people who fall sick
sell their animals to pay for drugs, hospitalization and other
expenses.
The impact of HIV/AIDS on the agricultural extension services
The effect of HIV/AIDS on extension work in areas of high
epidemic incidence may be two-fold: in one case a local extension
officer in Uganda noted that between 20 and 50 percent of all
working time was lost as a result of the disease. Staff members
were frequently absent from work attending funerals and caring for
sick relatives; in some cases extension messages have had to be
revised to take into account the impact of the disease on
agricultural systems, i.e., the shortage of labour, changes in
farmers' needs and priorities both in crop and livestock production
systems.
The loss of agricultural knowledge and management skills
Case studies undertaken in rural areas with high levels of
seroprevalence make repeated references to the loss of traditional
knowledge and cultural practices, in part attributed to HIV/AIDS-
related morbidity and mortality. When one or both parents die or
are seriously ill, their skills may not be transferred to their
children or other relatives. This may have far reaching
implications in terms of the continuity of agricultural production.
In Eastern Africa, where the cultivation of coffee and bananas has
been a traditional feature of the farming system, cultural
practices associated with coffee and banana tree cultivation may be
essential towards ensuring the system's continuity. As has already
been noted, the correct mulching, weeding and pruning of
plantations is a prerequisite for reasonable yields. However, in
areas where there is a high incidence of HIV/AIDS, and the
subsequent lack of understanding of the correct agricultural
practices, plots have been neglected resulting in poor yields.
The consequences of HIV/AIDS
The consequences of HIV/AIDS on farming systems
The consequences of the HIV/AIDS epidemic on rural populations
and agricultural systems include: the threat to household and
community food security; a decline in the nutritional and health
status of smallholders and their families; a decline in educational
status, as children are forced to leave school; and changes in the
social system, as households adapt to the impact of HIV/AIDS (i.e.
the break-up of families, a growing incidence of female-headed
households, and increasing number of orphans and rural poor). The
impact of HIV/AIDS is also likely to be most severe among
already vulnerable groups such as the malnourished and the food
insecure.
Individuals and groups have begun to develop survival
strategies in the light of the changes which are occuring,
partially as a result of the impact of HIV/AIDS on their lives.
For example, in a number of cases farmers have expressed interest
in supplementing their incomes through small income-earning
activities like bee keeping, tailoring, pig keeping, etc.
Smallholders have also shown a growing interest in receiving
extension advice, skills training or education (basic literacy,
numeracy, health education, etc).
The declining status of nutrition and health
In severely AIDS-affected communities there has been a change in
the volume and kinds of crops produced in the farming systems.
Partly as a result of this the process of impoverishment is induced
that levels of nutrition are falling due to the reliance on starchy
staples like cassava and sweet potatoes in Eastern Africa, compared
with other more nutritious but labour-intensive traditional crops
and or protein from animal products. In addition there is the lack
of understanding of the nutritional value of foods. Lower levels
of nutrition result in the increased vulnerability of people to
disease and thus to an overall decline in health.
The problem of orphans
With increasing numbers of children left orphaned by HIV/AIDS-
related deaths or departure from home of their parents, the health,
well-being and education of such children is a special problem. If
orphans are provided for by relatives, the cost of maintaining and
educating these children may strain the resources of the receiving
households. Orphaned children generally cannot pay school fees
or buy uniforms and other school necessities such as exercise books
and text books. In areas with a high incidence of HIV/AIDS and
orphaned children, NGOs have been playing an important role in
providing housing, and financial, educational and health
assistance.
Coping mechanisms: the role of NGOs and self-help groups
At the level of the farming system, some coping responses have
already been touched upon. At the level of the community as a
whole, the most important response has been the formation of self-
help groups, some spontaneous and some under the aegis of an
NGO. This is an important development in societies where
cooperation between individual households is not the norm. It
suggests that the traditional response may provide a firm base for
future efforts to cope not only with the impact of the epidemic,
but also with the wider problem of poverty which forms the
background to that impact. A number of NGOs in providing advice
to farmers and extension staff in animal and crop husbandry
practices, have shown their work to be especially pertinent in
communities where sickness and death from HIV/AIDS have left
some households composed of orphans and in need of resources,
both in terms of financial assistance and education, health and
other basic services.
The impact of HIV/AIDS on programmes and projects
Rising mortality and morbidity as a result of AIDS are likely to
have an impact on project performance since health is a
precondition for development. One of the most serious threats to
any project is absenteeism on the part of both beneficiaries and
project staff, which can be caused by mortality and morbidity,
attendence to funerals and various other exigencies of daily life.
Absenteeism from project activities may set back the progress of
projects in countries severely affected by the disease.
Discrimination at the workplace of HIV-positives staff may further
interfere with the work performance of all staff.
The impact of AIDS can manifest itself in various ways. It
may result in labour shortages forcing farm households to shift
from cash to subsistence crops when food security is being
threatened. Cash crops which require a long investment period may
not be suitable for families afflicted by AIDS that are in need of
quick returns to cover immediate medical, funeral or orphan-related
expenses.
Livestock activities might be jeopardized by family
members selling off their animals to finance medical care for AIDS
patients. In addition, if the person in charge of the livestock
dies, family members are often unable to manage the livestock due
to the loss of skills and relevant experience.
The viability of agricultural credit schemes may be at risk
as a result of HIV/AIDS for three reasons: a) increased mortality
may raise the number of defaults; b) AIDS-affected families may
be forced to liquidate their assets in order to repay the credit or
else have their assets seized, thereby ending up worse off than
before they incurred the credit; and c) AIDS-afflicted families may
have to spend part or all of the credit to finance medical care for
family members suffering from AIDS, rather than use the funds for
investment.
Agricultural research priorities might shift in view of AIDS
to focus on the special needs of farm household with fewer
working adults. Projects supporting agricultural extension services
need to ensure that forms of labour-substitution, technical advice
and credit services are made available to AIDS-affected farm
families. Such projects should review the impact of HIV/AIDS
both in terms of increased mortality among agricultural extension
staff, but also in terms of the reduction of the work time as a
result of the increase in funeral attendence.
In countries or regions where AIDS is claiming the lives of
skilled labour and the labour market is limited in this labour
segment, consideration of the impact of AIDS may be critical to
the success and sustainability of investment projects. Recruitment,
personnel replacement, training strategies and employment benefits
(medical, pension funds, etc) may have to be revised accordingly.
For any training activity, HIV/AIDS may have to be taken
into account both in terms of replacement/re-training provisions
and strategies, but also in terms of revising training curricula.
Recommendations
General recommendations at the planning and policy level
One result of the research conducted to date is that the impact of
HIV/AIDS is uneven between and within countries, thus it follows
that policy responses must be developed in relation to the
situation as it is observed in particular regions, districts and
communities and thus that local involvement in policy and project
development is essential. Even in countries with high national
rates of seroprevalence and cumulative AIDS cases, it is quite
difficult to observe the impact of the epidemic in rural
communities. This is because the epidemic manifests marked
regional and local variations and the impact may vary dramatically
over small distances. This has implications for the method to be
used in any future work on this problem. Community involvement
should be ensured in diagnosis and programming if resources are to
be used most effectively.
In communities, where the impact is just being felt it may
be necessary to think in terms of rapid response so as to ensure
that labour-economising strategies are immediately developed for
the specific needs of this type of community through the extension
services, research stations and NGOs. In such communities
extension messages with explicit HIV/AIDS components should
include both general HIV/AIDS advice and education on the
disease and also advice how to cope with the known impacts of
HIV/AIDS on rural livelihoods and production.
The incorporation of HIV/AIDS in the project cycle
In countries with pandemic proportions of HIV/AIDS its impact
should be taken into account in all steps of a project cycle such
as project identification and design, project appraisal, project
implementation and monitoring & evaluation.
In the project identification phase, it is important to find
out, to what extent HIV/AIDS is prevalent in a project area.
Statistical data provide a first indication, but as experience
shows, they often differ significantly from the real situation.
Therefore the potential impact of AIDS should be included in
Participatory Rural Appraisal and Rapid Rural Appraisal exercises.
The identification of target groups should be taken serious to
ensure that AIDS affected families are not excluded and that their
special needs are addressed.
The implications of AIDS need to be considered in cost-
benefit analyses on which labour shortages, reduced agricultural
yields, absenteeism, etc have their effect. For the project
implementation phase the reduced labour availability of both
project staff and beneficiaries to participate in project
activities should be reflected in the workplan.
The impact of the epidemic on projects needs to be closely
monitored in order to make timely adjustments. Due to the special
nature of HIV/AIDS the impact is expected to become more
serious over the next years. Project strategies and interventions
should be revised accordingly.
Vulnerability mapping
In general, HIV/AIDS farming system/rural livelihood vulnerability
mapping should be developed for countries with high
seroprevalence rates where an intervention is being planned. This
serves a number of purposes. It enables the broad identification of
risk by administrative area, agro-ecological zone, farming systems
and livelihood strategy. It also provides a framework for the
development of area-specific policies and would facilitate the
monitoring of impact and policy outcomes.
Determining epidemic impact on labour availability
There is considerable difficulty in distinguishing epidemic impact
on labour availability from other background effects such as local
labour market operation. Nevertheless, since a major result of
HIV/AIDS impact is increased pressure on the household labour
economy, the most important programme and policy responses are
those which enable people to cope with the results of labour loss.
Recommendations include working with local people to develop
labour economising responses.
Given that the main burden of the impact at the household
level falls on the labour economy of the household, this has many
implications for the targeting of assistance on women, children and
in some cases widowed men who are raising children. Policy
responses should also endeavour to integrate all aspects of poverty
relief, domestic and farm labour, the educational needs of orphans
and other young people, food security and income generation.
Focus on women
To assist women, especially those who are or may become (e.g. by
reason of sickness or divorce) heads of households, action should
be taken in the following areas:
o Land and inheritance laws; such legislation should be
reviewed so as to clearly stipulate land ownership rights
for women. Although laws may not discriminate against
women with regard to land rights, traditional or customary
laws often do. In this regard, state laws should prevail
over customary or religious laws;
o Assistance is generally required in the transport, storage
(e.g. through the provision of milling facilities for grains
in order to produce flour) and in the marketing of produce.
o Access by women to draught power, farm implements and
other inputs;
o Provision of adequate extension services especially to
women in remote areas.
o Encouragement of group formation among widows who
carry much of the burden of coping.
Exploring and disseminating existing coping strategies
Communities and households have developed their own coping
mechanisms. The reorganisation of cropping schedules, selection
of cultivars, and the rearrangement of domestic/farm labour
relationships are some examples. Some of the accumulated
experience of coping strategies should be documented and members
of full impact communities should be encouraged to share their
experience with pre-impact and early impact communities. This
sharing could be achieved both via the extension services and
NGOs and through the facilitation of direct contacts between
members of different communities.
Cost recovery
Cost recovery of both school and medical costs have become more
widespread in recent years as part of liberalisation programmes.
These place additional burdens on all households and in particular
on affected households. Relief in these two areas could make an
important contribution to both current and future welfare of rural
households.
At the micro level
In broad terms, for individual farming systems, the following basic
types of activities are required in order to improve the economic
returns to labour:
o Extending the planting period (minimum tillage, early
maturing varieties, crops and methods for later planting);
o Crop diversification and reducing external input
requirements;
o Improved livestock management techniques;
o Small credit schemes.
Income-generating activities
Where appropriate, small home-based income-generating
opportunities and petty trading activities may be considered.
However, these may well mean that provision needs to be made to
ensure access to credit by small farmers, either as individuals or
groups. But local initiatives and ideas are only feasible in
circumstances where there are markets for products.
Encouragement of any kind of income-generating activity should
consider access to the inputs needed for the activity, storage and
transport facilities. The marketability of the product should be a
prerequisite.
Health
The large number of AIDS affected families in areas of high
seroprevalence means that the care of AIDS patients is an
important, time-consuming and expensive part of the daily lives of
such households. Many of those interviewed in the course of the
field studies whose families had been affected by AIDS said that
they preferred to have patients die at home. Measures should
therefore be taken regarding the home care of HIV/AIDS patients
to provide for the training of family members in the basic skills
of patient care to avoid the risk of infection and provide
resources so that households can afford food, treatment and bedding
for the sick. In all farming systems, regardless of the stage of
epidemic impact, AIDS prevention measures, most notably through
health education, urgently need to be introduced or strengthened as
the case may be.
Nutrition
Efforts should be made to improve the diets of households burdened
by having to care for patients or having a high dependency ratio,
because of children (and mothers) who have been relocated through
divorce and death. Greater encouragement should be given to:
o Creating awareness of the need for a balanced diet (and
therefore for diversified production);
o Mothers continuing breastfeeding even when pregant again;
o Improving food preparation (many foods are frequently over
cooked);
o Involving men in nutrition programmes; and
o Promoting child spacing programmes (i.e. to allow
sufficient time for a baby to be adequately weaned and to
grow before the next child is born).
=================================================================
Literature consulted
Barnett, T. and Blaikie, P., AIDS in Africa: its present and
future impact, Belhaven Press, London and Guilford Press, New York,
1992.
Barnett, T. The Effects of HIV/AIDS on Farmings Systems and
Rural Livelihoods in Uganda, Tanzania and Zambia, AGSP, FAO,
Rome, February 1994
Drinkwater, M., The Effects of HIV/AIDS on Agricultural
Production Systems in Zambia, Vol. 1, Vol.2, Mpongwe Field
Report and Vol.3, Teta Field Report, AGSP, FAO, Rome, 1993.
FAO. Farming Systems Development: Guidelines for the Conduct
of a Training Course in Farming Systems Development. Rome,
1990.
Haslwimmer, M., The Social and Economic Impact on Nakambala
Sugar Estate, AGSP, FAO, January, 1994.
Kapinga, A., Kissawike, K., Ndelike, M. and Ngasonga, J.,
Report on the Study of Effects of HIV/AIDS on Agricultural
Production Systems in Tanzania, Institute of Development Studies,
Sokoine Agricultural University, Morogoro, Tanzania and AGSP,
FAO, Rome, October 1993.
Mitti, G., Zambia: The Major Farming Systems, a summary of
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analysis of socio-economic studies and provincial reports, Adaptive
Planning Research Team, Mount Makulu Central Research Station,
Zambia and AGSP, FAO, Rome, September 1993.
Topouzis, D., The Implications of HIV/AIDS on Investment Centre
Work, DDC, FAO, Rome, January 1994
Tumushabe, J., Bantebya, G. and Ssebuliba, R., The Effects of
HIV/AIDS on Agricultural Production Systems and Rural Livelihood
Systems in Eastern Africa: Uganda, AGSP, FAO, Rome, October
1993.
WHO. The HIV/AIDS Pandemic: 1993 Overview, Global Programme on
AIDS, Geneva, 1993