UN Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
with support from the UN Population Fund (UNFPA)
|
| UN Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, with support from the UN Population Fund (UNFPA) |
|
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The electronic version of this document is being made available by the
Population Information Network (POPIN) of the United Nations Population
Division (DESIPA), in collaboration with the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Population Programme Service, Women
and Population Division. For further information please contact Mr.
Jacques du Guerny via email at: jacques.duguerny@fao.org
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Viale delle Terme di Caracalla,
00100 Rome, Italy
RURAL WOMEN, POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT
IN LUSOPHONE AFRICAN COUNTRIES
An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Literature
in Portuguese Language
1991 - 1996
Population Programme Service (SDWP)*
Women and Population Division
Sustainable Development Department
FAO
This has been prepared by Zoran Roca with the financial
assistance of the UNFPA Technical Support System
* For further information, contact point
Fax: (39 6) 5225 5490
e-mail: jacques.duguerny@fao.org
==============================================================
Contents
INTRODUCTION 1
METHODOLOGICAL NOTES AND COMMENTS
Selection and presentation of references 2
Sources of literature 3
Comments on the broader body of consulted literature 5
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY - PART ONE
Angola 6
Cape Verde 11
Guinea Bissau 16
Mozambique 27
Sao Tome e Principe 36
PALOPs 36
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY - PART TWO
Index 41
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Themes 44
Authors 45
Institutions 45
Suggestions for FAO/UNFPA TSS 46
===================================================================
INTRODUCTION
Removing cultural, political and other barriers between the
receivers and donors is a precondition for effective international
transfer of knowledge and technical assistance for development.
Eliminating such barriers means laying grounds for better
understanding of, and responding to, the needs of the developing
countries, and should contribute to the strengthening of their human
resource and institutional capacities.
In this context, the Bibliography presented here is an attempt
at providing additional grounds for the implementation of the
FAO/UNFPA TSS in parts of Africa that still tend to remain behind
communication barriers.
FAO and UNFPA have been jointly providing technical assistance
to countries with quite different cultural, economic and political
backgrounds, and the Country Support Teams (CSTs) established
collaboration with, and strengthened the capacity of, African
academic and other institutions, NGOs and Governments through many
programmes and projects. However, in this process of international
cultural integration around population activities, one group of
African countries has been lagging behind, namely the group of
Lusophone countries: Angola, Cape Verde, Guinea Bissau, Mozambique
and Sao Tome e Principe. These countries, their institutions and
individual experts, have not been as intensively integrated in the
implementation of FAO/UNFPA TSS as those from the majority of
countries belonging to the Anglophone and Francophone parts of
Africa.
The reasons for a lower participation of Lusophone countries -
officially addressing themselves as the PALOPs (Paises Africanos de
Lingua Official Portuguesa) - are to be found in their cultural
isolation from international communication and co-operation for
development due to:
- language, i.e., scholars and institutions communicating in
Portuguese have virtually been unknown in the mainstream,
internationally accepted, and English dominated, evolution
of concepts and practices in Population and Development
in Africa;
- politics, i.e., the PALOPs were the last to achieve
independence from the colonial rule, initially adhered to
the ideologically biased co-operation with the East, and
have till recently suffered from civil wars and political
strives; and
- underdevelopment, i.e., by all socio-economic and demographic
standards, the PALOPs are among the least developed
countries. The nature and dimensions of poverty- and war-
provoked emergency situations have prompted sizable
influxes of international humanitarian aid to them, while
true technical assistance for development only recently
emerged as more important.
The largest portion of world literature on population/
development-related issues in the PALOPs has been realized by
European (especially French, German and Swedish), as well as by
Canadian scholars and institutions. The titles in Portuguese are very
few. Population issues per se do not figure high on the agenda of
academic or policy research in the PALOPs themselves, nor in Master
theses and Doctoral dissertations of students from the PALOPs at
Universities in Portugal. Human resource and institutional bases
needed for continuous data collection, research and interpretations
of population dynamics, and their translation into development
programmes and projects, have yet to be consolidated in the PALOPs.
However, there is an important portion of sociological,
anthropological, economic, political science and other research in
the PALOPs themselves, as well as on the PALOPs realized in Portugal,
that does address many aspects of population/development issues and
dilemmas in these countries. It is probably the very weight of the
population problem in the PALOPs that is making þpopulationþ a non-
avoidable, and indeed motivating topic in development-related
research outside of Population Studies. In particular, sociological
and economic literature devoted to food and agricultural production
and rural development issues in the PALOPs frequently bears important
references to major population issues, such as, natural increase and
spatial distribution versus natural resource base, age and sex
ratios, cultural and micro-economic contexts of reproductive behavior
and family formation, rural exodus, international migration, human
labour requirements versus farming technology, etc.
This Bibliography attempts at presenting and assessing the
available literature in Portuguese on population, agriculture and
rural development in the PALOPs from the perspective of the
sensibility and competence of authors for one particular, pressing,
and strategically crucial issue: gender-relations in the rural
setting. In view of the traditional and new gender-asymmetries
against women in Africa, as well as of the key role African women
play in subsistence agriculture and management of family resources,
no wonder that literature on population, agriculture and rural
development in the PALOPs addresses the status and role of women and
gender-relations from the perspective of various disciplines.
Through annotations of nearly one hundred selected references,
this Bibliography thus intends to shed more light on the manner in
which the theme of Women, Population and Development (WPD) figures
in the main focus, or as part of broader interpretations of
agriculture and rural development issues in the PALOPs.
=====================================================================
METHODOLOGICAL NOTES AND COMMENTS
Selection and presentation of references
The basic criteria applied in the selection of references for
this Bibliography have been the following:
- referred literature is in Portuguese language;
- referred literature analyzes phenomena related to, and
linkages between, status and roles of women, population
issues, and agriculture and rural development in the
PALOPs;
- referred literature has been produced since 1981; and
- referred literature is available for consultation in Lisbon.
In the Bibliography, each reference appears in its Portuguese
original, followed by English translation of the main title, and by
an annotation. All annotations contain, to a maximum extent possible,
the following elements:
- indication of the nature and purpose of the referred text;
- indication of the manner in which rural women, population and
development figure in the text (e.g., main focus, chapter,
section, substantive references, etc.); and
- technical substance and main findings.
The typology of the selected references as regards their format is
as follows:
- author's monographs (books);
- "readers", i.e. books containing collections of author's
articles;
- author's articles and bibliographies in periodicals;
unpublished doctoral dissertations, master theses, and
graduation papers;
- books of proceedings from technical meetings;
- author's papers at technical meetings;
- unpublished field project and desk research reports;
- unpublished technical support texts by individual experts or
institutions (e.g., prepared for sensibilization and
training courses, etc.); and
- publications issued by governmental and non-governmental
organizations (e.g., statistical reviews, technical
manuals, booklets, briefs, etc.) containing information
and/or discussion on issues of relevance to gender-
relations and the status of women in the rural setting.
The Bibliography consists of two main parts. Part One contains
bibliographic references in separate sections for Angola, Cape Verde,
Guinea Bissau, Mozambique and Sao Tome e Principe. As appropriate,
references are grouped (in authors' alphabetical order) under the
following topics:
- Gender Relations in Agriculture;
- Gender in Family Relations;
- Women's and Children's Livelihoods;
- Women and Migration;
- Women and Environment;
- Women and Development Policies and Projects; and
- Miscellanies.
Part One also contains a section with references dealing with
two or more PALOPs.
Part Two presents the same references (in fact, the numbers
under which they appear in Part One) grouped under selected "key
words", or denominators, which are relevant to WPD-related issues in
the context of agriculture and rural development.
Sources of literature
This bibliographic research has revealed the existence of at
least sixteen different specialized libraries and information/
documentation centers and other relevant sources in Lisbon, ranging
from NGOs to Universities. Full names and addresses of these sources
are listed hereunder.
NGOs dealing with PALOPs
CIDAC - Centro de Informacao e Documentacao Amilcar Cabral
Centro de Documentacao
Rua Pinheiro Chagas, 77, 3§ Esq. - Lisboa
INDE - Intercooperacao e Desenvolvimento
Biblioteca e Centro de Informacao/Documentacao
Rua Gomes Freire, 211, 4§ Dto. - Lisboa
OIKOS - Cooperacao e Desenvolvimento
Centro de Estudantes Africanos
Rua S. Tiago, 9 - Lisboa
Higher education institutions
Universidade de Lisboa
Faculdade de Letras, Instituto de Estudos Africanos
Centro de Documentacao, Cidade Universitaria - Lisboa
Universidade Nova de Lisboa:
Faculdade de Ciencias Sociais e Humanas
Departamento de Antropologia, Centro de Documentaco
Avenida da Berna, 24 - Lisboa
Faculdade de Ciencias Sociais e Humanas
Departamento de Geografia e Planeamento Regional,
Biblioteca
Avenida da Berna, 24 - Lisboa
Universidade "Lusofona" de Humanidades e Tecnologias
Biblioteca, Largo de Sequeira, 7 - Lisboa
Universidade Tecnica de Lisboa:
Instituto Superior de Agronomia (ISAG), Biblioteca central
Tapada da Ajuda - Lisboa
Instituto Superior de Ciencias Sociais e Politicas (ISCSP)
Biblioteca e Documentacao, Rua da Junqueira, 86 - Lisboa
Instituto Superior de Economia e Gestao (ISEG)
Centro de Estudos sobre Africa e do Desenvolvimento
Rua Miguel Lupi, 20 - Lisboa
Instituto Superior de Ciencias de Trabalho e da Empresa (ISCTE)
Centro de Estudos Africanos, Avenida Forcas Armadas -
Lisboa
Research and other institutions
Instituto de Investigacao Cientifica Tropical
Centro de Documentacao e Informacao, Rua de Jau, 47 - Lisboa
Fundacao Calouste Gulbenkian
Servico de Bibliotecas e Apoio a Leitura, Avenida da Berna 56 -
Lisboa
Ministerio da Agricultura
Servico de Informacao, Praca do Comercio - Lisboa
Museu Nacional de Etnologia
Biblioteca, Avenida Ilha da Madeira - Lisboa
Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa
Biblioteca, Rua das Portas de Sao Antao, 100 - Lisboa
Comments on the broader body of consulted literature
As part of the process of identification of appropriate sources
of bibliographic information, and during the search for references
for inclusion in this Bibliography, a vast body of literature on
agriculture and rural development, and on the rural setting in the
PALOPs in general, had to be examined. An assessment of some
characteristics of the part of that literature which was not selected
to enter this Bibliography is given below.
- The majority of texts are geared to cultural (i.e., ethnological,
linguistic, artistic) and to political (international
relations, government ideology, administration, etc.) than to
the economic, social, or technological issues;
- In texts on economic issues, the macro-themes and sectoral approaches
dominate over micro-level strategic or practical issues in food
security and agricultural production, even when the smallholder
sector is referred to;
- There are no periodicals or other publications which would
systematically cover, or focus exclusively on, the situation
and policy issues in the social sphere of agricultural
production, food security and rural development at the micro-
level (i.e., family household, local community);
- In documents on planned and realized programmes and projects in food
production and rural development, etc., distinctions among
beneficiaries most often do not go beyond þfarmersþ, or
"families";
- Almost as a rule, books on household and national food security and
agricultural development are full of photo-illustrations of
women-farmers and women-managers of family resources. However,
the word "woman" virtually never appears in these texts. Rural
women (i.e., their specific problems) remain hidden under terms
such as farmers, villagers, co-operative members, domestic
groups, family producers, family members, farm workers,
agricultural labour, the young, the old, project beneficiaries,
rural population, etc.
On the other side, the bibliographic search has identified an
important amount of references in which linkages between the roles
of women, population dynamics and rural development in the PALOPs are
explicitly presented and are well elaborated. The Bibliography
presented in the next section is a proof to that effect. (An
assessment of its content is given in Conclusions and
Recommendations.)
=====================================================================
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY - PART ONE
A N G O L A
GENDER RELATIONS IN AGRICULTURE
1
CARVALHO, Ruy Duarte de (1989). Ana a Manda: os Filhos da Rede.
Identidade Colectiva, Criatividade Social e Producao da
Diferenca Cultural - um Caso Muxiluanda. Lisboa: Instituto de
Investigacao Cientifica Tropical, pp. 354.
Ana a Manda: Sons of the Network. Collective Identity, Social
Creativity and Cultural Difference - a Muxiluanda Case-Study
The livelihood situation of the fish-folk (called þmuxiluandaþ)
on the Island of Luanda is presented in great detail in this
monograph, covering historical and present aspects of their labour-
intensive economy and culture. The importance of women in the
transformation and commercialization of fish is explained in the
context of the overall intra- and inter-family household division of
labour. Social values and norms, as well as various cultural and
religious expressions are presented, with many references to the
prevailing gender-relations. In particular, the therapeutic-religious
importance of the kalundus (ancestral spirit) in relation to the
fertility is stressed.
2
EASTERMANN; Carlos (1983). Etnografia de Angola (Sudoeste e Centro):
Colectƒnea de Artigos Dispersos. Lisboa: Instituto de
Investigacao Cientifica Tropical, pp. 483.
Ethnography of Angola (South-East and Centre): A Collection of
Dispersed Articles
This reader contains some thirty articles with references to
the cultural aspects of gender- and age-related division of labour
and responsibilities in subsistence agriculture, home management and
intra-family community relations among the peoples of Central and
South-Eastern Angola. Traditional and changing religious and
spiritual aspects of social institutions, social communication and,
to a lesser extent, of micro-economic relations, are presented in
great detail.
3
KRANTZ, Lasse (1984). A Pesca Artesanal em Angola: Estudo Socio-
economico do Apoio Sueco a Pesca Artesanal em Angola.
Estocolmo: Universidade de Estocolmo, Instituto de Antropologia
Social, Seccao de Estudos da Problematica do Desenvolvimento,
pp. 71. (mimeo.)
Artisanal Fishery in Angola: A Socio-Economic Analysis of the Swedish
Assistance to Artisanal Fishery in Angola
This study elaborates on the economic, social and institutional
factors conditioning the present and future practice of small-scale
fishery in the areas of Barra do Dande, Ambriz, Soyo and Cabinda,
that is, in the regions where the fishing technology was improved
thanks to a Swedish technical assistance project. Though only men
catch the fish and women are farmers, women's role in artisanal
fishery production cycle is considered as particularly important. In
Barra do Dande, for example, it has become a common practice that
women buy a considerable quantity of fresh fish from their husbands
and then dry it and sell it at better prices. Women keep their own
money accounts separately from those of men, and make use of that
money independently in running the family economy.
4
PACHECO, Fernando (1991). Agricultura e Sociedade Rural na Angola
dos Anos 60: O Caso de Malanje - Subsidios para a Compreensao
dos Sistema Agrarios em Presenca. (s.l.), (s.n.), pp. 66.
(mimeo.)
Agriculture and Rural Society in Angola in the Sixties: The Case of
Malanje - a Contribution to the Understanding of Contemporary
Agrarian Systems
This study attempts to explain the linkages among the economic,
social, environmental and legal conditions under which smallholders'
agriculture was coping during the last ten years of the Portuguese
colonial rule. Gender related differentials are highlighted in the
analysis of the access to the agricultural land, as well as of the
labour division in farm and home tasks, in the production of specific
farm cultures, and in the marketing of produce. The subtle forms of
harsh and determined social and cultural resistance of men and women
in confrontation with the imposed social and political system by the
colonial authority are also described.
5
URLICH, Susan (1992). Mulheres no Desenvolvimento: Angola - Analise
Generica do Pais (Volume I). Luanda: Autoridade Sueca para o
Desenvolvimento Internacional - ASDI; Ler & Escrever, pp.124.
(mimeo.)
Women in Development: Angola - a Generic Analysis of the Country
This is an interdisciplinary study of socio-economic
development issues in Angola, specifically from the perspective of
women's status and roles. In the chapter on agriculture, major
women's farming tasks (manioc, corn, vegetables, etc.) are described
in detail. It is also explained how women's nutritional status has
been significantly worsened due to war situation and Angola's
dependency on food imports. The war also affected the extension
services and rural credit. Women today receive by far less technical
assistance and have much less access to technological improvements
than men. Women-heads of households in rural areas are the poorest
of the poor. Numerous recommendations are offered for the improvement
of women's status in agriculture, and in other sectors.
=====================================================================
GENDER IN FAMILY RELATIONS
6
FONSECA, Antonio (1984). Sobre os Kikongos de Angola. Sao Paulo:
Edicþes 70, pp.118.
About the Kikongos of Angola
This monograph presents a socio-anthropological interpretation
of the traditional life-style of the Kikongo people in Cabinda and
other Northern provinces of Angola. The accent is on the patterns of
kinship and family formation and on cultural values and practices
related to different phases and events in the life-cycles of men,
women, boys and girls, including nutritional habits, principles of
justice, educational aspirations, etc. Polygamy is very common. Women
are the main responsible for subsistence agricultural production in
the savanna areas and along the lagoons (and men in the forest
regions). Certain types of fishing activities also belong to the
exclusive tasks of women.
7
LIMA, Mesquitela (1989). Os Kiaka de Angola. (Volume II). Lisboa:
Edicoes Tavola Redonda, pp. 221.
The Kiaka People of Angola
This monograph contains a detailed socio-anthropological
analysis of the kinship system among the Kiakas (a Bantu sub-group),
with references to family issues such as the access to, and use of,
agricultural land, inheritance rules, segmentation of the lineage
bonds, relations between husbands and wives, parents and children and
among all other family members, etc. The present patrilineal system
still contains various traces of the matrilineal system which was
dominated in the earlier period.
=====================================================================
WOMEN'S AND CHILDREN'S LIVELIHOODS
8
ADRA (1993). Pobreza e Crise Social em Angola: Relatorio Final.
Workshop da Accao para o Desenvolvimento Rural e Ambiente
(ADRA), Banco Mundial e Secretaria do Estado do Planeamento.
Luanda: ADRA. (mimeo.)
Poverty and Social Crisis in Angola: Final Report.
These deliberations at the ADRA workshop were focused on the
following three areas: first, diagnosis of the situation of poverty,
with the identification of target populations and causes of poverty;
second, definition of individual and group survival strategies to
combat poverty; and third, proposals for actions and related agents.
Rural families, and especially rural women, are most affected by all
aspects of poverty. The situation of women who became single heads
of households due to the war is referred to frequently in many parts
of the Report. Policy of promoting women's status is stressed as an
important strategic aspect in local community development
initiatives. Detailed indicators of poverty in Angola are presented
in the paper "Diagnostico da Pobreza em Angola" by Carlos Machado,
annexed to the Report.
9
ADRA (1990). Simposio Nacional sobre a Crianca. Luanda: Accao para o
desenvolvimento rural e ambiente (ADRA). (mimeo.)
National Symposium on Children
This conference was devoted to the pressing issues bothering
the social and economic situation of children in Angola, such as
children's rights, health and nutrition, water and sanitation, basic
education, family situation, poverty and children in exceptionally
difficult situations. In the policy recommendations on children and
family it is stressed, inter alia, that women should have access to
labour saving technologies, especially those needed in farming, so
as to alleviate the need for a considerable amount of child work.
=====================================================================
WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT POLICIES AND PROJECTS
10
MORAIS, Julio de; PACHECO, Fernando (1991). Diagnostico das
Associacos de Camponeses em Angola: Provincias de Huila,
Huambo e Malanje. Luanda: Association pour la cooperation,
recherche et developpement (ACORD); Accao para o
desenvolvimento rural e ambiente (ADRA), pp. 78.
A Diagnosis of Peasants' Associations in Angola: Provinces of Huila,
Huambo e Malanje
It is argued in this study, realized in co-operation with the
National Union of Peasants (Uniao Nacional dos Camponenses - UNCA),
that the role and conditions of smallholder agricultural producers
are not sufficiently known in the context of Angola's agricultural
and rural development. The study attempts to shed some light to that
effect. It is stressed, inter alia, that women hold the key to family
food production, but that they are far from technical assistance and
local power structures. It is argued that women farmers should have
a greater access to farmers' associations and their management
structures. This should not be realized as yet another demagogic
formality regarding women's emancipation, but rather directly, i.e.,
in the context of efforts to improve the family production. Projects
should be designed and implemented so as to treat women equally as
men in their productive capacities, responsibilities and benefits.
11
OMA (1983). A Mulher e a Familia. Luanda: Organizacao das Mulheres
Angolanas OMA, pp. 27.
Women and Family
After an introduction with the description of the traditional
subordinate roles of women against the new socialist values and
institutions that should allow women's full emancipation, this
political-technical booklet brings about an overview of the situation
of young women, single women, and women housewives. It also reviews
sexual education and family planning, the abortion issue, and the
prostitution. Child spacing and contraceptive practices are proposed
as key contributions to the good health of the mother and the child.
Single mothers, it is argued, should be given greater assistance,
while education and remunerated work are viewed as pivotal to women's
emancipation.
12
OMA (1983). A Mulher Trabalhadora. Luanda: Organizacao das Mulheres
Angolanas (OMA), pp. 23.
Working Women
The major part of this booklet is devoted to the unfavourable
situation of rural women, and to the need to provide assistance for
their full integration into the socialist society, as well as to the
mother's and child's protection and care as an indispensable
precondition for women's ability to participate in the active labour
force. Statistical data and other information are given about low
educational and health-nutritional status of rural women, as well as
data on the role of the family sector agricultural production. The
division of labour between men and women is as follows: in the North,
men cultivate coffee palms, and cotton, and women take care of the
manioc, sweet potato and other subsistence products. In the South,
men farm corn for own use and for the exchange for other products,
while women are responsible for daily food production on small plots.
=====================================================================
MISCELLANIES
13
LIMA, Mesquitela (1991). Angola: uma Perspectiva Socio-Antropologica.
Africa Hoje. n§ 42, pp.33-35; n§ 43; pp.79-85; n§. 44,
pp. 28-33.
Angola: A Socio-Anthropological Perspective
This is a geographical, socio-anthropological and political
analysis of the present regional distribution of the population in
Angola, by ethnic groups. An exhaustive listing of names of all
ethnic groups in Portuguese, as well as in the native languages, is
provided.
14
SILVA, Helia Lains e (1993). Contribuicao para uma Bibliografia sobre
Agricultura, Silvicultura, Pecuaria e Pescas da Angola.
Comunicacoes - Series de Ciencias Agrarias, n§ 12, Lisboa:
Instituto de Investigacao Cientifica Tropical, pp. 160.
Contribution to a Bibliography on Agriculture, Forestry, Animal
Husbandry and Fisheries in Angola
This bibliography of international literature on the entire
agricultural sector in Angola is structured around topics which,
inter alia, bear direct relevance to social, economic, technological,
institutional and other conditions of rural development. Such topics
are: Social Change, Human Resources, Land Occupation, Population,
Settlements, Farming Systems, and Quality of Life.
=====================================================================
C A P E V E R D E
GENDER AND LABOUR IN AGRICULTURE
15
ABREU, A. Trigo de (1985). Familia e Trabalho numa Comunidade
Camponesa de Cabo Verde. Revista Internacional de Estudos
Africanos, n§ 3, pp. 85-106.
Family and Labour in a Peasant Community in Cape Verde
This article discusses the labour-exchange systems in a
community of 90 peasant families on the Island of Santiago. Peculiar
climatic conditions are the major constraint to agriculture, imposing
the need for reconciling time-consuming farming operations with a
very rigid farming calendar. Labour requirements and labour supply
mechanisms are analyzed, particularly from the perspective of the
four major sources of labour supply: the household, the kinship
system, and the established labour-reciprocity schemes called djuda
and junta-mao. The common function of these forms of labour supply
are presented, as well as their specific functions in relation to
family and the access to land.
=====================================================================
GENDER IN FAMILY RELATIONS
16
DEPRAETERE, Marguerite (1983). Estudo Monografico sobre o Papel da
Mulher Rural na Organizacao dos Recursos e Consumos. Regiao do
Serelho. Lisboa: Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciencia, Centro de
Estudos de Economia Agraria, pp. 23.
A Monographic Study on the Role of Rural Women in the Organization
of Resources and Consumption. The Region of Serelho.
This is a base-line study of the productive and reproductive
roles of women in over one hundred households in the area of Serelho
in Cape Verde, specifically women whose husbands emigrated,
separated women, widows, and single women with or without children.
Besides the analysis of the labour requirements and the division of
work within the households, the study also presents the dynamics of
the established inter-household complementarities in labour exchange
and other matters, as well as the patterns of maintaining community
cohesion in economic, social and cultural terms.
17
LOPES, Joao (1993). Ilha de S. Nicolau - Cabo Verde: Formacao da
Sociedade e Mudanca Social. Dissertacao de Doutoramento.
Departamento de Antropologia, Faculdade de Ciencias Sociais e
Humanas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, pp. 1049 + 415. (mimeo.)
The Island of S. Nicolau - Cape Verde: Formation of the Society and
Social Change
The first volume of this interdisciplinary study of recent
social developments on St. Nicholas (a medium-size, central island
in the Cape Verdian archipelago) contains extensive references to the
features of socio-demographic development, as well as to the linkages
between the traditional smallholders' agriculture and the very harsh
natural environment. As part of the socio-cultural interpretation of
the extended family formation and structures, specific references are
provided on the situation of rural women, stressing their profoundly
subordinate status in the context of the dominant patriarchal system
and paternalistic values. It is argued that, at present, this
situation largely represents an extension of rural women's racial,
class-wise and sexual discrimination from the colonial period.
Praising women exclusively as spouses and mothers remains strong in
all forms of popular cultural expression.
The second volume is mostly devoted to migratory patterns,
especially international emigration. It is emphasized that the
overpopulation of the island has been the key push-factor in
emigration to USA, Brazil and Argentina, Europe (mostly to Portugal),
and to African countries (mostly to Senegal, Sao Tome e Principe, and
Angola). The emigrants' families tend to maintain the traditional
gender- and age-division of labour and social relations in the
countries of destination, and women tend to be confined to domestic
tasks. They only rarely get remunerated jobs (most usually work as
low-paid servants). The other part of this volume covers issues
related to the development of the island's agriculture, as well as
to the modern socio-cultural paradigms, characterized by the profound
gender-inequalities, particularly as regards the lower educational
attainment of girls than boys.
18
RASETH, Antonio Jose Ferreira (1988). Contributo para a Compreensao
da Sociedade Cabo-verdiana. Seminario de Investigacao: 4§ ano
da Licenciatura em Antropologia, Faculdade de Ciencias Sociais
e Humanas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, pp. 141. (mimeo.)
A Contribution to the Understanding of the Cape Verdian Society
This is a study of the Cape Verdian family structures and
dynamics, with special emphasis on the context of socio-demographic
change and national population policy. After a historical overview
of political, social and economic circumstances in the country, major
aspects of contemporary rural family life are analyzed such as, for
example, the life-cycle of family members, gender and age-related
relations, moral values and reproductive behavior, including the
practice of family planning. It is illustrated how, though men are
still formally accepted as dominant decision-makers, daily management
of family resources has increasingly become women's task, -
especially as regards the allocation of money.
19
VARGAS, Flor Maria (1988). Situacao Demografica e Situacao da Familia
em Cabo Verde. Integracao das Variaveis Demograficas na
Planificacao. Simposio Nacional. Praia: Ministerio do Plano e
da Cooperacao, Unidade de Populacao, pp. 87-101.
Demographic and Family Situation in Cape Verde
Based on statistical evidence, it is demonstrated in this study
that women's low educational attainment and unequal legal status, as
well as their low economic power, are the key factors determining
high fertility rates. One major problem women face is the lack of
responsibility among husbands and fathers, who are often long-term
migrants, so that women are left alone to manage the household
resources. In the poorest rural areas, women have as many as eight
or nine children.
=====================================================================
WOMEN'S AND CHILDREN'S LIVELIHOODS
20
CARDOSO, Margarida (1988). Papel da Mulher no Desenvolvimento
Economico e Social do Pais. Integracao das Variaveis
Demograficas na Planificacao. Simposio Nacional. Praia;
Ministerio do Plano e da Cooperacao, Unidade de Populacao,
pp. 32-38.
Role of Women in Economic and Social Development of the Country
Lower rates of school enrollment, higher rates of school
dropouts and lower level of overall educational attainment of women
than of men are reviewed in this paper. Some major underlying causes
are outlined, such as early pregnancy, traditional cultural
attitudes, etc. One third of rural households in Cape Verde are
headed by women. Yet, only 16 % of women are owners of the land.
Women engaged in the commercialization of fish are, on average, 29
years old. Over 71% of women are not literate; and, each woman has
4.3 persons to care for in the household. Polygamy is widespread,
although men are obliged by law to marry only once. The emigration
of males has caused a significant increase in women's
responsibilities, especially as regards the bringing up of children,
and the burden of physical labour.
21
DUPRET, Alice (1988). Proteccao da Mae e da Crianca: Planeamento
Familiar em Cabo Verde. Integracao das Variaveis Demograficas
na Planificacao. Simposio Nacional. Praia: Ministerio do Plano
e da Cooperacao, Unidade de Populacao, pp. 70-78.
Mother and Child Protection: Family Planning in Cape Verde
The paper describes the state of health of mothers in Cape
Verde, and stresses the major issues related to the risks of their
vulnerability, such as anemia, early pregnancy, STDs, etc., as well
as to the risks faced by children, such as infections, and other
causes of mortality. Health problems related to malnutrition are also
highlighted. The experience with family planning services are
described in detail, presenting both successes and failures in urban
and rural areas. Policy recommendations advocate the integration of
MCH/FP with the system of health services and with socio-economic
development programmes.
=====================================================================
WOMEN AND MIGRATION
22
MEINTEL, Deirdre (1984). Emigracao em Cabo Verde: Solucao ou
Problema? Revista Internacional de Estudos Africanos, n§ 3,
pp. 121-161.
Cape Verdian Emigration: Solution or Problem?
In this study of the pre- and post-independence periods of
emigration from Cape Verde to other African countries, to Portugal,
USA and elsewhere, the major argument is that emigration has caused
negative social and other consequences, which now impede the
country's development. For example, new marriage and household
patterns were introduced, especially marriages by proxy, arranged by
correspondence. The preponderance of able-bodied males among the
emigrants has resulted in a new type of household, matrifocal in
composition, yet patriarchal in its structure of authority.
23
SAUDE, Olga Guilhermina de Almeida (1994). A Mulher Cabo-verdiana e
o Trabalho Domestico: Saberes e Poderes. Seminario de
Investigacao: 4§ Ano da Licenciatura em Antropologia, Faculdade
de Ciencias Sociais e Humanas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa,
pp. 83. (mimeo.)
The Cape Verdian Woman and Domestic Work: Know-How and Power
This is an analysis of the life histories of, and coping
strategies adopted/practiced in household resource management among,
the Cape Verdian women living in the shanty-towns of Lisbon. Most of
them had first emigrated with their husbands to Sao Tome e Principe,
and then, after living there alone (as their husbands left for
Portugal), moved to Lisbon. Despite the dramatic change in the socio-
cultural and other aspects of their lives, many Cape Verdian women
have shown a great creativity in adjusting to a new situation.
Nevertheless, the asymmetrical pattern of sexual division of tasks
and powers at the expense of women remains strong, and reflects the
relationships that prevail in their country of origin.
=====================================================================
WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT POLICIES AND PROJECTS
24
DUARTE, Cristina; NEVES, Iria (1988). Crescimento Demografico e
Desenvolvimento Rural. Integracao das Variaveis Demograficas na
Planificacao. Simposio Nacional. Praia: Ministerio do Plano e
da Cooperacao, Unidade de Populacao, pp. 87-101.
Demographic Growth and Rural Development
The paper provides an analysis of potentials for food and
agricultural production in the context of needs and productive
capacities in Cape Verde. The continuously high demographic growth
is explained by the need for labour force as a cheap and easily
accessible means of production in family run agriculture and in the
informal sector of the economy, as well as for the smooth functioning
of the system of inter-family assistance in the provision of labour.
Problems related to the fragmentation of land and ecological
consequences of population pressure are also discussed.
25
GERWECK, Uta (1981). Mulheres da Ilha do Maio. Relatorio Final dos
Trabalhos com Mulheres e Raparigas da Ilha do Maio. (Cabo
Verde): Projecto Integrado do Maio nos Sectores Educacao e
Assuntos Sociais, pp. 30. (mimeo.)
Women on the Island of Maio. Final Report from Working with Women and
Girls on the Island of Maio.
This project was carried out over three years in the villages
of the Cape Verdian island of Maio. Target beneficiaries were women-
single heads of households, and young girls. Their education and
sensibilization covered a wide variety of areas, ranging from sexual
education to a more rational use of scarce natural resources. A very
strong project component was the attempt at preserving their
communities socio-cultural strength and authenticity in the process
of modernization.
26
MDR (1981). Segundo Seminario Nacional Sobre Reforma Agraria.
Documentos de Apoio. Praia: Ministerio do Desenvolvimento Rural
(MDR), pp. 268.
Second National Seminar on the Agrarian Reform
This is a compendium of technical papers on various aspects of
the agrarian reform in Cape Verde. It also contains a study by a
French sociologist Richard Jacques entitled "Some Aspects of
Emigration and Land Property on the Island of Santiago". The paper
provides many details on the situation with land ownership as regards
gender-asymmetrical patterns in emigration, labour requirements and
availability, right of ownership, management responsibilities in the
family households - all in the context of the agricultural production
in the late seventies.
27
MPC (1988). Integracao das Variaveis Demograficas na Planificacao.
Documentos do Simposio Nacional. Praia: Ministerio do Plano e
da Cooperacao, Unidade de Populacao, pp. 125.
Integration of Demographic Variables in Planning
This book of proceedings from the First National Seminar on the
topic, contains over twenty technical papers and other conference
documents on all major issues related to the integration of
population issues in the planning of socio-economic development in
Cape Verde, ranging from MCH/FP and education, to rural development
and investment dilemmas. Gender-related issues are highlighted in
papers dealing with social development issues, particularly with
consequences of international emigration. Policy recommendations
refer, inter alia, to the need to reduce significantly infant
mortality, and to promote equality of women with men in education and
employment. The need for introduction of social protection programmes
aimed at reduction of fertility is also highlighted, as well as the
importance of sensitizing the general public on population issues.
28
OMCV (1990). Promocao da Mulher, um Desafio a Vencer: Investir na
Promocao da Mulher - Opcao para o Desenvolvimento. Praia:
Organizacao das Mulheres do Cabo Verde (OMCV), pp. 31.
Promoting Women, a Challenge to Win: To Invest in the Promotion of
Women - an Option for the Development.
This technical booklet contains statistical data and other
information on the role of women in agriculture, in migration and in
the management of family households. It also refers to some important
cultural-behavioural issues (e.g., the traditional mentality,
prostitution) that shape the existing status of women in society.
Women's full emancipation through better organization and political
action is advocated.
=====================================================================
MISCELLANIES
29
MDRP (1989). Estatisticas Agricolas. Praia: Ministerio do
Desenvolvimento Rural e Pescas (MDRP), Gabinete de Estudos e
Planeamento.
Agricultural Statistics
This annual statistical report issued by the Ministry of Rural
Development and Fishery of Cape Verde contains, inter alia, a chapter
entitled "Agricultural production, Population, Activities" in which
a considerable part of data are gender-differentiated. For example,
it is specified whether men or women are heads of household, and who
works as farmers in irrigated, rain-fed or mixed farming systems
across the entire Cape Verdian archipelago, as well as their
educational attainment, and age. In 1988, the median size of rural
families was 5.4, and 34% of the heads of households were women.
=====================================================================
G U I N E A B I S S A U
GENDER RELATIONS IN AGRICULTURE
30
COSTA, Carlos; RESENDE, Mauro (1994). Guine-Bissau: O Ambiente
Agricola, o Homem e o Uso da Terra. Lisboa: Classica Editora.
Lisboa. pp. 290
Guinea Bissau: Agricultural Environment, Men and Land Use
In this monograph on the overall situation in agriculture and
food production in Guinea-Bissau, the gender division of labour in
farming and other activities is given prominent place. Women's hard
work as planters and harvesters, normally with very primitive tools,
are presented both in the text and on the accompanying photos. Policy
suggestions on the improvement of conditions for a faster
agricultural development refer mostly to the fragility of the eco-
system, the need for human capital formation, and more advanced
technology.
31
CTNP (1995). Relatorio Nacional sobre a Situacao Socioeconomica e
Politica da Mulher Guineense. Bissau: Comite Tecnico Nacional
Preparatorio (CTNP) para a Conferencia Mundial sobre a Mulher,
pp. 30. (mimeo)
National Report on the Socio-Economic and Political Situation of
Guinean Women
It is highlighted in this report that, inter alia, women (and
men) in Guinea-Bissau prefer large family because of the need for
farm labour and as security in the old age. The number of children
"...depends on God, the religious leader, and the father". The ample
statistical and qualitative information illustrate precarious living
conditions of rural girls and women. The division of family labour
often implies harder physical effort for women than for men. Various
projects on rural credit and technology have been carried out, often
with success, aimed at improving the social and economic status and
productivity of women. Nevertheless, it is still common in all ethnic
communities, that only men own the land. The farming tools are
usually shared, while women can own only utensils needed for food
transformation.
32
HANDEM, Lima; FERNANDES, Raul Mendes (1988). O Papel da Mulher na
Reproducao da Forca de Trabalho. Boletim de Informacao Socio-
economica, n§. 4. Bissau: Centro de Estudos Socio-economicos
do Instituto Nacional de Estudos e Pesquisa (INEP), pp. 27-40.
Role of Women in the Reproduction of Labour Force
This article brings about explanations on the linkages between
the biological and socio-economic roles of women in general terms,
but also concentrates on the specific issues related to urban and
rural women in the developing world, especially in Africa. The
section on rural women is based on field research on the psycho-
sociological aspects of reproductive behaviour, which was carried out
among the Muslim polygamous households in the area of Gabu, and in
a number of other regions of Guinea-Bissau. The interpretation of
the 1979 Population Census in Guinea Bissau is also offered, with a
typology of family sizes and structures. The importance of productive
roles of women is stressed throughout the article and supported with
empirical evidence from Guinea-Bissau and other African countries.
Description of gender relations in farming and other tasks is
combined with the presentation of cultural and economic importance
of age-relations.
33
MARTINS, Eduardo Costa Dias (1993). O Sistema Agrario Mandinga -
Producao, Reproducao Social e Perversidades. Comunicacoes:
Serie de Ciencias Agrarias, n§ 13. Lisboa: Instituto de
Investigacao Cientifica Tropical, pp. 335-339.
The Agrarian System of Mandingas - Production, Social Reproduction
and Distortions
This paper deals with the effects of monetization of the rural
economy and emigration from Guinea-Bissau to Senegal and other
countries on intra-family relations. It had not yet been asserted as
common in the entire country, but there is strong evidence in the
Eastern province that families tend to desegregate when the labour
needs in agriculture can not be secured through family labour
exchanges anymore. Traditionally, desegregation would occur only
after the death of the father, and the fracture lines would be
defined only by a combination of biological and cultural criteria.
Nowadays, the fracture lines ever more depend on the economic
situation of the individuals, and the traditional family values give
way to the modern forms of economic reasoning. Also, the sex and age
imbalances provoked by the emigration and reduced availability of
shared labour have caused changes in power relations between the
traditional groups of villagers - i.e., the women, the young and the
Homens Grandes (Great Men), the latter one increasingly loosing his
power of influence.
34
OLIVEIRA, Olavo Borges de; HAVIK, Philip J.; SCHIEFER, Ulrich (1996).
Armazenamento Tradicional na Guine-Bissau: Produtos, Sementes
e Celeiros Utilizados pelas Etnias na Guine Bissau. Muster:
Aktuelle Beitraege zur Soziologie, Institut fur Soziologie,
Universitaet Munster, pp. 350.
Traditional Storage in Guinea Bissau: Products, Seeds and Cellars
Used by the Ethnic Groups in Guinea Bissau
This monograph provides a detailed presentation of traditional
ways and means of storing agricultural products (cereals, vegetables,
fruits, etc.) as it was recorded in an in-depth field study among
different ethnic groups in Guinea-Bissau. The gender division of
tasks, and especially women's know-how and power of control, is
described by individual products that are typical in the tradition
of all ethnic groups. Furthermore, explanations are given on the
materials and technologies used, as well as on related cultural
values and ritual ceremonies that accompany the storing of each
product. Intra- and inter-community relations as regards storage of
food and other agro-products are also presented, always depicting
specific gender-related distinctions.
35
SARDINHA, Raul Manuel de Albuquerque (1987). Actividades Florestais
e Desflorestacao na Guine-Bissau. Planificacao, Utilizacao e
Gestao de Recursos Naturais. 2.as Jornadas de Engenharia Dos
Paises de Lingua Oficial Portuguesa. Rio de Janeiro.
Forestry Activities and Deforestation in Guinea-Bissau
This paper provides a socio-ecological interpretation of
environmental problems related to smallholders farming and forestry
activities. Complex linkages are identified between, inter-alia,
growing family labour requirements (with both age- and sex-wise
distinctions), growing needs for new land for cultivation, increasing
deforestation, use of primitive technology, and the prevailing pro-
natalist attitudes, all in the context of problems related to the
incorporation of agriculture in the market economy (under
unfavourable terms of trade). Description of the variety of farming
systems practiced by different ethnic groups is presented. The
importance of sons is stressed, as well as how women in some areas
hold complete control over certain stages, or over the entire rice
production.
36
SIDERSKY, Pablo (1987). As Relacoes de Trabalho numa Sociedade de
Cultivadores de Arroz: o Caso dos Balantas da Regiao de
Tombali. Soronda - Revista de Estudos Guineenses, n§ 3, pp. 21-
38.
Work Relations in a Society of Rice Cultivators: the Case of Balantas
in the Tombali Region
This article provides an analysis of the farming system among
the Balanta people in two villages in the Tombali region (the extreme
South-East of Mozambique) from the point of view of time requirements
for different activities, and of division of labour by age and sex.
It explains the prime importance of family labour and the system of
using external labour. Detailed analysis of family labour inputs
(specifically by men, women and children, by age groups, and
throughout the farming calendar) in the production of rice is
accompanied with the description of arrangements among family members
and other workers in terms of their responsibilities and
remuneration.
37
SCHIEFER, Ulrich; HAVIK, Philip J. (1991). Associacoes e Cooperativas
na Guine-Bissau: um Estudo Socio-Economico e Cultural. Estudo
para o Programa das Nacoes Unidas para o Desenvolvimento.
Bissau: COPIN, pp. 66. (mimeo.)
Associations and Co-operatives in Guinea Bissau
This is an in-depth review of rural associations and co-
operatives in Guinea-Bissau. The types of associations presented
relate to: empowerment of women, access to credit, inter-village
exchanges, access to technical innovations, co-operation among
agricultural producers. Women tend to belong to associations composed
of members of the same ethnic group, as this enables them to have
better access to external assistance in materials, credit and
financing. Women's associations are generally very well integrated
in traditional social structures through representatives who hold
important places in these structures. These associations also have
very close ties with the Union of Women of Guinea-Bissau. It is
explained in the study how, thanks to their associations, many women
have succeeded to improve and diversify food production as well non-
agricultural activities and are gaining other benefits for themselves
and their families. Policy suggestions are provided on how to further
improve the functions of the associations.
38
SCHIEFER, Ulrich; HAVIK, Philip J. (1991). Recenseamento Industrial
da Guine-Bissau 1990. II Volume: Inquerito Sociologico. Bissau:
COPIN, pp. 68. (mimeo.)
Industrial Census of Guinea Bissau 1990. II Volume: Sociological
Survey
This study, carried out for the Ministry of Industry of Guinea-
Bissau, presents the sociological profiles of ethnic groups engaged
in different artisanal industrial production. One such activity is
the extraction of oil palm, which is the major women' activity of the
Beafada and Manjaca peoples. The analysis of this activity includes
the early introduction of girls to their mothers' skill, their
apprenticeship (as early as in the age of 15) as an integral part of
the þfemale domestic workþ, specific economic and calendar-wise
aspects of the oil-production and exchange for other products (mainly
for rice), exchanges of labour, commercialization, supply of
production materials, management of stocks, equipment, transport,
etc.
=====================================================================
GENDER AND FAMILY RELATIONS
39
ACHINGER, Gertrud (1986). A Familia Guineense: Estabilidade e
Transformacao. Soronda - Revista de Estudos Guineenses, n§ 1,
pp. 68-90.
The Guinean Family: Stability and Transformation
The article presents a comparative analysis of the economic and
socio-cultural characteristics of different types of families in
Guinea-Bissau: the extended family of the smallholder agricultural
producers and the urban family in the fifties, and in the late
seventies. In addition, two different ethnic rural families in the
mid eighties are analyzed. As regards rural families in the period
1950-1979, major changes noted are: a slow but evident process of
nuclearization (family size was reduced from 8,2 to 6,2), and a
decrease in the number of women in polygamous unions (the share of
monogamous unions increased from 59% to 64%). However it is
demonstrated in this study that the family in Guinea-Bissau has not
undergone linear transformations towards the urban nuclear family as
a final reference point, but rather that there is a wide variety of
new rural family types, depending on socio-economic, environmental
(including distance) and cultural-institutional circumstances.
40
FERNANDES, Raul Mendes (1988). Dinamica Social dos Bijagos. Boletim
de Informacao Socio-economica, n§. 4. Bissau: Centro de Estudos
Socio-economicos, Instituto Nacional de Estudos e Pesquisa
(INEP), pp. 7-12.
Social Dynamics of the Bijago People
This study presents a critical review of the kusina, the
fundamental social relation among the Bijagos, based on the
antagonisms between men and women. It describes how these relations
function in the areas of decision-making and responsibility to render
various services, including labour and loans. Description is also
given of how age and class intersect with gender in these complex
relations. The conflicting situations are solved through an elaborate
system of establishing the dominant power of the Otobango-ocanto and
Otobango-anto, i.e., the alliance of the elderly who can control,
respectively, mostly women, and mostly men.
41
HAVIK, Philip J. (1995). Relacoes de Genero e Comercio: Estrategias
Inovadoras de Mulheres na Guine-Bissau. Soronda - Revista de
Estudos Guineenses, n§.19, pp. 25-36.
Gender Relations and Commerce: Innovative Strategies Among Women in
Guinea Bissau
It is argued in this article that women in Guinea Bissau, as
in Africa generally, are not any more the mere suppliers of non-
remunerated services for social reproduction, but rather ever more
the consumers "around fireplace". Specifically, women take advantage
of the strict gender divisions in the allocation of expenses and
revenues in family households to the benefit of their own personal
and collective livelihood strategies. In order to participate in
local commercial activities, it is crucial for women to break the
barriers to their access to traditional institutions whose mode of
functioning has been dominated by men and conditioned by age, lineage
and ethnic relations. It is argued in the article that in the periods
of transition and crisis women have demonstrated their autonomy in
creating new alliances and patterns of social interaction in order
to ensure new or reinforce the already created maneuvering space in
the society. Empirical evidence is provided regarding such women's
in the transformation and commercialization of cashew nuts and rice.
42
MOEIRA, Margarida Mira (1993). O Casamento na Etnia Papel da Guine-
Bissau. Seminario de Investigacao: 4§ Ano da Licenciatura em
Antropologia, Faculdade de Ciencias Sociais e Humanas,
Universidade Nova de Lisboa, pp. 88. (mimeo.)
Marriage among the Papel People in Guinea-Bissau
It is argued in this study that, despite the fact that the
Papel people have been ever more integrated in the country's new
socio-political order and market-oriented economy, the marriage
rituals continue being practiced entirely in accordance with the
traditional norms. The strictly codified female versus male social
status and roles are reflected in the marriage rituals which, in
turn, reinforce the traditional gender-relations characterized by
men's economic and social dominance over women who are considered as
minors. The preferred type of marriage is with the daughter of the
father's sister. Polygamic family is frequent. Women sometimes earn
some money on their own through commercialization of domestic
products, but most often the largest part of money at their disposal
depends on the remittances from their sons working in Bissau.
43
SCANTAMBURLO, Luigi (1991). Etnologia dos Bijagos da Ilha de Bubaque.
Lisboa: Instituto de Investigacao Cientifica Tropical; Bissau:
Instituto Nacional de Estudos e Pesquisa.
Ethnology of the Bijagos on the Island of Bubaque
Role of women in collecting crabs and shells, transforming and
commercializing fish and caring for daily diet is described in
parallel with men' tasks. Similarly, sharp division between men's and
women's daily use of objects, realization of duties, occupation of
space and maintenance of traditional habits are presented in detail.
On all islands, families believe to belong to one of the four initial
ancestors. The kinship system is matrilineal, but residence is always
established at the husband's house which enables reinforcement of the
de facto men's economic and social power. Initiation rites and
religious ceremonies depict deeply rooted traditional culture,
including the glorification of fertility.
=====================================================================
WOMEN'S AND CHILDREN'S LIVELIHOODS
44
FRIJ, Lennart (1984). Saude e Nutricao Infantis na Guine-Bissau.
Bissau: Ministerio da Saude da Guine-Bissau; Estocolmo: Swedish
Agency for Research Cooperation with Developing Countries
(SAREC), pp. 72. (mimeo.)
Child Health and Nutrition in Guinea Bissau
This report contains the results of a research project on
social and economic problems linked with the serious state of
children' malnutrition in Guinea-Bissau, especially in the rural
areas. One major conclusion is that an important decisive factor
causing this situation is that the social system is controlled by
men, while women are subordinate and actually suffer together with
their children. Due to their overburden with productive and
reproductive roles, low educational status, and absence of social and
health infrastructure and services, women are not able to take an
adequate care of children's health and nutrition. The report presents
empirical evidence related to these linkages, as well as
recommendations for policy-makers and future research.
45
INEP/UNICEF (1992). A Analise da Situacao das Criancas e das Mulheres
na Guine-Bissau. Bissau: Instituto Nacional de Estudos e
Pesquisa (INEP); Escritorio do UNICEF, pp. 115.
Analysis of the Situation of Children and Women in Guinea Bissau
This is the First Part of a comprehensive report on the
livelihood conditions of women and children in Guinea-Bissau. It
offers a global vision of the environmental and population situation,
and presents numerous indicators of social development, economic
development issues, as well as an outline of political processes. In
the chapter þInterface Mother-Childþ it is reported that women are
under high pressure to have many children. Many women themselves are
in favour of large family: a survey revealed that 50% of rural women
wish to have ten and more children. High infant mortality, need for
labour on the farm and at home, and security in the old age are major
underlying reasons for highly pro-natalist behaviour in rural areas.
The presentation of the productive role of rural women focuses on
various specific cultural, environmental, economic, and other
situations. (As announced in this volume, the Second Part contains
the results of the survey in 300 family households, carried out by
the Instituto Nacional de Estudos e Pesquisa - INEP, in Bissau.)
46
MINSAP (1989). Acta dos Trabalhos da 1¦ Assembleia Nacional do
MINSAP/Curandeiros. Bula: Ministerio da Saude Publica (MINSAP),
Direccao dos Cuidados Primarios de Saude.
Proceedings from the First National Assembly of the MINSAP/Medicine
Men
Confronted with an alarming health situation, which has been
worsened by the high and growing incidence of HIV/AIDS infections,
the Ministry of Public Health has organized this conference
(assistance was provided by the WHO) in order to reconcile the
capacities of modern medicine, which was introduced by the
colonizers, with the know-how of traditional folk medicine provided
by the curandeiros (medicine men) whose activities have been
oppressed till recently. This entire volume represents, in fact, a
detailed roster of names of the most famous curandeiros in all
regions of Guinea-Bissau, with Latin and folk names of medicinal
plants and ways of their use for specific diseases - among which
sexual impotence, sterility, retention of urinary tract, abortion and
venereal diseases are prominently represented.
47
NDJAI, Iancuba (1991). Pobreza e Sociedade na Guine-Bissau.
Conferencia Nacional sobre Ambiente e Pobreza: Praticas,
Realidades e Alternativas. Bula: Centro Olof Palme, pp. 12.
Poverty and Society in Guinea-Bissau
This conference paper contains an overview of linkages between
rural poverty, population growth and environmental degradation,
focusing on smallholder agricultural producers practices and their
family households needs. Gender-related asymmetries at the expense
of women are highlighted, in particular as regards the educational
attainment. Women's responsibilities in managing scarce and fragile
natural resource base are also stressed.
======================================================================
WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT POLICIES AND PROJECTS
48
ABRANTES, Manuel C; TOPSOE-JENSEN, Bente (1987). Avaliacao do Impacto
de Algumas Actividades Realizadas pelas Mulheres. Bula:
Programa de Desenvolvimento Rural Integrado da Zona I. Gabinete
de Planeamento e Avaliacao (mimeo.)
Evaluation of the Impact of Some Activities Realized by Women
This study presents (in a very succinct form) the results of
an assessment of the effects of projects with women as main
beneficiaries in over 25 villages in various areas of the Northern
parts of Guinea-Bissau. These projects were realized in the following
areas: training and use of community leaders, integration of women
in rural associations, provision of agricultural credit,
establishment of child day-care centres, and use of improved stoves.
Most of the projects faced shortcomings in their realization, and
recommendations are given about concrete steps to improve the
situation.
49
ACHINGER, Gertrud (1992). Efeitos do Programa de Ajustamento
Estrutural sobre as Condicoes Economicas e Sociais das Mulheres
da Zona Rural. Soronda - Revista de Estudos Guineenses, n§14,
pp. 65-82.
Effects of the Structural Adjustment Programme on Economic and Social
Conditions of Women in Rural Area
This article offers empirical evidence which supports the
thesis that the structural adjustment programme in Guinea-Bissau
(introduced in 1986 by the International Monetary Fund and the World
Bank) has had mainly negative effects on rural women. The following
are some major features of this situation: as subsistence agriculture
deteriorates, men normally hand over to women most of the farming
responsibilities; the government has favoured ever greater exclusion
of males from agriculture, but men and boys who are not active in
agriculture represent an additional heavy cost for the household; it
has become virtually impossible for most of rural women to break away
from poverty; international projects tend to disfavour solidarity
among sexes; etc.
50
BULL, Marianne (1987). Situacao das Mulheres Manjacas e Mandingas:
Relatorio de um Pequeno Estudo de Campo Realizado em Duas
Tabancas da Guine-Bissau. Instituto de Antropologia Social.
Seccao de Estudos do Desenvolvimento, Universidade de
Estocolmo, pp. 60. (mimeo.)
Situation of the Manjaca and Mandinga Women: Report from a Small
Field Study Realized in Two Tabancas in Guinea Bissau.
This is a comparative analysis of women's lives in two
agriculturally and socially different regions in which development
projects have been realized (both regions are included in a programme
for integrated development, financed by the Swedish International
Development Agency, and are carried out by the University of
Stockholm). It was recorded that development projects often mean a
growing labour burden on women and children. On the other side, there
have been no projects that would alleviate traditional burden of
collecting wood, water, pilling the rice, etc. The status and roles
of women are presented in the context of specific farming systems.
The study also presents women's status in relation to land-tenure in
the context of socio-cultural and economic conditions governing the
family life-cycle. The text is accompanied with graphic presentations
of various quantitative and qualitative data gathered in the field.
51
GALLI, Rosemary E.; FUNK, Ursula (1994). O Ajustamento Estrutural e
Genero na Guine-Bissau. Revista Internacional de Estudos
Africanos, n§ 16-17, pp. 235-254
Structural Adjustment and Gender in Guinea Bissau
The emigration from rural areas to the cities, and other facets
of the survival strategies adopted by rural women at the end of the
eighties - i.e., years marked by programmes for macro-economic
stabilization and structural adjustment - is in the focus of this
article. Despite a considerable number of projects directed to
improve women's status and productivity, policy-makers continue to
consider only men as heads of households which means leaving a
majority of women without technology, credit and extension services
they actually need as major food producers. Various social and
economic pressures have contributed to an increase in hours of
women's work. Subnutrition and other aspects of poverty make them
vulnerable to many illnesses including the sexually transmitted
diseases (nearly 50% of all women in Guinea Bissau). Infant mortality
rates are still as high as 175 per thousand, and children's
subnutrition is on increase.
52
INEP (1992). Inquerito Ligeiro Junto as Familias. Resultados.
Secretaria de Estado do Plano. Bissau: Instituto Nacional de
Estatistica e Pesquisa - INEP. pp. 156. (mimeo.)
Priority Survey of Families. Results
This field study was carried out as an integral part of the
World Bank's Social Dimension of the Adjustment Programme. It was
based on the sample of 1630 family households. The goal was to define
policy priorities for the protection of the socio-economic groups
which are most affected by the macro-economic adjustment programme.
The results obtained refer to the socio-demographic context (e.g.,
significant female surplus in rural areas), provision of education
and health services, employment, housing, labour migration
(especially its seasonality, related to cash crops), agricultural
production trends and structures (subsistence versus commercial), and
family purchasing power and expenditures (food is often obtained as
barter exchange within and between households).
53
MONTEIRO, Isaac; PADOVANI, Fernando (1992). Ajustamento Estrutural na
Guine-Bissau: Contexto e Consequencias para o CECI - Bissau.
Bissau: Gabinete Estudos e Consultoria, Instituto Nacional de
Estatistica e Pesquisa (INEP), pp. 54. (mimeo.)
Structural Adjustment in Guinea Bissau: Context and Consequences for
CECI - Bissau
This study was commissioned by the Canadian Centre for Studies
and International Co-operation (CECI) in Bissau. An overview of the
concept and the realization of the structural adjustment policy is
provided. Effects on agricultural production and food security are
described, such as conflicts among big and small agricultural
producers, changing consumption patterns (marked by deteriorating
nutrition), etc. The increase in the commercial production of cashew
nuts has provoked the decline in the subsistence food production
(mainly rice), and has made local population, especially women and
children, increasingly dependent on rendering their labour to the
plantations in order to receive food as payment. Negative effects on
the provision of education and health services are also reviewed.
54
TANNER, Christopher (1990). O Impacto do Ajustamento Estrutural e as
Politicas Alternativas para a Promocao do Bem Estar das
Criancas na Guine-Bissau. Bissau: UNICEF, pp. 82. (mimeo.)
Impact of Structural Adjustment and Alternative Policies for the
Promotion of the Welfare of Children in Guinea Bissau
It is argued in this report that very high infant mortality
rates and high incidence of malnutrition are largely attributable to
the long-term effects of the exogenous factors of development, such
as the macro-economic adjustment programmes and projects introduced
by the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. This situation
of high rates of pregnancies and short child-spacing intervals, high
prices of food and low overall living standards, as well as the
absence of programmes which would offset negative social consequences
of the structural adjustment, are highlighted in this report.
55
UDMU (1988). A Mulher na Luta para o Desenvolvimento. Bissau: Uniao
Democratica das Mulheres da Guine Bissau (UDMU, pp. 42.
Women in the Struggle for Development
The main part of this technical booklet is devoted to the
importance of women in agricultural development, and it presents the
facts regarding their lower social and economic status. It is argued
that education and appropriate technologies are needed to relieve
women from physical burden and low economic status, as well as to
assure their equal rights with men in decision-making at all levels.
It is also argued against early marriages and pregnancies, as well
as for the need for the introduction of family planning as an
integral part of health services available to all. Female genital
circumcision is vigorously condemned.
=====================================================================
MISCELLANIES
56
KASPER, Josef E. (1994). Levantamento Cartografico da Guine-Bissau.
Revista Internacional de Estudos Africanos, n§ 16-17, pp. 335-
292
The Cartographic Survey of the Guinea Bissau
This review of maps and charts, which are mostly from the late
colonial and early independence periods, refers to, inter alia,
various socio-anthropologic and socio-demographic themes ranging from
population distribution, densities and migration patterns of various
ethnic groups, to the areas of Guinea-Bissau marked by the ritual
infanticide.
57
RIBEIRO, Carlos Rui (1986). Os Censos e as Sociedades Camponesas na
Guine-Bissau. Soronda - Revista de Estudos Guineenses, n§1,
pp. 109-124.
Censuses and Peasant Societies in Guinea Bissau
This is a methodological study devoted to the necessity for
reformulating national population census according to the true needs
of Guinea-Bissau as an independent country. In particular, it is
argued that an entirely new methodology should be pursued regarding
peasant population, rather then applying the same one for both urban
and rural. An overview is provided of the population censuses held
in the colonial period, and of many shortcomings of the same
methodology used for the first post-colonial census (1979) are
singled out. Examples given refer to socio-cultural and legal
problems related to the detection of the real age of the peasant
population, especially of women, as well as of women's (especially
widows') true civil status.
58
SILVA, Helia Lains e (1990). Contribuicao para uma Bibliografia sobre
Agricultura, Silvicultura, Pecuaria e Pesca da Guine-Bissau.
Comunicacoes - Series de Ciencias Agrarias, n§ 4. Lisboa:
Instituto de Investigacao Cientifica Tropical, pp. 61.
Contribution to a Bibliography on Agriculture, Forestry, Animal
Husbandry and Fishery in Guinea-Bissau
This bibliography of international literature on the
agricultural sector in Guinea-Bissau is structured, around topics
which, inter alia, bear direct relevance to the socio-economic and
other aspects of rural development, such as Social Change, Human
Resources, Land Occupation, Population, Settlements, Farming Systems,
and Quality of Life.
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M O Z A M B I Q U E
GENDER RELATIONS IN AGRICULTURE
59
ARAUJO, Manuel G. M. de (1988). O Sistema das Aldeias Comunais em
Mocambique - Transformacoes na Organizacao do Espaco
Residencial e Produtivo. Dissertacao de Doutoramento em
Geografia Humana. Faculdade de Letras, Universidade de Lisboa,
pp. 479. (mimeo.)
The System of Communal Villages in Mozambique - Transformations in
the Organization of Residential and Productive Space
This doctoral thesis offers an in-depth analysis of
geographical (i.e., spatial, temporal, and socio-ecological) aspects
of the organization and problems of life in communal villages, and
social and economic issues in the family and co-operative sector of
agriculture production. The demo-geographic component of the analysis
bears extensive references to the rural population structures, family
size, spatial mobility (war-induced, organized and spontaneous), and
to the process of the settlement of communal villages. It is
highlighted how crucial is women's contribution in both family and
co-operative agriculture and social reproduction in conditions of
physical and economic uncertainty and overall scarcity of services.
Suggestions are put forward regarding more efficient functioning of
the family sector agriculture.
60
CASAL, Adolfo Yanez (1988). A Crise da Producao Familiar e as Aldeias
Comunais em Mocambique. Revista Internacional de Estudos
Africanos, n§ 9, pp. 157-191.
Collectivized Villages and Crisis in Family Production in Mozambique
The economic fragility of family production depends on the
precarious natural base, on rudimentary tools of production, and on
deficient productive capacity at crucial seasonal points in the
farming cycle. The implantation of collectivized villages provoked
a profound disequilibrium among different components of the agrarian
system, causing risks of agricultural production failures, and social
and economic destabilization among villagers. With the annual
population growth of at least 2.5% there is all probability that
these imbalances will intensify, threatening the entire system of
social reproduction among peasants. The reduction of the natural
resource equilibrium is also imminent due to population pressure over
large spaces. The dispersed settlements, together with other factors
(such as war, emigration of men to South Africa, etc.) has induced
the process of nuclearization of family households and loss of
solidarity. In the studied area, around one quarter of households
were composed only of old, ill, widowed, divorced and separated
women.
61
CROSS, Michael (1994). O Capitalismo Colonial e a Forca de Trabalho:
A Economia Politica nas Plantacoes de Cha do Norte de
Mocambique 1930-1975. Revista Internacional de Estudos
Africanos, n§ 16 - 17, pp. 131-154.
Colonial Capitalism and Labour Force: Political Economy on Tea
Plantations in Northern Mozambique
It was only in 1962 that forced labour was formally abolished
in Mozambique by the Portuguese colonial authorities, but in the
Northern areas it existed de facto until the end of the colonial era.
This article sheds the light on the dreadful conditions under which
men, women, and children had to work on plantations of tea and in the
production of cotton, and also describes the survival strategies
local families had to adopt in their farming and at home. Women had
a prominent task in the domestic economy: they were in full control
of the family budget and of a significant part of their husbands
salaries. Families devised a number of local-community mutual self-
help schemes to be able to produce at least some food for themselves
in spite of the drudgery of forced labour on colonial plantations.
It is also elaborated how insufficient food, absence of sanitation
and medical care affected peasant population, particularly children
and women.
62
SANTOS, Jose Hipolito dos (1874). Cooperativizacao e Desenvolvimento
Rural em Mocambique. Lisboa: Ed. SEIES - Sociedade de Estudos
e Intervencao em Engenharia Social, pp. 95.
The Co-operativism and Rural Development in Mozambique
This study of the role of co-operativism in the Mozambican
rural development, inspired by the experience from a FAO/IFAD
project, presents a wide range of positive effects gained by the
strengthening of the family sector agricultural production through
training, people's participation, introduction of agro-industrial and
non-agricultural activities in rural areas, etc. It is described how
gender-related inequities at the expense of women regarding the
access to land, agro-inputs, division of labour, etc. are still
largely present, and it is argued that women, especially the young
ones, through their active membership in co-operatives are able to
better satisfy their needs. Men's resistance to women's active
participation in co-operatives is also described, as well as the fact
that women show a greater interest in learning. One major problem
that was not solved by the FAO/IFAD project is child-care during
women's activities in co-operatives.
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GENDER AND FAMILY RELATIONS
63
AMARAL, Manuel Gama (1990). O Povo Yao: Subsidios para o Estudo de um
Povo do Noroeste de Mocambique. Lisboa: Instituto de
Investigacao Cientifica e Tropical, pp. 493.
The Yao People: Contributions to the Study of a People in the
Northeast Mozambique
This anthropological study of the Yao people, whose major
characteristic is the matrilineal kinship system, largely
concentrates on all agricultural activities (i.e., farming, fishery,
animal husbandry, and forestry), especially in the context of food
production and nutritional standards (including food taboos for girls
and pregnant women). Gender-division in farming and other
agricultural activities are described in great detail, emphasizing
the persistence of labour-intensive, primitive technology. The
traditional large-family formation norms and related pro-natalist
values and sexual practices still prevail. Age at marriage for girls
is 15-16 years and for boys 18-19 years.
64
ENOQUE, Angelina D. (1994). Mulheres Manyika Contam...: Sexualidade
e Familia - Micro-estudo Exploratorio. Cadernos de Pesquisa, n§
4. Maputo: Instituto Nacional do Desenvolvimento da Educacao
(INDE), pp. 63.
Women of Manyika Talk...: Sexuality and Family - Exploratory Micro-
Study
This base-line study, carried out with financial assistance
provided by UNFPA and technical assistance by UNESCO, represents an
attempt to assess some decisive issues in women's life-cycle, such
as early and/or non-wanted pregnancy, clandestine and unsafe
abortion, early marriage, and physical overburden - all in the
context of deteriorating environment and rapid population growth in
urban and rural parts of the Manyika region (Western Mozambique). The
socio-cultural, economic, legal (including inheritance rules, and the
access to agricultural land) and technological aspects of the status
of women in the family are analyzed. Methodological problems related
to such research are highlighted, and the questionnaire is annexed.
One major conclusion is that the patrilineal society still controls
the entire women's life-cycle, i.e., from the childhood, marriage,
and reproductive behaviour, to the widowhood and old age.
65
MACHEL, Graca (1990). Situacao da Mulher em Mocambique. In: Dinamica
Demografica e Processos Economicos, Sociais e Culturais. Serie
Populacao e Desenvolvimento. Documento n§ 2, Projecto
MOZ/86/PO5-OIT/FNUAP. Maputo: Comissao Nacional do Plano;
Direccao Nacional de Estatistica, pp. 114-127.
Women's Situation in Mozambique
This paper contains a review of the diversity and complexity
of cultural situations across Mozambique. It is argued that such
diversity should be understood in all efforts to promote integration
of women in development. Specific attention is given to religious
factors, linkages between community norms, family relations, and
women's rights (or, in fact, women's duties), as well as to the role
of education, and the productive roles of women. In particular, the
low status of women in subsistence agricultural production is
stressed, pointing to the fact that they are not covered by official
statistics, and have not been given adequate assistance from the
state, banks, and others.
66
MARTINEZ, Francisco Lerma (1989). O Povo Macua e a Sua Cultura.
Lisboa: Instituto de Investigacao Cientifica Tropical, pp. 320.
The Macua People and its Culture
This monograph presents the results of a socio-anthropological
field research project on the characteristics of the Macua people in
Northern Mozambique. The second and largest section is devoted to the
Macuas' entire vital cycle, from birth, initiation of the young (with
a special chapter on girls), to marriage, illnesses, cure and death.
The description of each of these events refers explicitly to the
status and role of female members of the family and community.
Agricultural and other economic activities of the Macuas are
discussed in a separate section of the monograph. The annex contains
questionnaires applied in this research.
67
MEDEIROS, Eduardo (1985). Mocambique: Evolucao de Algumas
Instituicoes Socio-familiares. Coleccao Documentos de Trabalho,
n§ 4. Centro de Estudos sobre Africa e do Desenvolvimento,
Instituto Superior de Economia e Gestao (ISEG), Universidade
Tecnica de Lisboa, pp. 30.
Mozambique: Evolution of Some Socio-Familiar Institutions
Continuity, adaptation and transformation of family
institutions and norms in different socio-cultural settings in
Mozambique are outlined in this study. It is explained why a faster
women's social emancipation has not been possible despite the
introduction of new state laws (e.g. The Family Law), and the pro-
equity ideology and country's political organization. It is argued
that the practice of polygamy, as well as the persistence of
traditional institutions such as lobolo, petti, tchamanahula,
chimalo, xuma, etc., must be taken into a due consideration if any
comprehensive effort is to be planned to improve the situation of
women in agriculture. These women represent 90% of the labour force
in the family sector of food and agriculture production in
Mozambique.
68
OLIVEIRA, Angela Maria Teixeira Rebelo de (1985). Analise das
Relacoes Sociais de Producao na Sociedade Maconde (Periodo
1850-1984). Dissertacao de Licenciatura em Antropologia.
Faculdade de Ciencias Sociais e Humanas, Universidade Nova de
Lisboa, pp. 100. (mimeo.)
Analysis of Social Production Relations in the Society of the Maconde
People (in the Period 1850-1984)
This study offers, inter alia, a typology of gender-relations
that are present in the hierarchy of the evolving groups of producers
and consumers among the Macondes. The socio-cultural norms and
attitudes as part of the cycle of agricultural production are also
presented. Linkages are elaborated, on one side, between men,
marketable goods, control of matrimonial alliances and intra-family
power, and , on the other hand, the role of older women, food
products, and procreation decision-making. Changes occurring in
family production patterns in the post-colonial period are analyzed
as well.
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WOMEN'S AND CHILDREN'S LIVELIHOODS
69
AFONSO, Ana Elisa de Santana (1994). Contribuicao para uma Reflexao
Sobre a Valorizacao da Mulher e da Rapariga em Mocambique. In:
Eu Mulher em Mocambique. Maputo: Comissao Nacional para a
UNESCO em Mocambique (CNUM), pp. 173-187.
A Contribution to the Concept of the Valorization of Women and Girls
in Mozambique
The article brings about statistical evidence of the lower
educational attainment of girls than of boys, and describes the
endogenous and exogenous factors contributing to the unfavourable
situation in the schooling of girls, particularly in the rural areas.
The argument is that the prevailing socio-cultural environment, in
fact, does not allow the emergence of ducated women. The author
sarcastically affirms that in Mozambique þ... an educated women can
signify an agent who is active in the destruction of the society...þ.
70
ARAUJO, Manuel (1983). A Crianca e a Mae: Analise da Situacao.
Maputo: Departamento de Geografia da Universidade Eduardo
Mondlaine; Secretaria de Estado da Cooperacao Internacional.
(mimeo.)
Child and Mother: An Analysis of the Situation
This first comprehensive analysis (financed by UNICEF) of the
state of the well-being of women an children was carried out eight
years after Mozambique gained its independence. The linkages between
health, nutritional status and socio-demographic indicators are
explained from the point of view of different (under)development
issues. The particularly grave situation faced by young pregnant
women is stressed in the context of the non-existent or poor MCH/FP
services.
71
PALME, Mikael (1992). O Significado da Escola - Repetencia e
Desistencia na Escola Primaria Mocambicana. Cadernos de
Pesquisa, n§ 2. Maputo: Instituto Nacional do Desenvolvimento
e da Educacao (INDE), pp. 145.
The Significance of the School-Repetitions and Drop-outs in Primary
Schools in Mozambique
This study shows how profound are gender-related asymmetries
as regards problems with school enrollment, especially the drop-outs
in rural areas of Mozambique. Ample statistical evidence is provided
about the greater refusal to enroll and higher incidence of leaving
the school by girls and young women than by boys and young men. The
major reasons for not enrolling the children in rural areas, or
taking them out of school, are family labour requirements, mobility
patterns, poverty, early marriage and pregnancy, as well as the war
situation. Recommendations specifically address, inter alia, ways of
improving the rates of school enrollment and educational attainment
of girls in rural areas.
72
ZUCULA, Carmen Medeiros (1994). Aspectos Socio-Culturais Relacionados
com a Frequencia Escolar das Raparigas em Mocambique. In: Eu
Mulher em Mocambique. Maputo: Comissao Nacional para a UNESCO
em Mocambique (CNUM), pp. 189-217.
Socio-Cultural Aspects Related to School Attendance by Girls in
Mozambique
A major part of this article is devoted to the schooling
problems faced by girls in the rural setting. Empirical evidence from
the case-studies demonstrates that the schooling of boys and girls
is still largely conditioned by their unequal gender roles at home
and on the farm. Inadequacies of the school system for the rural
population are also analyzed, as well as the gap between education
and employment opportunities. Socio-cultural traditions such as the
observance of religious calendars, patterns of power relations and
decision-making in the family, as well as the monetary and other
costs incurred for schooling, are also important for understanding
low educational attainment of girls.
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WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT POLICIES AND PROJECTS
73
CARDOSO, Fernando Jorge (1993). Gestao e Desenvolvimento Rural:
Mocambique no Contexto da Africa Sub-Sahariana. Lisboa. Fim de
Seculo Edicoes, Lda., pp. 359.
Management and Rural Development: Mozambique in the Context of Sub-
Saharan Africa
This monograph provides an in-depth economic and political
analysis of major strategic issues in rural development faced by
governments in Africa, focusing especially on the situation in
Mozambique. A prominent place in the study is given to the role of
family sector agricultural production for food subsistence and
market, with explicit references to the distinctions in the status
and roles between men and women. It is explained how forced labour
(till the end of the colonial period), migration, market, technology,
and government administration, have had specific effects on social
differentiation, including the maintenance of the low status of
women.
74
CASIMIRO, Isabel: ANDRADE, Ximena (1994). Construindo uma Teoria de
Genero em Mocambique. Estudos Mocambicanos, n§ 11/12,
pp. 93-110.
Constructing a Theory of Gender in Mozambique
This is an overview of the evolution of scientific thought on
women and gender from the perspective of the recent political and
developmental experience gained in Mozambique. It is argued that the
initial feminist studies and activities were inspired by the fact
that the first Population Census asserted that women represent 85%
of the agricultural producers, both in family subsistence production
and for export. After a period of concentration on the analysis of
the productive role of women and of the traditional obstacles women
have to face, the concept of þgender-relationsþ was introduced which
finally enabled the breakaway, first, from the reductionistic,
economistic approach, and, second, from the cultural relativism. It
is also outlined in this article that the following four areas of
work are been realized at the Department for the Study of Women and
Gender (DEMG) at the University Eduardo Modlaine, Maputo: Women and
Law, Women and Labour force, Women and Environment, and Women and
Reproductive Behaviour.
75
CNP/DNE (1990). Dinamica Demografica e Processos Economicos, Sociais
e Culturais. Serie Populacao e Desenvolvimento. Documento n§
2, Projecto MOZ/86/PO5-OIT/FNUAP. MaPUTO: Comissao Nacional do
Plano (CNP); Direccao Nacional de Estatistica (DNE), pp. 130.
Demographic Dynamics and Economic, Social and Cultural Processes
This is a compendium of technical papers submitted at the
National Seminar on the topic, held in Maputo in July, 1990. The key
aspects of complex linkages between population and development are
approached. Issues related to rural women and population are covered
in the papers grouped in one separate chapter, while various aspects
of gender-relations and of rural population generally are referred
to in other chapters, such as those on population dynamics and socio-
economic development; mortality; spatial distribution, urbanization
and migration; development planning, poverty and population policy.
The last chapter is devoted specifically to women and population.
76
LOPES, Leonel Leite; GASPAR, Manuel da Costa (1994). Reflexoes sobre
a Dinamica Populacional de Mocambique: a Mulher e a Crianca,
Desenvolvimento e Meio Ambiente. Estudos Mocambicanos, n§ . 11-
12, pp. 65-76.
Thoughts about Population Dynamics in Mozambique: Women and Child,
Development and Environment
This article contains a review of main features of the
demographic change, the reproductive/productive roles of women, and
the environmental situation - especially as a result of the war in
Mozambique. The lack of access to land, absence of infrastructure,
socio-economic and physical insecurity, and unsafe water and lack of
sanitation, are but the most evident unfavourable conditions with
which women and their families have to cope in their daily struggle
for survival. The main argument is that high fertility among the poor
strata of the population has resulted in the reproduction of inter-
generational poverty. In this context, the environmental policy
should not be contemplated separately from the population issues, and
in particular from the role of women in the family and society.
77
SERRA, A.M. de Almeida (1993). Mocambique: da Independencia a
Actualidade - Evolucao Economica e Social, 1975-1990. Coleccao
"Estudos de Desenvolvimento", n§ 1. Centro de Estudos sobre
Africa e do Desenvolvimento, Instituto Superior de Economia e
Gestao (ISEG), Universidade Tecnica de Lisboa, pp. 187
Mozambique: from Independence to the Present - The Economic and
Social Evolution 1975-1990.
This study of the development dilemmas, successes and failures
during the first 15 years of independence of Mozambique mostly
addresses the system of collectivized villages and co-operatives, and
the effects this system has had on social transformation. Many
explicit references refer to the continuation of the inferior status
of women in the family and local community. The bureaucratized state
and its ideology, and the planned economic and social system could
not replace the deeply rooted gender-asymmetrical cultural-social
system and power-relations governing individual and group exchanges.
The author also argues that the system of collectivized villages has,
in fact, contributed to the growing burden of non-remunerated, or
very badly paid, women's work.
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WOMEN AND ENVIRONMENT
78
ANDRADE, Ximena; et al. (1994). A Mulher e o Meio Ambiente. Estudos
Mocambicanos, no. 11-12, pp. 111-143.
Women and Environment
This article reviews the environmental context of domestic,
agricultural, and other productive activities of women in Mozambique.
A list of indicators of women's participation in sustainable
development is proposed at the following six levels: woman and
family; territorial location; subsistence and artisanal agricultural
production; educational levels and gender; health and nutritional
status; and, the role of the informal sector and production in small
enterprises. The use and management of natural resources and the
livelihood situation of families, as well as of different categories
of women in rural and urban areas are presented by means of a variety
of statistical records.
=====================================================================
MISCELLANIES
79
MAMAN, Maria Amida (1994). Informacao Bibliografica. Estudos
Mocambicanos,. n§ 11-12, pp. 211-224.
Bibliographical Information
This bibliography of titles available at the Documentation
Centre of the Department for the Study of Women and Gender (DEMG) of
the Centre for African Studies at the University Eduardo Modlaine,
Maputo, contains references grouped around key-words such as the
following: bibliographies; women and work; women and gender; women
in difficult situation; women, health and reproductive rights; legal
situation of women; women and emancipation; and, general issues.
Rural women's issues are mostly, though not exclusively, represented
in references cited in the section on women and work.
80
MPF (1995). Mocambique: Panorama Demografico e Socio-Economico.
Serie: Inquerito Demografico Nacional, Documento N§ 5. Maputo:
Ministerio do Plano e Financas (MPF), Direccao de Gabinete
Central do Recenseamento Estatistica, pp. 150.
Mozambique: Demographic and Socio-Economic Overview
This document contains the results of the analyses of data from
the 1991 National Demographic Survey. Apart from a separate chapter
on women, data on gender-related specificities and on rural versus
urban differences are presented in cross-tabulations and related
analyses in other sections, such as those on family size and
structure (in 1991, 24% of rural families were women-headed),
educational attainment, civil status, economic activities, etc.
Methodological notes accompany every analysis. In the chapter on
demographic dynamics and prospects for population growth, one major
finding is that fertility rates decreased abruptly for women in the
age group 20-35, since 1980. It is assumed that these women are
mostly those who were separated from their husbands because of the
war. The total fertility rate, however, is still very high: 6.2 in
1991.
81
SILVA, Helia Lains e (1990). Contribuicao para uma Bibliografia Agro-
Silvo-Pastoril de Mocambique. Comunicacoes - Series de Ciencias
Agrarias, n§ 3. Lisboa: Instituto de Investigacao Cientifica
Tropical, pp. 135.
Contribution to a Agro-Silvo-Pastoral Bibliography of Mozambique
This bibliography of international literature on the
agricultural sector in Mozambique is structured, inter alia, around
a number of topics which bea direct relevance to the socio-economic
and other aspects of rural development, such as the following: Social
Change, Human Resources, Land Occupation, Population, Settlements,
Farming Systems, and Quality of Life.
=====================================================================
S A O T O M E A N D P R I N C I P E
82
THIRION, Samuel (1990). As Pequenas Exploracoes Agricolas Alimentares
em Sao Tome e Principe. Analise do Sector e Propostas. Tomo 1:
Texto Principal. Paris: Institut de Recherches et d'
Application de Methodes de Developpement (IRAM), pp. 67.
(mimeo.)
The Smallholder Food Production in Sao Tome and Principe. Sector
Analysis and Proposals.
This field research was conducted for the Ministry of
Agriculture and Fisheries and it was financed by IFAD as part of a
project on the revitalization and strengthening of family food
production in Sao Tome e Principe (in efforts to offset the negative
effects of the dominant export oriented large-scale production on
national food security). The results reveal the gender specific
micro-economic and cultural aspects of intra-family/household
relations in small scale farming, forestry and fisheries, as well as
in family consumption patterns, and the division of responsibilities
in transformation and marketing of produce. Gender roles are also
described in the spheres of decision-making and household resources
management. Social, physical and cultural factors governing different
agricultural production systems are described as well.
======================================================================
P A L O P s
83
ANDRADE, Elisa (1987). As Mulheres: Pilares das Sociedades Africanas.
Terra Solidaria, n§ 5. pp. 1-4.
Women: Pillars of African Societies
This is the first article ever published in Portugal on the
need to understand the productive role of African women. Empirical
evidence, drawn from the PALOPs, is presented about the negative
impacts of the colonial administration and economy on reinforcing the
old, and establishing new forms of women's inferior social and
economic position in the society, as well as on the forms of
contemporary discrimination of women. One major argument is that it
is crucial to fully understand the status and roles of women as
economic and social actors at all levels - and not only the ethnic
and socio-anthropological context of their livelihoods at the micro-
level, and in isolation from social processes at macro level - as
this should represent an important part of all efforts aimed at
achieving socio-political emancipation and economic development of
these countries.
84
BARATA, Oscar Soares de (1994). As Bases Demograficas da Lusofonia.
In: O Mundo Lusofono. Lisboa: Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa,
pp. 9-33.
Demographic Foundations of "Lusophonia"
This is a comparative analysis of main socio-demographic
features in "Lusophone countries", namely Portugal, Brazil, and the
PALOPs, in the period between 1950 and 1990. It is shown how these
countries are in different stages of the demographic transition. The
fertility and mortality rates in PALOPs are also compared with those
in other African countries. The median age in PALOPs ranges between
15.8 in Sao Tome and Principe, and 19 in Angola, and there is all
reason to believe that the population growth will continue very high
for quite some time to come. Rural exodus to cities, poverty and
marginalization have become common features in these countries.
85
CIDAC (1996). Projectos de Desenvolvimento. Lisboa: Centro de
Informacao e Documentacao Amilcar Cabral - CIDAC. (mimeo.)
Development Projects in Africa
CIDAC, a Portuguese NGO devoted to socio-economic development
in the developing countries, has been carrying out various field
projects in the PALOPs (financially supported by the European
Commission and/or by the Portuguese Government). Rural women have
been the immediate beneficiaries in two major on-going CIDACþs
projects in Guinea Bissau. The main objective of the project in Zona
Verde de S. Joao de Bolama is to ensure greater food security at
community level through the establishment of the þbanks of cerealsþ,
run by women. The project in the area of Tombali aims at diminishing
the rural exodus by strengthening the local associations of
producers, especially the young and women farmers. In a major CIDACþs
project in Cape Verde (Concelho de Tarrafal, Ilha de Santiago)
conditions are being created for an increase in income-generating
activities for women-heads of households. Examples of other CIDAC
projects with rural women as beneficiaries are: assistance in
commercialization of products (opening of small shops) in Bolama,
Guinea Bissau; day-care centres for children in Sta. Cruz, Cape
Verde; rehabilitation of small-scale agricultural production in Zona
Verde da Beira, and training for entrepreneurship and resource
management in Mozambique.
86
CORREIA, Augusto Manuel Nogueira Gomes (1994). A Agricultura
Itinerante versus Agricultura Sedentaria: As Respostas que
Tardam. In: European Science in the Development of Tropical
Regions. Lisboa: Instituto de Investigacao Cientifica Tropical,
pp. 141-145.
Shifting Agriculture versus Sedentary Agriculture. Lagging Responses
Largely based on the experience from the PALOPs, this paper
discusses the adverse environmental and other effects of shifting
agriculture in the light of the demographic explosion,
commercialization, changes in consumption patterns, external
pressures, etc. The main argument is that sedentary agricultural
production should be ever more encouraged. The need to provide
assistance to women food producers is highlighted as decisive in
strengthening the food production sector. Discussion also relates to
the issues of land ownership, integration of animal husbandry with
farming, linkages between traditional and political power, need for
training and technology, and for concerted international assistance.
87
DIAS, Jill R. (1990). Bibliografia das Publicacoes Recentes sobre a
Africa de Lingua Oficial Portuguesa. Revista Internacional de
Estudos Africanos, n§ 12-13, pp. 501-524.
Bibliography of Recent Publications on Africa with Portuguese as the
Official Language
This is a bibliography of monographs, articles, papers and
other documents from the international scientific literature on
Africa, specifically the PALOPs. References are presented by
countries and by disciplines/themes such as Anthropology, Sociology
and History, Economy and Development, and Politics. Although a great
number of references cover the pre-independence period, a significant
number of references explicitly or implicitly cover the contemporary
issues of gender-relations, rural women and development, population
dynamics and agricultural development.
88
FARIA, Maria Teresa Cruz Guerra (1994). Gestao dos Recursos Naturais
para um Desenvolvimento Sustentavel. Mudanca dos Consumos
Alimentares em Africa. Africana, n§ 14, pp. 137-154.
Management of Natural Resources for a Sustainable Development.
Changes in Food Consumption in Africa
The paper provides a discussion on the management of natural
resources with reference to the role of women in Africa, based
specifically on the experience from Mozambique and other PALOPs. It
is stressed that colonization induced the change from the matrilineal
structures into the patrilineal ones in many societies. The
description is provided of how these changes have influenced the use
of natural resources, and altered food consumption patterns, as well
as how the need was created to increase food production in order to
offset the dependency on imports. In conclusion, it is proposed that
Portugal should provide assistance to African women to become
economically empowered as an important means of motivating them
towards lowering fertility.
89
FERRAO, J. E. Mendes, ed. (1992). Agricultura e Desertificacao.
Lisboa: Associacao Internacional das Jornadas de Engenharia dos
Paises de Lingua Oficial Portuguesa, pp. 201.
Agriculture and Desertification
This reader contains fifteen articles on desertification in
tropical regions, ranging from natural erosion to deforestation, as
well as on measures to combat desertification as part of sustainable
agricultural development. The negative impact of pro-natalist
attitudes, population pressure and use of inadequate farming
technologies in the ecologically fragile systems are stressed in most
articles. Possible positive effects of a more rational use of the
abundant labour force and introduction of more adequate techniques
are also discussed. Policy-oriented proposals and recommendations
refer, inter alia, to the need for equality in the access to land and
in the property rights for all members of rural society, as well as
the need for human resource development in the use of ecologically
sound agro-techniques. The need for significant improvements in
nutritional habits and standards for all is also highlighted.
90
HEIMER, Franz-Wilhelm (1994). Bibliografia sobre Crise, Ajustamento
Estrutural e Democratizacao em Africa, com Atencao Especial a
Africa de Lingua Oficial Portuguesa. Revista Internacional de
Estudos Africanos, n§ 16/17, pp. 315-334.
Bibliography on Crisis, Structural Adjustment and Democratization in
Africa, with Special Attention to the Parts of Africa with Portuguese
as the Official Language.
This bibliography of international scientific literature offers
a basis for an interdisciplinary study of issues related to the
structural adjustment programmes stimulated by the World Bank and the
International Monetary Fund, as well as to the democratization of
political life in Africa. These are the two major processes that have
recently occurred in many African countries, especially in the
PALOPs. This bibliography demonstrates that a vast and profound
debate has taken place on these issues.
91
RIBEIRO, Sergio (1988). Recursos Humanos e Estrategia de
Desenvolvimento. Lisboa: 34 /Coleccao Unversitaria - Editorial
Caminho, pp. 347.
Human Resources and Development Strategy
This book is a contribution to the theoretical thought on the
relationships between labour and development. Largely based on the
pre- and post-colonial experience from Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau and
Mozambique, the conceptual framework for understanding and solving
the problem of labour surpluses due to high population growth and
poverty corresponds to the Marxist-socialist interpretation of the
political economy of underdevelopment. The argument is that the
demographic component of development policy must focus on the
following three issues: natural renewal of generations (i.e.,
fertility, mortality, structures...); social mobility; and migration.
The need for age and sex-specific approaches is stressed, especially
in sections on dilemmas regarding classification of active population
and of economic activities. In conclusion, the "planning of human
resources" is proposed in order to satisfy human needs, including the
need for a full social recognition of work.
92
RODRIGUES, Rui Eduardo Silva (1987). Contributo para o Estudo da
Familia e do Parentesco na Sociedade Humana. Analise
Comparativa de Sistemas Africanos de Angola e Mocambique. Tese
do Doutoramento. Departamento de Antropologia, Faculdade de
Ciencias Sociais e Humanas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa,
pp. 521.
A Contribution to the Study of Family and Kinship in Human Society:
Comparative Analysis of African Systems in Angola and Mozambique
This monograph contains a socio-anthropological interpretation
of the dynamics of family systems and of the structural consequences
related to the adoption of specific strategies in developing kinship
relations among, on one side, the Makonde people in Northeast and
Central and the Tsonga people in South-Eastern Mozambique, and, on
the other, the Kyaka people in Central-West Angola. It is explained
how values and behaviour related to gender, class and age, determine
the established male-dominated hierarchies as the basic principle in
all family relations. Makonde, characterized by matrilineal kinship,
and often living in polygamous family households, tend to have
equally distributed farming tasks between men and women. The Tsonga
maintain all farming tasks exclusively confined to women, and animal
husbandry to men. Men own the animals which enable them to dominate
the economics of the matrimony and family formation. The Kyakas of
Angola, organized as a feudal society, known in the past as hunters
and warriors, nowadays are cultivators and traders of corn and manioc
(mostly women's tasks) in the slash-and-burn farming system. Their
kinship system is patrilineal, and the preferred choice of the bride
is among the matrilineal cousins.
93
SAINT-MAURICE, Ana; PIRES, Rui (1989). Descolonizacao e Migracoes -
Os Imigrantes dos PALOP em Portugal. Revista Internacional de
Estudos Africanos, n§ 10-11, pp. 203-226.
Decolonization and Migration - Immigrants from PALOPs in Portugal
This is a study on "push" and "pull" factors in migration
streams from the PALOPs to Portugal in the post-colonial period, as
well as on the social and economic integration of migrants in
Portugal. The profiles of migrants are presented. For example, from
Mozambique, the majority are students, both single and married. From
Cape Verde, a larger portion are married men with low levels of
qualifications. Statistical data on marital status and on the
motherhood of female immigrants from the PALOPs are also provided.
94
SOARES, Horacio (1994). Desenvolvimento Sustentavel nos Paises de
Fracos Recursos. Aspectos Sociais e Economicos da Intervencao.
In: European Science in the Development of Tropical Regions.
Lisboa: Instituto de Investigacao Cientifica Tropical,
pp. 57- 63.
Sustainable Development in Countries with Poor Resources. Social and
Economic Aspects of Intervention
This paper discusses the environmental and development problems
and prospects in the countries in the Sahel, among which are Cape
Verde and Guinea-Bissau. It is stressed that population pressure,
together with technological, institutional and other issues, are the
major cause of desertification. Proposals are put forward regarding
future inter-governmental activities at the sub-regional level. It
is elaborated how vital is the role of women in environmental
management, as well as in animal husbandry and marketing of
agricultural produce, and yet how women face serious obstacles to the
realization of their economic and social roles.
====================================================================
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY - PART TWO
I N D E X
age at marriage
55, 63, 64, 71
division of labour
2, 17, 33, 35, 36, 38, 40
and social relations
18, 29, 31, 33, 38, 40, 41, 45, 64, 84
animal husbandry
14, 63, 86, 92, 94
artisanal fisheries
1, 3, 6, 14, 20, 29, 43, 58, 63, 82
colonial rule
and gender-relations
7, 73, 83, 88
and smallholder agriculture
4, 61, 68
and socio-economic conditions
46, 56, 91
culture
context of
1, 3, 17, 23, 25, 32, 39, 45, 50, 57, 64, 65,
67, 69, 74, 75
traditional norms and values
1, 2, 6, 20, 28, 33, 34, 43, 66, 69, 72, 77,
82
religion
1, 2, 31, 43, 65, 72
commercialization of agriculture
1, 20, 38, 41, 42, 43, 52, 53, 85, 86
community relations
development initiatives
8, 15, 16, 34, 48, 61, 65, 66, 77, 85
co-operatives
37, 59, 62, 77
associations
10, 37, 48, 85
education
attainment
12, 17, 19, 20, 29, 44, 47, 69, 71, 78, 80
access to
6, 9, 1125, 27, 52, 53, 55, 65, 72
environment
conditions of
9, 4, 17, 25, 30, 39, 45, 50, 74, 76, 77, 78,
80
degradation
34, 35, 47, 64, 86, 88, 89, 94
fertility
determinants of
1, 19, 27, 43, 76, 80, 84, 88, 91
KAP
18, 32, 35, 45, 63, 64, 6874, 79, 89
pro-natalist attitudes
35, 45, 63, 89
forestry
6, 14, 34, 58, 63, 82
girls discrimination of
6, 17, 23, 31, 38, 63, 66, 69, 71
labour needs for
1, 9, 12, 15, 16, 24, 31, 32, 33, 40, 45, 53,
61, 63, 67, 71,
73, 89, 91
division of
1, 2, 4, 12, 15, 16, 17, 20, 30, 31, 35, 36,
50, 62, 63, 67
exchange-systems
15, 16, 24, 33, 36, 38, 53
land access to
4, 7, 14, 17, 20, 26, 31, 50, 62, 64, 76, 86,
89
use of
7, 24, 30, 35, 58, 81
legal status and rights
4, 6, 9, 19, 26, 55, 57, 64, 65, 79, 89
market
4, 35, 42, 68, 73, 82, 94
matrilineality
7, 2, 44, 63, 88, 92
marriage patterns
22, 42, 55, 63, 64, 6, 68, 71, 93
migration
internal
16, 51, 52, 56, 73, 75, 91
international
16, 17, 18, 20, 22, 23, 26, 28, 33, 51, 60, 93
money
allocation by women
3, 8, 33, 42, 72
nutrition
5, 6, 9, 12, 21, 44, 51, 53, 54, 63, 70, 78,
89,
polygamy
6, 20, 32, 39, 42, 67, 92
poverty
8, 9, 47, 49, 51, 71, 75, 76, 84, 91
patrilineality
7, 17, 22, 64, 88, 92
smallholder farming
by women
3, 4, 5, 9, 10, 12, 29, 30, 32, 49, 61, 63,
72, 92
systems
9, 5, 12, 14, 15, 29, 30, 31, 35, 36, 50, 58,
60, 63, 81,
82, 86, 89, 92
technology
access to improved
5, 9, 30, 31, 51, 55, 86
traditional
4, 14, 30, 31, 34, 35, 60, 63, 73, 89, 91, 94
war 5, 8, 59, 60, 71, 76, 80
woman-heads of household
5, 8, 20, 25, 29, 80, 85
====================================================================
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Themes
Issues related to population dynamics and to the status and
roles of women in the context of agriculture and rural development
are not always in the main focus of the literature presented in this
Bibliography. However, these topics figure prominently as integral
part of broader elaborations on agriculture and rural development in
the PALOPs. It can thus be claimed that literature in Portuguese on
these issues does merit interest on the part of all who wish to
provide assistance in the development of the PALOPs.
As regards social science periodicals in Portuguese, most of
them are devoted to socio-political and cultural-anthropological
issues in the PALOPs. The WPD-related issues are best covered, though
infrequently, in few journals in the PALOPs, such as Soronda and
Estudos Mocambicanos, as well as in Revista Internacional de Estudos
Africanos, issued in Lisbon.
Themes that dominate in the literature presented in this
Bibliography, are the following:
- needs for, and availability of, family labour in the
realization of smallholder subsistence strategies;
- negative effects of structural adjustment programmes on the
social sphere of development, and especially on women and
children; and
- linkages between deeply rooted cultural traditions (often
ethnically bound), family formation, and social relations.
Other themes that prevail in the presented references are the
following:
- economic and social effects of the colonial rule on micro-
level livelihoods and national economies today;
- socio-political and institutional aspects of community
development (co-operatives, associations, etc.); and
- effects of migration on the areas of origin, especially on the
burden of work and responsibilities left to women.
There are themes that are only rarely touched upon, or are
totally absent from literature presented in this Bibliography (which
reflects the economic and social situation in the PALOPs), such as:
- income generation incentives;
- diversification of farm and off-farm production, and
entrepreneurship;
- technological modernization;
- promotion of gender equality in extension training and
services;
- encouragement of rational use of natural resources; and
- mainstreaming of gender and population in development
policies, programmes and projects.
The only PALOP on which WPD-related literature has not been
identified and is practically totally missing is Sao Tome e
Principe.
Authors
The majority of authors presented in this Bibliography are from
the PALOPs. Most of them pursue academic careers. Many have devoted
their Master theses and Doctoral dissertations at Portuguese
Universities to agriculture and rural development issues in their
countries. Other authors are mostly Portuguese scholars, and also,
rarely, of other nationalities (e.g., German, French, Swedish).
None of the presented authors is a Population Studies
specialist, and only few are specialists in gender-related rural
development. They are all mostly rural sociologists, cultural-
anthropologists, agricultural economists and geographers. Almost all
of them have had personal experience in field research and/or
agriculture and rural development projects among the smallholder
producers in the PALOPs, which probably explains their high
sensibility for social and gender-asymmetries against women, and
their appreciation of the socio-demographic dimension of development.
Institutions
Most PALOPs have their University, research, or
information/documentation institutions which have already been, or
could easily become, solid partners in population projects. Such
institutions are, for example, Accao para o Desenvolvimento Rural e
Ambiente (ADRA) in Luanda, Centro de Estudos Socio-economicos,
Instituto Nacional de Estudos e Pesquisa (INEP) in Bissau, and
Departamento para Estudos da Mulher e do Genero (DEMG) at the
University Eduardo Modlaine in Maputo.
Among institutions identified in Lisbon as sources of
literature for this Bibliography, some are qualified for various WPD-
related activities in the PALOPs. As regards
information/documentation, education, training and public
sensitization, the best equipped and most experienced in Lisbon are
CIDAC - Centro de Informacao e Documentacao Amilcar Cabral, and OIKOS
(both are NGOs). In the area of population and gender studies,
highest qualifications and significant experience have INDE -
Intercooperacao e Desenvolvimento (development consultants' NGO),
Instituto de Investigacao Cientifica Tropical (a government
institutute with tradition in overseas studies), and Centro de
Estudos Africanos, Instituto Superior de Ciencias do Trabalho e da
Empresa - ISCTE (which also offers post-graduate studies).
=====================================================================
Suggestions for FAO/UNFPA TSS
In the context of the above comments on authors and
institutions, on the dominant themes and, especially, on the missing
in this Bibliography, it is suggested here that FAO and UNFPA could
improve the implementation of the TSS in the PALOPs, for example, by:
- re-assessing thematic coverage, priorities, and objectives in
the existing and planned WPD projects;
- mainstreaming population and gender concerns in agricultural
and rural development projects;
- selecting authors from the PALOPs who could be engaged as
experts in projects in their countries, as well as in
other PALOPs;
- establishing co-operation with NGOs and other institutions as
partners in project design, realization and evaluation;
- promoting transfer of experiences and know-how among the
PALOPs in the WPD-related research, production of
technical materials, etc.;
- encouraging students and scholars from the PALOPs to do the
research on WPD, and to integrate WPD in other research;
- stimulating publications in the PALOPs, including translations
of at least summaries of national research into English
or French, as well as translations of foreign research
results into Portuguese.
The Bibliography presented here is by no means a comprehensive
state-of-art report on WPD-related issues in the PALOPs. To this
effect, sources in the PALOPs themselves should also have been
consulted. Hopefully, however, this Bibliography represents a
pertinent contribution to the removal of communication barriers to
a better understanding of these countries' reality, and could serve
as an inspiration to FAO and UNFPA for intensifying their technical
assistance to Lusophone Africa.
=====================================================================