UN Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
with support from the UN Population Fund (UNFPA)
|
| UN Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, with support from the UN Population Fund (UNFPA) |
|
****************************************************************************
The electronic version of this document is being made available by the
Population Information Network (POPIN) of the United Nations Population
Division/DESIPA and the Pan African Development Information System
(PADIS) of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. For
further information please contact Ms. Nancy Hafkin, PADIS
Officer-in-Charge at: hafkin.uneca@un.org
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Distr. Limited
E/ECA/PSPI.9/9
8 May 1996
ENGLISH
UNITED NATIONS Original:English
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL
ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR AFRICA
Ninth Session of the Conference of
African Planners, Statisticians, Population
and Information Specialists
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
11-16 March 1996
PROSPECTS FOR INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN AFRICA
I. Introduction
1. Access to information and communications technologies is
becoming increasingly critical for African community's participation
in economic and political life at national, international and global
levels.1/ Advances in electronic communication networks have
created enormous opportunities for developing countries. A sizable
number of African countries have already made progress in their
Internet links that have put them on the global connectivity roadmap.
2. Meanwhile, socio-economic problems continue to cripple equal
access to information and communication technologies in African
countries. The region continue to suffer from life threatening
malnutrition, endemic and epidemic diseases, debilitating ignorance,
continuous conflicts and bad performing economies2/ that block the
aspiration for increased information access. The resource at the
disposal of governments are mostly directed to dealing with
emergencies with little left for long-term investments in sectors
that could trigger socio-economic development. Education, information
and communication are some of the sectors that need immediate
attention for development in Africa.
3. African governments face two challenges in the information and
communication field, namely: provision of access for enhanced
participation in economic life and coping with the challenges of
rapidly advancing technology. What should African countries do to
overcome these rather challenges? Which are the central technologies
that bring advancement under current socio-economic situation? Is
regional information infrastructure a possibility? This paper will
focus on the prospects of information technology in Africa in the
wake of the information society.
II. Information technology for emerging information society in
Africa
4. Development can be seen as an increase of knowledge and skills
and creative potentials that can be applied to improve the quality
of life.3/ Research shows that low levels of knowledge and
inadequate innovative skills at lower, middle4/ and higher levels
have contributed to the continuous failures in African countries in
all spheres. Information and knowledge are interrelated. Well
informed, knowledgeable and innovative citizens are causes for human
centered development. Information technology facilitates the flow of
knowledge in modern society. The failure to use information
technology is becoming as negative as the refusal to attend school.
It is a choice between being left out or benefiting from enormous
benefits of information technology.
5. A cluster of technologies is responsible for shaping the way
modern information society is emerging. The merging of communications
and computing technology with printing and public information using
intelligent tools has made the availability of information easier.
The advancement did not occur in technology only. A wide variety of
information is becoming available through networks for everyone, at
anytime, and at any place.
6. The prospects of information technology for Africa are
tremendous. Nowadays it is becoming increasingly difficult to run an
institution without using computers. Desktop machines are replacing
traditional office typewriters. Information technology that can be
used, maintained and developed by the indigenous professionals is
crucial. Education and training is a key to building indigenous
capacity that helps reduce dependence on developed world, to cut
under-utilisation of existing equipment and to help to apply
technology for solving local complex problems. Though the changes for
technology render what is appropriate at one time inadequate at
another, African countries should consider effective use of some
basic technologies. Four main technologies are very important in
information access in developing countries, namely: desktop
publishing, CD-ROM, on-line access and Internet connection.
a. Desktop publishing
7. No other region is more in publishing crisis than Africa. The
book famine can be compared to the food shortage in the region.
Publishing as well as getting what is published is a nightmare.
Libraries in schools and public libraries have continued to decline
in holdings of up-to-date books, reports and journals. The revolution
in desktop publishing is the most promising rescue to the weak
publishing industry in Africa.
8. The availability of word processors, desktop publishing packages
and tools, text, multimedia and graphics authoring tools, page
description languages and document exchange standards makes desktop
publishing an outstanding device for improved publishing in
developing countries.5/ Desktop publishing has made substantial a
revolution in the quality and ease of publications. It saves the
resources needed to produce a document, and reduce the turn around
time in traditional publishing process. It facilitates making last
minute changes controls the whole publishing processing from a
desktop.
9. Personal computers have made much easier the production of
newspapers, magazines, books, retail flyers, cards etc. by
individuals. The equipment to manage a desktop station has undergone
though a significant transformation since 1986. The cost of a desktop
workstation and software in 1986 was over US $20,000. A powerful
desktop workstation can be purchased for less than US$4,000 today.
10. There are indications of desktop publishing revolution in
Africa. For example, the International Centre for Insect Physiology
and Ecology (ICIPE) in Kenya has demonstrated how a successful
scientific publishing can be built with a minimal investment.
A small two person computer company in Eritrea was able to produce
the national elementary and high school textbooks for the Ministry
of Education. These and other projects have shown that it is not the
technology that is a bottleneck to publishing industry in Africa.
Rather it is training that becomes critical to achieve better
standards in quality of scientific and commercial publishing.
b. CD-ROM technology
11. Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) technology emerged from
research into the CD technology and uses external devices connected
to IBM and Apple desktop computers. It was further developed from a
non-standardised optical technology as in integral part of desktop
personal computers. In 1985 the cost of a CD-ROM drive was $2000 with
about a dozen titles 6/ available. In 1992 at a global CD-ROM
conference for developing countries in Sudan, very few products were
displayed to catch the eyes of the participants. Multi-media CD-ROM
disks with full integration of voice, text and motion pictures were
just emerging. In 1994 computers arrived with CD-ROM drives as
standard equipment and product bundles including software, data
bases, entertainment and educational titles. The cost of a quadruple
speed drive in 1995 fell to less than $200. CD-ROM titles rolled from
about 25 titles in 1985 to an estimated 25,000 in 1995. Portability,
mass storage, reliability, capacity to store multi-media and ease of
distribution have made CD-ROM technology well adapted to developing
countries.
12. The ever dropping cost of drives, discs and CD-ROM titles
boosted the availability of CD-ROM to users in developing countries.
The development in personal mastering equipment, with tools that cut
the traditional steps in pre-mastering and mastering a CD, has
created wider opportunities for preserving archives in developing
countries with little efforts in digitising them. Wide experience in
mastering developing countries data bases has been gained over the
last ten years. The International Development Research Centre (IDRC),
the Pan American Health Organisation (PAHO) and agricultural
institutions such as CTA have made considerable efforts to master
CD-ROM data bases. The Pan African Development Information System
(PADIS) is working on the first Africa based CD-ROM using information
from Africa. The increasing speed and power in reading multi-media
has facilitated CD-ROM application in education, research, computing,
entertainment, delivery of information to users at remote sites or
on a network. It has greatly increased access to information. The
following table illustrates this trend over the last ten years.
Table 1. CD-ROM industry trends (In US $)
--------------------------------------------------------------
Year mastering drive diskSpeed
cost cost
--------------------------------------------------------------
1985 100,000 2,000 10001X (150k/sec)
1990 30,000 1,000 7501X (150kb/sec)
1992 10,000 750 2502X (300Kb/sec)
1995 3,000 200 204X, 6X
(personal (600-900Kb/sec)
mastering)
----------------------------------------------------------------
13. Increasing demands for mass storage has made CD-ROM a suitable
technology for largely text based or multi-media releases. At 650
Mbyte capacity a CD-ROM disk can store about 72 minutes of music or
30 minute compressed motion video or an entire encyclopedia.
Research has already shown the ability to store a whole video on a
single disc. Technical standards groups for data compression such as
Joint Photographic Expert Group (JEPG), Moving-image Photographic
Expert Group (MPEG, and MPEG-2 for sound) and the Multimedia PC (MPC1
and MPC2) have been critical in this trend.
14. Combined with the scanning technology and networking, CD-ROM's
potential for production and distribution of public archives is
enormous. Availability of user friendly software and multi-media will
make CD-ROM technology a powerful tool for distribution of
information. Multi-media has expanded the opportunities for increased
availability of data bases on CD-ROM ranging from chemical abstracts,
medicine, population information, agriculture etc. Its potential for
making information available without connect charges and time limit,
makes it suitable technology to African information access problems.
The following constitute the major potentials for CD-ROM in Africa:
CD-ROM national archives: CD-ROM offers opportunities for making
African national heritage, culture, tourist attractions and all forms
of structured information widely available. It helps to reduce
Africa's dependence on the developed world both for technology and
its own information.
CD-ROM network kiosks : The concept of communications access
through "teleshops" can be extended to information kiosks where users
can access data and useful information locally. The average
information user in Africa will be unable to afford on-line access
and full Internet connection due to limitations in bandwidth and
costs.
Coupled with low cost networking CD-ROM promises the
distribution of information to remote areas in Africa.
Universities and research centre public catalogues: High cost
and non-availability of public access catalogues in universities can
be altered through the use of CD-ROM.
Users that access on-line public access catalogues locally can
request further searches via electronic mail. Libraries in developed
world have already integrated CD-ROM into Local Area Networks.
Substantial cost savings have been achieved by using CD-ROM for
public access catalogues.
15. A few problems continue to block the potential of CD-ROM
technology in Africa. The major problems will be lack of knowledge
of what is available in CD-ROM format, non-availability of relevant
information to Africa and shortage of resources to acquire the
technology.7/ Language barriers, licensing agreement and network
restrictions will also contribute to the low diffusion of CD-ROM
technology in the region.
16. Training in use of CD-ROM technology should not be
underestimated. Users should get training in areas such as CD-ROM
data base preparation for personal mastering, troubleshooting, CD-ROM
searches, CD-ROM networking and information access. Basic computer
training in operating systems makes usage of CD-ROM technology for
information exchange, access, download and upload easier. Networking
of CD-ROM needs a thorough knowledge of Local Area Networking
technology and knowledge on accessing global information resources
over the Internet.
c. on-line access
17. On-line service is an electronic link that helps to access
structured information.8/ It has been in existence before CD-ROM
technology. In developed world it is an important element of everyday
life. Dial-up services, X.25 links and Internet connections are used
to make access to a wide range of data bases provided by on-line
service providers. Access to on-line flight information, weather
data, inventory, catalogues and wide range of structured information
across various sectors and disciplines is crucial to institutions and
individuals.
18. The most significant feature of on-line services is the
provision of structured information. On-line service providers make
considerable efforts to provide qualitative and up-to-date structured
data on various subjects. Using selected keywords, users can make
simple Boolean searches to browse through thousands of structured
records.
19. In addition to commercial structured information there has been
a considerable development in library catalogues and unstructured
global information on the Internet. Browsing and indexing tools have
made access to Internet information resources easier. They have also
made greater impact on commercial service providers. The major
developments that have advanced on-line services during the last
decade include:
- growth of the Internet
- availability of on-line catalogues through Campus Wide
Information Systems
- the reduced cost in making data available on CD-ROM
- availability of free accessible data through Wide Area
Information Servers
20. Recent advances in networking have forced commercial service
providers to connect to the Internet. This has made access easier and
reduced the cost of communications over networks. Subscribers are
charged only for on-line access and printing. The availability of
public access catalogues including access to Library of Congress on
the Internet has created a wide range of alternatives for users of
commercial on-line systems.
21. The growth of the Internet has also forced service providers to
consider a universal standard to contend with growing incompatibily
in distributed data bases. Different software, fields and platforms
have created incompatible data bases and made transfer from one
format to another difficult. The development of the Z39.50 9/
protocol is one of the steps towards breaking the compatibility
dilemma. Z39.50 aims at defining the mechanism for integrating syntax
and query formats of different data bases on the network. Most
service providers have already taken steps to provide interfaces to
the Z39.50 format.
22. Universities that have discovered the enormous benefits of
access to information have raced towards building Campus Wide
Information Systems that provide access to local information
including On-line Public Access Catalogues. This has made universal
sharing of on-line information easier and prompted increases in
inter-library loans. Campus Wide Information Systems have brought
on-line documents and ways to access campus computing resources
together under a single umbrella. CWIS has also made on-line access
manageable and cost effective.
23. The availability of Wide Area Information Servers (WAIS) that
provide free access to indices of thousands of texts, software,
research papers and texts have created another alternative option to
search for information on the Internet. WAIS provide search and
retrieval tools synonymous with the book index. A number of on-line
service providers have also exploited the developments in CD-ROM
technology. Most commercial data bases are available on CD-ROM
format.
24. The use of on-line access in developing countries is subject to
the availability of resources. The high telecommunication tariffs and
unreliable telecommunications infrastructure makes online access to
commercial data bases impractical. Connectivity to the Internet will
facilitate access to on-line commercial and free data bases.
d. Internet connections
25. Electronic networking is a technique to link information users
using computers and communication channels. The role of computers
in cutting the time needed for processing and exchange of information
is fundamental. Communication channels reduce the distance between
users. While this concept of networking is straight forward, it is
also beset by some problems. With the recent wide media coverage of
networking, networking has become a source of wide confusion.10/
PT&Ts remain the major political bottleneck towards universal access
which has to be overcome if univeral access is to be achieved.
Networking is the result of efforts of computer technologists,
communication authorities, information users and service providers.
26. During the last two decades, Local Area Networks, connecting
users at the same location, and Wide Area Networks, linking users
thousands of miles apart, have been integrated with intelligent
global electronic networks that form today's superhighway. The
Internet (TCP/IP) protocol was developed in the military environment
in the United States to a global standard integrating Local Area
Networks and distributed Wide Area Networks. It has prompted users,
governments and developers towards universal access to information.
The willingness of nations, developers and individual users to
co-operate, share expertise and knowledge, and the continued rapid
changes of technology have made networking more affordable and
achievable.11/ Existing Internet tools have already shown the
possibility of achieving the following:12/
- users can connect to networks without limitation of
distance, time, age, political or racial orientation.
Institutions can access a wide variety of information on
demand. The process of building a virtual global library
is underway.
- any brand of computers can be used to access data on
networks. The solutions to standard and compatibility
problems take place at technical levels.
- private and public communications including wider
discussions can be undertaken at convenience. Encryption
makes private communications (in voice, text or graphics)
safe.
- one interface is sufficient to browse and exchange
information in various format.
The World Wide Web tools make this is a near possibility. It is
possible to cruise and browse through endless global information
resources from a single software. There are various indexing tools
that can help users to use global data bases and libraries regardless
of format.
- users can make real time communications both in the form
of voice communication (chatting over the Internet) and
synchronised messaging (where users at distance interact
using their computer screens)
- users can publish on the network. Networking promises a
two way highway where the users become not only passive
recipients or consumers of information but also
information providers. This allows life long learning
through interaction. Networking will become more than
access. It will become an empowering tool.
27. These promises have also generated significant problems.
Security, privacy, cultural erosion, equity of access, etc. are at
the top of the list. Developing countries will continue to suffer
from low access to networking technology. The gap will widen not as
the result of lack of technical solutions but due to infrastructural
and political problems. This is nowhere more true than in Africa,
where socio-economic and political problems continue to set back the
use of information technology.
28. Although there is now growing recognition of the far-reaching
impact of telecommunications and networking on the economies of
African countries, a number of problems restrict its diffusion
through public institutions.13/ Information users in Africa have the
lowest literacy levels. More than half of Africa's population is
illiterate. Over half of those literate can not gather information
for problem solving. Most users struggle with everyday life. The
availability of hundreds of local languages without interface to
global knowledge resources has made access to information more
difficult. The near absence of information seeking culture has
continued to impede progress towards achieving universal access.
Shortage of financial and human resources, lack of knowledge on the
availability of potential tools, low level telecommunications
infrastructure, and rapid changes in technology are all affecting
acting the diffusion of networking technology.
29. Information networks are not a privilege for a few. With
appropriate low cost tools users in the most remote places can
benefit from access to networks. Emerging technologies put in place
during the last five years are encouraging changes in the structure
of information flow in Africa. The reducing gap between researchers
in Africa locally and internationally means qualitative research and
better problem solving. Access facilitates a diffusion of quality
education. Case studies in some African countries have shown the
enormous potential of networking for socio-economic development.
Grassroot networks have now connected thousands of users from Africa
to the global information resources.
30. There are five types of service providers in Africa14/ using
three basic technologies:
Fido, UUCP and TCP/IP. The five types of service providers
are: FidoNet: Fido is a public phone based store and forward network
which connects users with microcomputers. Fido has proved efficient
over poor telecommunications lines. Its ease of implementation and
ability to work over poor telephone lines have facilitated the wide
spread of Fido technology in Africa.
Healthnet: Healthnet is a Fido based systempan that uses radio
technology instead of public phone lines. Healthnet users connect to
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites using packet radio technology. The
satellite passes within the ranges of two to four times a day for
about fifteen minutes at which time automatic uplink and downlink is
done for message transfer. Healthnet, however has remained specific
to the health sector. SatelLife, the operator of Healthnet, has set
up over 15 ground stations (sites) in Africa. Though connections are
free, Healthnet implementation using Low Earth Orbit satellites has
became obsolete due to low bandwidth and difficult technology.
SatelLife is considering other alternatives, such as public phones
and a combination of LEO and telecommunications lines, for improving
access to the health community.
UUCP: UUCP is store and forward technology being implemented
using Unix systems. Packet switching (X.25) and/or public phone lines
are used to make scheduled connections between Unix hosts. UUCP is
spreading throughout West Africa due to the availability of packet
switching networks in most French speaking countries and support from
the French based RIO-ORSTOM project.
Co-operative TCP/IP: Co-operative TCP/IP are full Internet
connections implemented through co-operative institutions, such as
universities, to provide access to local users. Profit making is not
the main goal of co-operative TCP/IP links. Charges are set to cover
costs of operation and expansion.
Commercial TCP/IP: Commercial TCP/IP is full Internet
connection for profit. In Africa it is generally operated by private
computer or telecom companies. In Zambia it has been set up through
a joint venture between the University and a small private company
known as ZamNet.
The following table shows the distribution in Africa of service
providers based on the above techniques.
Table II. African connectivity
----------------------------------------------------------
Technology % of African Countries covered
countries
covered
------------------------------------------------------------
FidoNet 33 % Algeria, Angola, Cote d'Ivoire,
Cameroon, Chad, Eritrea, Ethiopia,
Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi,
Mali, Mauritius, Morocco,
Mozambique, Nigeria,
Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda
Healthnet 27% Burkina Faso, Botswana,
Cameroon, Congo, Eritrea,
Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Kenya,
Malawi, Mali,
Mozambique, Sudan, South Africa,
Uganda
Uucp 32% Burkina Faso, Botswana, Congo,
Cote d'Ivoire, Cameroon, Ghana,
Guinea, Madagascar, Mali,
Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia,
Niger, Senegal,
Nigeria, Reunion, Togo, Zimbabwe
Cooperative
Internet 16% Algeria, Egypt, Kenya, Morocco,
Namibia, Mozambique, Senegal,
South Africa, Tunisia, Zimbabwe
Commercial
Internet 7% Ghana, South Africa, Uganda,
Zambia
No connection 32% Burundi, Benin, Central African
Republic, Cape Verde, Comoros,
Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea,
Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Liberia,
Libya, Mauritania, Rwanda, Sao
Tome and Principe, Somalia, Zaire
---------------------------------------------------------------------
31. Apart from socio-economic and political difficulties that have
left many countries unconnected, the underdevelopment of the
telecommunication infrastructure remains the major cause of access
in the region. Data shows that telecommunications diffusion in Africa
is the weakest in the world with the least tele-density. ITU 15/
reports indicate that the average telephones per 100 people in Africa
was 1.6 in 1993. With an ever growing population the tele-density
remains stagnant even if marginal increases in main telephone lines
are achieved in some countries. Some countries have showed a negative
growth rate in telecommunications density due to socio-economic
problems, population growth, foreign debt, fall off in export earning
and the need to import most telecommunications equipment. Due to the
small size of local telecommunications markets and policies, there
are few private foreign investors in
the telecommunications sector.
32. Telecom policies vary considerably in Africa. The tariff is
several fold of that of the developed world. Telecom policies have
become not only rigid but also have evolved as a perceived threat to
socio-economic development. Even under connection queues for three
to four years in some countries in Africa and telecom profitability
in very high margin, the inadequate policies and incompetence of
telecommunications management in most countries blocks achievement
of the right to communicate, socio-economic development and universal
access.
33. The region has continued to lag behind in the provision of
business
communication support such as packet switching and leased line and
other value added services. At the end of 1994 South Africa and
Morocco were the only countries that provided ISDN services. Existing
leased lines are limited in size and bandwidth and mostly used by
airlines, banks and international organisations. The following table
shows the situation in Africa in the use of telecommunications
technology.
Table III. The bandwidth situation in Africa 17/
----------------------------------------------------------------
Bandwidth Major Speed Applications Availability in
functions Africa
----------------------------------------------------------------
Narrow voice 2400bps- text transfer available in
band grade 9600bps and voicea most African
Voice countries
Narrow voice and 9.6Kbps vector 10 - 20% of
band switched 56Kbps graphics African
data network and high countries
(packet volume of
switching) text, low
data end network-
networks ing on Internet
Wideband private 1.2- 45 high grade South Africa
and Mbits/ images, digital and Morocco
Public seco ns audio, clips, only
data hypertext and
networks low grade
multi-media
Boardband Public 51M - high grade Unavailable
broadband 630+M/bits multi-media,
networks per second full motion
video and
sound
--------------------------------------------------------------------
34. This indicates how African telecom infrastructure lags behind
the rest of the world and has become the major cause of limitation
of access to the global information superhighway. After the enormous
success of Internet over the last ten years and the rapid changes in
the global connectivity map, a number of African countries have
remained unchanged. A wide range of efforts are required by telecom
operators, governments, service providers the international community
to change not only the colour of the connectivity map of Africa but
also to harness information technology for economic development.
III. Prospects
35. The potential of information technology in development
activities that improve the quality of life, efficiency of social and
economic organisation and its cohesion is evident.18/ African
countries need information and communication policy adjustment to
share the promises of the rapid changes in information technology.
Information policy adjustment involves appreciation of the
significance of information technology in life long learning, trade,
employment, accountability and better management of resources and
environment. Information technology, properly designed, can be
deployed even in regions that lack adequate water, food and power.19/
IT represents the biggest chances for major leapfrog in development,
growth and poverty alleviation if African countries can fulfill
necessary conditions for networking, agility, learning and
reliability.20/
36. Modern use of information technology requires aggressive
activities in education 21/. Information technology and education
have dual impact on each other. Information technology has a greater
impact on education in the development of new concepts, improving
resources sharing and advancing research. Information technology
education is the main solution for building indigenous capacity in
Africa.
37. Governments should play active roles in diffusing the above
technologies to colleges, universities and schools. The use of
Internet is a boost to graduate research in Africa. Connectivity
helps to open the window to global knowledge for Africa. In addition
to deploying information technology in education, governments should
promote the use of information technology in the public communication
media, including printed and audio-visual media, telecommunication
and postal services. Information systems in business, finance,
health, legal, science and technology should also be encouraged to
use appropriate information technology.
38. Governments should develop better policies for equitable access
to Information Technology. The need to provide equitable access
should not undercut connection of information delivery agencies,
business and private institutions to high bandwidth networks. Those
"ready to ride" should be allowed to surf on global information
networks. Appropriate information and communication policies are the
basis for building regional information infrastructure for
socio-economic development.
Endnotes
1/ This is indicated in the report of the United States
Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, 1992.
2/ Aiyepeku, Wilson and Adisa Tiamiyu (1995). Investment in
Education in Africa: trade-offs, benefits, and sustainability in
Feeny, Mary and Maureen Grieves, eds. Changing information
technologies: Research Challenges in the economics of information.
London: Bowker-Saur.
3/ Totemeyer, Andree-Jeane (1994). Speaking from a book: The
transfer of De-recorded Information to the information starved. IFLA
Journal, Vol. 20.
4/ A dozen commentators agree on the major failure in African
education to produce qualified and innovative middle levels. This
comprises of technicians, low level government civil servant,
authorities at all levels. etc.
5/ Spring, Michael (1991). Electronic printing and publishing:
The document processing revolution. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.
6/ Herther, Nancy (1995). CD-ROM at Ten: The technology and
the industry mature. Online, March/April 1995.
7/ Kanamugire, Athanase. (1995). Partners in CD-ROM services
for developing countries. Libri 1995: Vol. 45. pp. 106-112.
8/ Hartley, Dick, et. al (1990). On-line searching, principles
and practice. London: Bowker-Saur.
9/ Dempsey, Lorcan, Distributed Library and Information Systems:
the significance of Z39.50. Managing Information, June 1994. Vol.
No. 6.
10/ Pope, Ivan (1995). Internet UK. London: Prentice-Hall.
11/ Benzine, Djamal-Eddine and patrick Gerald(1995). Accessing
and using the Internet. TSS/CST Workshop on data collection,
processing, dissemination and utilization. United Nations, New York,
May 1995.
12/ Wiggins, Richard (1994). the Internet for Everyone. New
York: McGraw-Hill Inc.
13/ Jensen, Michael (1995). Telematics for development in
Africa: A global Context. paper presented at Regional Symposium on
Telematics for Development in Africa. UNECA, Addis Ababa, April
1995.
14/ Adam, Lishan (1995). The prospect of networking in Africa.
Http:/www.sas.upenn.edu(HTML).
15/ ITU. Proceedings of Africa Telecom 94, ITU, Geneva, 1994.
16/ O'Neil, Judith. Necessary Structural Changes in the
telecommunications Sector for expansion and improvement of service,
ITU, 1994.
17/ Shalman, Saifol and Mohamed Mohd. (1995). National
Information grid: a concept paper. Proceedings of Infotech
Malaysia'95. Kuala Lampur, November 1995.
18/ Talero, Ed. and Gaudette, Philip. Conference on "harnessing
Information for Development", World Bank On-line conference, June
1995.
19/ Rischard, Francois. Introduction to World Bank Group on-
line Conference on "Harnessing information for Development", June
1995.
20/ Santucci, Gerald (1995). The Information Society and the
Challenge for Europe, Managing information. January-February, 95,
Vol. 2, No. 1.
21/ Abdullah, Szarina (1995). Scientific and technical
information: impetus for development in South east Asia. FID
Journal, Vol. 20, No. 2, April 1995.