UN Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
with support from the UN Population Fund (UNFPA)
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| UN Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, with support from the UN Population Fund (UNFPA) |
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This document is being made available by the Population Information
Network (POPIN) Gopher of the United Nations Population Division,
Department for Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis,
in collaboration with the Education, Communication and Youth
Branch, Technical and Evaluation Division, United Nations
Population Fund.
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TECHNICAL PAPER
Number 2
RECONCEPTUALIZATION OF POPULATION EDUCATION
This TECHNICAL PAPER was written by O.J. Sikes, Chief of the
Education, Communication and Youth Branch, Technical and Evaluation
Division (TED), UNFPA.
TECHNICAL PAPERS are working documents by UNFPA. They present new
ideas, innovative approaches, case studies and research results,
prepared either by UNFPA technical staff or by consultants. Their
purpose is to facilitate the rapid exchange of knowledge and
perspectives among field offices and to stimulate discussion. The
contents of this working document do not necessarily represent the
policies or views of UNFPA.
This paper has been prepared for publication by TED. UNFPA also
publishes technical reports in these other categories: Report;
Programme Advisory Note; Programme Review and Strategy
Development (PRSD) Report; and Evaluation Report.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is grateful for the useful comments and suggestions
made by colleagues who read all or portions of the manuscript: Ms.
Fama Ba, Ms. Josyane Blanchard, Mr. Edward El Wardini, Dr.
Charlotte Gardiner, Mr. Gerardo Gonzales, Ms. Patricia Guzman, Mr.
Arnfinn Jorgensen-Dahl, Mr. Alan Kondo, Ms. Uyen Luong, Ms. Henna
Ong, Mr. Jairo Palacio, Ms. Catherine Pierce, Ms. Elena
Pozdorovkina, Ms. Mouna Saman, Mr. R.C. Sharma, Mr. Jyoti S. Singh,
Mr. Michael Vlassoff and Mr. Sloan Wayland. Mr. William A. Ryan
edited the report.
Copyright (C) 1993
United Nations Population Fund
220 East 42nd Street
New York, N.Y. 10017
USA
Prior permission to quote or adapt this material does not need
to be obtained from UNFPA, but appropriate reference to the sources
should be made.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
I. INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
II. PURPOSE AND RATIONALE OF POPULATION EDUCATION . . . . . 3
III. THE VALUE OF POPULATION EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . . 5
A. POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO A POPULATION
PROGRAMME. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
B. CONTRIBUTIONS TO NATIONAL EDUCATION. . . . . . . . 6
IV. CONCEPTUALIZATION OF POPULATION EDUCATION, AND THE NEED
FOR RECONCEPTUALIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
V. ISSUES AND TRENDS IN POPULATION EDUCATION . . . . . . . 11
A. NEED FOR CLEAR OBJECTIVES. . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
B. EMERGING CONCERNS ABOUT CONTENT. . . . . . . . . . 11
1. Environment/population linkages. . . . . . . 12
2. Family life and human sexuality contents . . 12
3. AIDS education as part of population
education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4. Gender issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5. Appropriate family planning content for
population education. . . . . . . . . . . . 14
6. Parenthood as an option. . . . . . . . . . . 17
7. Early development of responsibility. . . . . 18
8. Changing the approach to teaching demographic
concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
9. Ageing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
10. Application of general concerns to
population issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
C. PRIORITIZATION OF CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
D. PRESENTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1. Ordering of concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2. Positioning population content in the
curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
E. INVOLVEMENT OF PARENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
F. APPROACHES TO TEACHING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1. Teaching future-oriented thinking and
problem-solving skills . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2. Recognizing and analysing propaganda . . . . 24
3. Participatory learning . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4. Affect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5. Values clarification . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
G. TEACHER TRAINING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1. Pre-service teacher preparation. . . . . . . 26
2. In-service teacher training. . . . . . . . . 26
H. PLANNING, PRINTING AND DISTRIBUTION OF MATERIALS . 28
I. RESEARCH NEEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
J. EVALUATION ISSUES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
K. INSTITUTIONALIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
L. ROLE OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS . . . . . . 33
M. INVOLVEMENT OF PRIVATE SCHOOLS . . . . . . . . . . 34
ANNEX I Ä KEY NON-CONTROVERSIAL CONCEPTS OF POPULATION
EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
ANNEX II Ä HEALTH RISKS OF EARLY, LATE, OR TOO-CLOSELY-SPACED
PREGNANCIES; AND THE AVAILABILITY OF FAMILY PLANNING. . 41
ANNEX III Ä CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHERS IN FAMILY LIFE
EDUCATION PROGRAMMES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AIDS Acquired immune deficiency syndrome
HIV Human immunodeficiency virus
IEC Information, education and communication
ISCOMPE International Study on the Conceptualization and
Methodology of Population Education
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund
UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund
WHO World Health Organization
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I. INTRODUCTION
In 1978, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) assembled a group of educators to
prepare an International Study on the Conceptualization and
Methodology of Population Education (ISCOMPE). This document has
served as the conceptual base for developments in the field of
population education since that time. In the 1970s, there were few
projects in operation in any region and little practical experience
to draw from. In the early 1980s, however, interest increased
significantly and projects multiplied around the world.
This history was documented in UNFPA's review and assessment
exercise in 1991. But there has been no global effort to
re-conceptualize population education since the UNESCO book was
published in 1978. Many changes have occurred since then. A great
deal of practical experience has been accumulated, but it has not
been shared widely enough for all countries to benefit.
Initial attempts to organize the concepts of population
education (which began on a very small scale some 10 years before
ISCOMPE was issued) did not result in a tightly-structured
conceptualization to which all countries were expected to adhere.
Rather, early conceptualizations consisted of broad guidelines,
some of which were followed by many countries and others that were
not.
While experts in the field generally agreed that population
education should address both broad (macro-level) and
individual/family (micro-level) population issues, there was little
agreement on the priorities to be set. Indeed, the need to
establish priorities in the selection of content was not stressed
in the early years. This shortcoming often resulted in attempts to
cover more issues than the curricula could bear. At the same time,
curricula usually included only issues considered unlikely to lead
to controversy.
There were sometimes difficulties in determining the actual
content of population education, further complicating the setting
of priorities. In some countries participatory methodologies were
not practised, and learners were expected to memorize population
"facts" in the hope that this would somehow lead to behaviour
change. Teachers were sometimes expected to introduce adolescents
to human sexuality concepts in an effort to help them to avoid
early pregnancy Ä without reference to the use of contraceptives!
Questions such as how and when population education is
supposed to influence behaviour change, and how this can be
measured, lacked answers in the early years of population
education. Fortunately, many were resolved early through a process
of trial and error, but development of the field has been uneven.
Different regions have taken varied approaches to the
development of population education content. At the outset, Asia
and the Arab States gave priority attention to population dynamics,
while Africa and Latin America focused initially on sexuality and
family-life issues. In each region, other content areas have been
introduced gradually, but countries still need guidance in how to
do this more effectively and without the controversy that sometimes
surrounds projects.
The global issue of controversy and how to avoid it was
addressed briefly in a paper published in 1992 in the International
Review of Education (see Annex I). Another global concern that
needs to be further explored is the need for cost-effective
approaches to training teachers in large numbers. Written materials
are needed on: how to formulate objectives and determine what
actions are needed to meet them; prioritization of contents;
evaluation methodologies; how to fit key population concepts into
school curricula that are already crowded; and the steps required
to achieve institutionalization (a term used frequently, but rarely
understood). These need to be distributed widely to help people
working in population education to develop more effective
programmes.
This Technical Paper aims to draw on the past 15 years'
experience, to raise practical issues that will help those
associated with population education activities to strengthen
present and future programmes. The paper will emphasize important
new issues that need explanation, along with issues for which there
is a perceived need for new direction or emphasis, based upon
school programme experience.
While population education is also important for a variety of
audiences in out-of- school settings, this paper will focus on
population education in schools.
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II. PURPOSE AND RATIONALE OF POPULATION EDUCATION
The definition of population education has not changed much
over the years. It is generally agreed that population education is
the process of helping people understand the nature, causes and
implications of population processes as they affect, and are
affected by, individuals, families, communities and nations. It
focuses on family and individual decisions influencing population
change at the micro level, as well as on broad demographic changes.
Though sometimes linked with demography, human ecology,
family-life education or sex education, population education is not
synonymous with them. Rather, it draws its content from a knowledge
base comprised of key concepts from all these fields and others,
with variations according to the setting.
Interpretations of the meaning of "population education" vary,
perhaps too widely, from culture to culture and between countries.
To be relevant to learners' needs, population education must take
cultural differences into account, just as it varies the nature and
complexity of programme content according to the age-levels and
learning capacities of students being addressed.
Besides cultural differences, a second reason professionals in
various countries interpret population education differently is
that there is no international system of exchange of information,
experience and views (conceptual thinking) that could nurture the
continuing evolution of the field. This problem is compounded by
the complexity of population education, which draws on concepts
from a number of older, more-established fields; and by the fact
that the concepts of population education are usually dispersed
among several subjects in the school curriculum, instead of being
taught as a distinct, integrated subject area.
It is sometimes assumed, mistakenly, that population education
deals exclusively with demography or macro-level population issues.
Another incorrect assumption is that preventing adolescent
pregnancy is its only goal. Actually, the goals and content of
population education must reflect the diversity of school audiences
that have a variety of needs and behaviour patterns.
Tomorrow's leaders, in both the public and private sectors,
will be products of today's schools; it is important for them to
understand how population affects local and national welfare and
development. Most of the children now in school will one day be
parents; how soon this will occur depends upon a number of factors,
including how long they remain in school and what they learn while
they are there. Population education has to respond to both types
of needs.
Some countries have given priority to the immediate need to
reduce the incidence of adolescent pregnancy, and have emphasized
concepts from the field of human sexuality and reproduction in
their secondary-level school curricula. Such educational endeavours
can be successful if carefully planned and carried out in
conjunction with health services designed to meet adolescents'
needs. But for educational interventions to be most effective, they
need to begin long before adolescence, at primary and pre-primary
school age, when attitudes and values are being formed (see Annex
I).
Other countries have perceived rapid population growth to be
the major problem to be addressed through population education.
While this is easier to deal with at the middle or secondary level
than is adolescent pregnancy, it may be difficult to present the
issues involved in a way that is personally meaningful to students.
Imaginative educators have made important progress in this regard,
however.
In both cases, educators need to go beyond a "single-issue"
approach, and to recognize the importance and relevance of other
population issues, both micro and macro. They should offer learners
a balanced population education programme that draws its knowledge
base from four principal sources of information: social demography;
family life; environment; and human sexuality. This is can be done
while allowing each country to set its own priorities.
This paper does not propose to change the purpose and
rationale of population education. It seeks to provide
clarification, so that practitioners around the world can begin to
speak the same language, move beyond single-issue approaches, and
recognize that their young audiences have different learning needs
at different times in their lives. It also suggests a necessary
reconceptualization of content and approaches.
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III. THE VALUE OF POPULATION EDUCATION
A. POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO A POPULATION PROGRAMME
Population education in the school system can make a number of
contributions to a national population programme. The children in
school today, as tomorrow's leaders of communities and nations,
need to learn how to understand and cope with the population issues
they will face as adults. Population education should also help
them function effectively in their future roles as parents. Some
adolescents will find themselves at risk of pregnancy before they
are ready for it, and will need to know how to avoid such
situations.
Over the past 20 years, population education has gradually
gained acceptance as an important part of the school curriculum in
most countries, largely through the efforts of UNESCO and UNFPA.
Still, a great deal remains to be done to institutionalize and
strengthen this relatively new field to maximize its impact over
the long term.
UNFPA's approach to population programming is a holistic one.
Rather than funding projects in an ad hoc fashion and assuming that
they will somehow come together to form a coherent national
programme, the Fund undertakes lengthy exercises with Governments
to develop comprehensive strategies for a national programme.
Individual projects are formulated in line with these strategies,
and with objectives that make them compatible with other projects.
Such a programme stands a better chance of succeeding than isolated
actions.
Under this approach, population education is part of an
overall programme with which it shares long-term goals. Population
education can be somewhat more independent of the larger programme
than some other components of population information, education and
communication (IEC), but there are important linkages that should
not be overlooked.
Students are not the only audience for population education in
schools. Others include teachers and administrators, parents,
religious leaders, and policy makers. Each has particular needs
which have to be met if population education is to reach children
effectively. If one or more of these audiences is neglected,
implementation of a project may be at serious risk.
A larger IEC strategy will target each of these audiences for
other population messages. Religious leaders may be involved in
family planning communication. Public information efforts may
encourage parliamentarians to enact population legislation. Parents
may be among the workers exposed to population education on the
job. The messages, while not identical in each situation, should
not be in conflict but should complement and reinforce one another.
UNFPA's strategy for the implementation of population
education in the 1990s and beyond is based on this complementary
approach to population IEC, within a comprehensive population
programming framework. Adopting this approach should provide a
clearer understanding of how population education fits in the
overall population and education programmes.
B. CONTRIBUTIONS TO NATIONAL EDUCATION
Population education's greatest contribution to education is
its impact on the quality and relevance of education. One of the
principal problems of education in poor countries is attrition,
which is often due, inter alia, to the poor quality of education.
Parents do not want to keep their children in school systems that
do not function well, where they learn little. (Female children are
also kept out of school to help mothers at home, or because they
are not supposed to mix with boys from other families.)
Population education has the potential to help alleviate
school attrition by improving the quality of education, especially
when parents are involved in the programme, and children and
teachers are visibly motivated. In a number of countries (India and
Honduras, e.g.), strong teacher support for population education Ä
adopting it as their "own", rather than something imposed from
outside Ä has helped improve overall educational quality.
Population education brings relevance to the content of a
school curriculum, particularly when coupled with teaching
approaches that encourage participatory learning.
In the past, primary school-age children were sometimes
considered too young for exposure to population concepts, but it is
now widely recognized that attitudes and beliefs are formed early
in life, and can be influenced by education starting at a young
age. Children's questions may provide a sound basis for initial
population education. Teachers and parents should not side-step
questions like "Where did I come from?"; answers should be in terms
that young children can understand.
Teaching methods based on class discussion of questions raised
by pupils or by the teacher have proven effective in addressing
population issues and identifying and responding to learners'
needs. Involving learners in practical experiences that make them
aware of their feelings, ideas and beliefs can promote
learning-by-doing and help to clarify values.
Although these methods are no more expensive to utilize than
conventional methods, they do draw more heavily on the time and
imagination of teachers. This is not necessarily a drawback.
Teachers usually perceive the enthusiastic student response to
participatory methods as a professional reward which offsets the
inconvenience of spending additional time.
Population education emphasizes participatory methods because
of their effectiveness in developing understanding and concern
among students, which are critical if a programme is to have a
lasting impact. Introducing these methods not only benefits
population learning, but frequently improves the general quality of
education.
There are important, mutually beneficial potential linkages
between population education activities and broader education
initiatives in specific country settings. The Education For All
initiative provides a particularly important opportunity to make
such connections. Both the United Nations system and Governments
have major roles to play in bringing about the necessary
coordination.
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IV. CONCEPTUALIZATION OF POPULATION EDUCATION, AND THE NEED
FOR RECONCEPTUALIZATION
Population education began only in the late 1960s (although it
was talked about earlier). Much of the early impetus to introduce
population issues in school systems came from population and family
planning professionals rather than educators. This was a response
to the perceived population problems facing the world at that time.
By the 1970s, educators began to play a stronger role in
conceptualizing population education. There was a tendency to move
away from a primary concern with population "problems" Ä a concern
endorsed by population biologists, among others Ä towards the
"value-fair" approach endorsed by social scientists, which posits
that no population-related decisions are by nature "right" or
"wrong". At its extreme, this approach was taken to mean that
teaching should be free of values, and in a few instances an
attempt was made to teach population and related issues without
"imposing" the teacher's values on students.
For years the disagreement between social scientists and
natural scientists (only summarized briefly here) influenced the
field of population education and the question of how to teach
population issues, just as it has influenced the population field
itself. Some of this tension still remains. Today, after being
marginalized for some 20 years, population biologists seem to be
regaining respect in the population community.
These global conceptual differences were compounded in the
1970s and 1980s by regional and national differences in population
situations and cultures, which also affected the selection of
content for population education. Some countries are very open to
teaching about human sexuality and reproduction. Others, where
population growth is a politically sensitive topic, are extremely
reluctant to do so. As a result, population education has developed
unevenly in different regions, and among countries within in any
given region.
One point of agreement among educators at the global level,
whether their backgrounds are in social or natural science, is that
learning should be participatory Ä not imposed by the teacher
through traditional, one-way didactic methods. While some
individuals have found this hard to accept, acceptance has been
growing, fuelled by the success of teachers who have used a
participatory approach and found it highly effective.
Readings and lectures do have a place in population education.
They are efficient for teaching facts and enabling students to pass
examinations. Participatory methods are more effective, however, in
influencing the development of attitudes, a key concern of
population education.
A basic goal of population education should be to convince
learners that they can control many of the events in their lives,
including those related to reproductive behaviour (e.g., when to
marry, when to have the first child, how many children to have,
etc.). They can take decisions, follow up with action and obtain
results. Many children begin to believe early that they have no
control over their fate. Schools should help them modify this
attitude, and teach them that what they become in life will depend
in large part on their own decisions and actions. Participatory
learning is important to the accomplishment of this goal.
The differing outlooks and sensibilities regarding population
issues have up to now prevented the development of a clear,
coherent, and universally-applicable conceptualization of
population education. The world has changed since 1978, when UNESCO
proposed the conceptualization described in the International Study
on the Conceptualization and Methodology of Population Education
(now out of print). Cultures have changed, and constraints on
content have eased, in part, in response to a growing understanding
of the importance of some topics once thought to be taboo.
Population education is ready for a reconceptualization.
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V. ISSUES AND TRENDS IN POPULATION EDUCATION
As numerous countries try to implement national programmes of
population education, their experience underscores the need for a
reconceptualization of population education, and indicates ways to
make the effort more effective.
A. NEED FOR CLEAR OBJECTIVES
Objectives, of projects, school lessons and training
activities, have to be clear from the outset. They guide the work
that follows. Those responsible for designing projects, curricula,
materials and lesson plans should be able to refer back to the
objectives and receive clear guidance from them; materials
developers and teachers need to be sure that what they are
designing or teaching will help to reach the objectives.
Clarity of content is also of vital importance in meeting
learning objectives. When educators are reluctant to make the
lesson content lucid, for fear of being too explicit about
"delicate" subject matters, for example, pupils will be left to
fill in the gaps, and there is no certainty that those gaps will be
filled in accurately. A learning opportunity will be lost.
Activities and contents should reflect the objectives of the
project. When they do not, they lose their focus and it becomes
difficult to measure their impact or effectiveness. By the same
token, objectives must be formulated with evaluation in mind.
Evaluators should be able to evaluate the achievements of the
project against the set objectives.
B. EMERGING CONCERNS ABOUT CONTENT
Some of the population topics chosen for inclusion in school
curricula may be perceived as sensitive or controversial. These
need special attention when priorities are being set, and care
should be taken that they are presented clearly enough to get the
message across without offending. Annex I offers a guide on how to
do this with some of the key concepts from the sexuality and
family-life areas of population education.
A number of topics, corresponding to emerging needs among
audiences served by population education activities, should be
considered when priorities are set by ministries of education. (The
list that follows is not exhaustive, nor is the explanation under
each heading a complete treatment of the topic.)
1. Environment/population linkages
Population dynamics are closely related to environmental
issues. In line with the growing global awareness of the need for
sustainable use of resources and more effective protection of the
environment, relevant environmental concepts need to be
incorporated into population education curricula. In particular,
the key ways in which population and the environment relate to each
other have to be spelt out.
There may be areas of overlap in the content of environmental
education and population education; this can be mutually
beneficial. For example, a project to remove land pollution (i.e.,
litter) from the school yard can teach young children that their
planned actions can produce visible results (an improved
landscape). If carefully planned, supervised, and followed up with
discussion, this can become an important learning experience rather
than an unpleasant chore.
Just as key environmental concepts should be included in
population education, so should relevant population concepts be
dealt with in environmental education. This will require
collaboration between population educators and environmental
educators.
Environmental education should emphasize the ways in which
humanity depends on and has a profound impact on the environment.
One way to get this message across is to explain what ecosystems
are and how they function, and then to explain how various kinds of
human interventions affect them.
2. Family life and human sexuality contents
Family life and human sexuality are universally important
sources of content for population education. The topics that emerge
from these content areas are treated somewhat differently in
different cultures, because behaviour varies with culture.
Family life may be considered from both macro and micro
perspectives. For example, learners need to understand that there
are different family configurations and lifestyles. This may help
them appreciate cultural differences. At the same time, both family
life and human sexuality have direct personal relevance for the
learner, and such topics as human reproduction and responsible
behaviour require attention sufficient to meet basic learning
needs.
Despite vast cultural differences, a number of core concepts
and principles can be applied universally in the teaching of these
content areas. These are explained in Annex I. Details of the
approaches to be used should be left to individual countries, where
research can identify specific practices and views that influence
local behaviour patterns.
While Western models of family life and sex education may
provide useful references, their activities and materials must be
used with care, and should be adapted to the culture in which they
are to be used. Once adaptations are complete, and it is clear how
new materials are to be used and which specific issues will be
addressed, parents should be consulted before going further, in
order to avoid misunderstanding later on (see the section on
parents' participation below).
3. AIDS education as part of population education
The emergence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) poses a challenge to
educators, in view of its global importance and the complexities of
dealing with it in the classroom.
Two aspects of the phenomenon lend themselves to incorporation
in population education curricula. First, AIDS has a demographic
impact, which translates into an impact on development. Second,
because the virus is commonly transmitted through sexual contact,
preventive measures can be covered in the sexuality component of
population education. This is already happening in some countries.
In this connection, it should be stressed that AIDS is increasingly
being spread through heterosexual contact, elevating the risk for
women.
In demographic terms, the age pyramids of developing countries
are broad at the bottom, indicating large numbers of children, and
small at the top, indicating smaller numbers of elderly people.
Those in the middle age-range support the others economically; AIDS
frequently attacks individuals in this age range, who tend to be
sexually active. As the epidemic spreads, it reduces the size of
this group and its ability to sustain the older and younger
segments of the population, thereby having an important negative
impact on socio-economic development. It is important that students
(and others) understand this macro-level phenomenon, if community
recognition of the problem is to be achieved and preventive
measures supported.
Given the likelihood that in the foreseeable future there will
be no cure for AIDS that can be applied on a massive scale,
education has a major role to play in prevention. Learners need to
understand modes of transmission and ways to avoid infection.
This issue poses a special problem for population educators,
who have long agreed that aspects of human sexuality should be
dealt with as positive elements of life. The challenge is to help
learners develop positive sexual attitudes and outlooks, while
instilling the judgement skills necessary for life-protecting
behaviour.
4. Gender issues
Population education should not only teach about gender
issues; it should also help students (especially older ones) to
form positive attitudes and values regarding gender. Including the
following concepts and approaches in school curricula will foster
positive attitudes and encourage students to think about gender
issues:
o Fairness, or equitable treatment of males and females,
should be stressed as an underlying principle.
o Harmful stereotypes of both sexes should be exposed as
such and analysed. Classroom debate is one effective way of
approaching this issue.
o Girls have a right to know the implications of early
pregnancy for their future. Boys also need to know the
implications, for girls as well as for themselves. Both need to
know how to avoid early pregnancy and to behave responsibly.
o Alternative role models for women and men should be
explored in the classroom, and children should be encouraged not to
view their futures as limited by traditional "male" and "female"
job categories.
o Analysis of gender roles should be encouraged, including
not only occupational roles, but also domestic roles, kinship
roles, roles as community leaders, conjugal roles and parental
roles. Students should understand the implications the different
male and female roles have for decision-making power, job
opportunities, use of time, control over finances, and access to
knowledge and training opportunities.
o The term "opposite sex" in English is sometimes
mistakenly translated into other languages as "the opposing sex",
implying conflict. It should be made clear to children that
different does not mean bad or less worthy.
5. Appropriate family planning content for population
education
Including family planning in the design of school population
education curricula allows young people to reflect over time on the
implications of family planning and un- spaced births. Of course,
not all family planning issues are appropriate for school
audiences. Just as in other content areas, priorities have to be
set.
Because of the importance of family planning, and because some
school authorities have had difficulty in selecting and introducing
the most appropriate family planning topics, this issue is given
more attention in this report than some other important issues.
The idea that it is both advisable and possible to plan
pregnancies should be introduced early. In addition, the rationale
for family planning should be introduced early and repeated as
children grow older. Specific methods may be discussed after the
rationale for their use is understood; discussing methods earlier
accomplishes little and may even be counter-productive if
misunderstandings result.
Few teenagers and young adults are aware of some important
facts about family planning: one is that it takes time for the body
to adjust to oral contraceptives, and consequently a woman is not
fully protected against pregnancy until she has been taking the
pill for one month; another is that the effectiveness of oral
contraceptives is reduced by heavy smoking, the use of some
antibiotics and tranquillizers, and diarrhoea. There are many other
such points that may be taught in a school setting (others may be
taught by health workers).
In addition, to counter popular myths held by teenagers
regarding reproductive behaviour, it is extremely useful for middle
and secondary-school teachers to keep a list of such myths and
address them in the classroom.
a. Facts for life
The World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations
Children's Fund (UNICEF), UNFPA, UNESCO and others agree that the
following four points are universally applicable and important
(details may be found in Annex II):
o Becoming pregnant before age 18, or after age 35,
increases the health risks for both mother and child.
o The risk of death for young children is increased by
about 50 per cent if the interval between births is less than two
years.
o Having more than four children increases the health
risks of pregnancy and childbirth.
o There are many safe and acceptable ways to avoid
pregnancy. Family planning services can give couples the knowledge
and the means to plan when to begin having children, how far apart
to have them, and when to stop.
b. Family size
While family size is not the first consideration of an
educator, it deserves some emphasis in school curricula. The
family-size decisions of today's teenagers and their children will
determine whether, or how soon, the world's population will double
again.
Family-size ideals change over time in response to a
combination of variables including the values developed during
childhood and the situation facing couples at the time reproductive
decisions are made. Before a couple can make decisions about family
size, they must first understand that it is possible to make such
a decision. Second, they must have the tools (i.e., family planning
methods) to implement their decisions. Third, they must be
motivated to take action.
A number of adult education programmes have given high
priority to inculcating the "small-family norm". Unfortunately, the
approach followed has tended not to take into account either
natural learning patterns or the various subjective factors that
affect a couple's decision-making about family size.
For young audiences, the concept of family size may be
introduced as something that will require future action, to be
taken after considering a number of practical issues, e.g., the
cost of providing one's children with adequate food, clothing,
health care and education. This approach can be taught early, and
it is far more effective than, for example, attempting to teach a
child at age 7 that as an adult she should have only two children.
In this connection, it is important to compare the needs of
families today with the needs of families in the past, and with the
needs of the families that today's students will form in the
future.
c. Planning the first birth
Planning the birth of a couple's first child is important for
a number of reasons. It gives the couple control over their
fertility at the outset, and increases the chances that the first
and subsequent births will be safe and the children healthy. The
couple may need time to set aside resources, or to complete formal
education before a new baby changes their lifestyle.
Finally, the couple may need time to adjust to living
together. The early arrival of a baby often strains new
relationships.
o The importance of and the rationale for planning the
first birth can be taught in late-primary, middle and secondary
schools.
o Schools can also teach young people about the various
types of social pressure to have the first baby early, and how to
resist this pressure.
o Oral contraceptives may require a month of use before
they become effective. Making this information available to older
students could prevent many unplanned pregnancies.
d. Prevention of birth defects
The role of family planning in the prevention of birth defects
is another concept that may be introduced at late-primary, middle
and secondary levels. It is referred to here in some detail,
because general awareness about this issue is limited.
The early stage of pregnancy, especially the first six weeks,
is the period when the embryo is the most vulnerable to drugs and
other external factors that can cause birth defects when expectant
mothers consume or are exposed to them. Women may be encouraged to
take precautions against these threats once they know they are
pregnant, but by then, damage may already have occurred.
If couples are planning a pregnancy and are aware of the
heightened risks during the early weeks, they can take the
necessary precautions (avoiding, e.g., drugs of any kind, alcohol,
smoking and X-rays) before the pregnancy is confirmed. This is the
most effective thing a couple can do to avert preventable birth
defects.
Recent research has determined that certain nutritional
deficiencies can also contribute to birth defects. If a woman
consumes 0.4 milligrams of folacin (folic acid) daily, beginning at
least one month before the pregnancy begins and continuing at least
through the early stages, the likelihood of a neural tube defect in
her child is reduced by half. (Folic acid may be taken as a dietary
supplement, and is also found in a number of foods that are popular
in many parts of the world, such as lentils, black-eyed peas,
oranges and chick-peas.) Here, again, planning a pregnancy is key
to taking action that may prevent birth defects.
6. Parenthood as an option
The idea that parenthood is an option, rather than an
obligation, is still a revolutionary concept in much of the world,
although it is accepted in some countries. Greater acceptance of
this notion could have an important impact on future population
growth. Whether this occurs will depend, to a great extent, on the
efforts of population educators, communicators and journalists.
Having children is not simply a "right" to be taken for
granted; it is a heavy responsibility. There is no "social
obligation" to have children, but there is a major obligation to
care for those that are born. The perception that parenthood is
optional might actually lead to stronger families in the future.
We no longer live in an age when reproduction on a massive
scale is necessary for the survival of the species, yet many people
behave as if we did. Couples are still expected to become parents,
often as soon as possible after marriage. Women are expected to
"prove" their fertility, and childless couples in most countries
are presumed to be either unfortunate or selfish. Few people ever
stop to think how harmful Ä or cruel Ä these popular prejudices
are.
Clearly, not everyone is psychologically equipped to be a good
parent. Not everyone has the patience necessary to nurture a
child's development and provide support when it is most needed.
Child neglect and child abuse are becoming major problems in
many cultures. A neglected or abused child is not likely to have
been a wanted child. He or she may be the result of an unplanned,
undesired pregnancy, or the parents may have felt a social
obligation to have a baby without reflecting on the implications.
Today, in principle, most people have the option of
controlling their own fertility. However, not all couples are able
to exercise that option freely. Even when they have access to
services, young couples in particular frequently face strong social
pressure to bear children.
There is no longer any valid reason for anyone to be subjected
to social pressure either to get married or to have children. Young
people in the school system need to understand this, so they can
resist unwanted pressure to marry or have children.
7. Early development of responsibility
The right of everyone to accurate information and education on
reproductive health, and to a safe and healthy environment, needs
to be stressed. However, it is also important for children (and
adults) to understand that rights carry responsibilities.
Responsibility is a concept that runs through all the basic
content areas of population education. In the area of family life,
for example, emphasis should be given to what parental
responsibility actually entails.
It is important for everyone in secondary school to be aware
of the need to provide infants with early intellectual stimulation,
proper nutrition and health care; and understand the role of
fathers in providing these. Young people should also understand the
importance of timing a pregnancy, and of being psychologically
ready to provide the patience and understanding necessary to be a
good parent.
Child abuse can similarly be addressed by family-life
education that stresses what is required to be a parent and what is
undesirable. Since this problem varies in different cultures,
research into its exact dimensions and causes will be required to
develop appropriate educational responses.
The concept of assertiveness is an important one for children,
especially those likely to grow up at risk of early pregnancy. This
is also an area in which rights should be stressed.
Children should learn that they have specific rights which may
protect them in certain circumstances. For example, they have the
right to refuse any request that threatens them or encourages them
to engage in behaviour they know is inappropriate, and they have
the right to change their minds when they realize they may have
spoken or acted too hastily. They should also understand that while
it is not always possible to control one's feelings, it is possible
and desirable to control one's behaviour.
8. Changing the approach to teaching demographic concepts
Because schoolchildren will one day become leaders of their
communities and countries, it is important that formal population
education stress demographic concepts, as well as linkages between
population and the environment. But most of them will also become
parents, and all will have to pass through the difficult stage of
puberty. Therefore, population education also has to include issues
of family life and human sexuality.
Too often, demography is taught as a set of figures, resulting
in boredom for both teachers and children. A number of countries
have demonstrated that demographic issues can be taught in an
interesting way. The emphasis needs to go beyond the basic
concepts, to focus on the future.
Demographic learning is important to help prepare children for
the changes likely to result from rapid population growth, which
will profoundly affect the world they will inhabit as adults. They
need to understand the implications of international and internal
migration, and rapid urbanization, so that when they are in
decision-making positions they can take appropriate action to
influence migration patterns, reduce the negative impacts, and cope
with the effects of these phenomena. Little of this type of
preparation is now part of school curricula.
In addition, such demographic concepts as family size should
be made personally relevant to the learner as much as possible.
9. Ageing
In the future, as more people live longer, the proportion the
population that is elderly will be greater than it is today. The
impact Ä economic, psychological and sociological Ä of this
relatively new global process of ageing is already being felt,
especially in industrialized countries, where growing numbers of
the elderly live apart from their children. The cost to families of
supporting elderly parents or grandparents and providing health
care is considerable.
Traditionally, most cultures have greatly respected the
elderly. But rapid socio- economic change has increasingly
separated family members, reducing their social and psychological
support of each other. This has left many elderly people with a
feeling of being neglected, and denied the respect that their own
parents and grandparents received.
Ageing is particularly significant for women. Women tend to
survive longer after the death of a spouse, and remarry less often
after divorce, than men. In many countries, because of differential
access to education and paid employment in the past, elderly women
are likely to be less educated and to have less access to social
security benefits than men.
Another important issue is forced retirement, which deprives
society of experienced, productive individuals.
Although the elderly population's relative size in most
developing countries is small, its rate of growth is rapid.
Population education has a role to play in making young learners
aware of this increasingly serious situation and its implications
for their parents and themselves.
The education system can also help ensure that positive
traditional values formerly transmitted by the family, such as
respect for the elderly and understanding of their need for
support, not be lost in the process of modernization.
10. Application of general concerns to population issues
Many countries have adopted curricula designed to teach
responsible behaviour and respect for others in a broad sense. The
task for population educators is to make these concepts clear to
students as they apply to population and reproductive behaviour.
For example, boys need to be taught that they have a
responsibility to respect girls' rights, which includes avoiding
sexual suggestions that may be perceived as threatening, or
behaviour that could result in unintended pregnancy. Respect, in
this instance, means not taking advantage of the other person or
acting in such a way that might jeopardize her future.
C. PRIORITIZATION OF CONTENTS
Population issues are so far-reaching that it is theoretically
possible to introduce some aspect of population in every area of
the school curriculum. This is neither feasible nor desirable. When
attempts have been made to include too much in curricula, the
results have been counter-productive.
Educators sometimes have difficulty drawing distinctions
between population and related development issues, and consequently
try to incorporate topics that are somewhat marginal to the most
crucial population issues. When this occurs, the effect is to water
down more important population content, as evaluations of country
projects have shown.
The objectives of a population education project should be
spelt out clearly when the project is designed (these may be
revised as the issues to be addressed by the school project come
into clearer focus). The curriculum contents must be selected at
the same time, based on their potential contribution to meeting
these stated objectives. The clearer and more specific the
objectives, the easier it will be to select appropriate educational
topics and approaches to teaching them.
D. PRESENTATION
1. Ordering of concepts
Children's ability to grasp certain concepts and their
intricate details increases with age, yet many school systems do
not take this into account. Little research is carried out in
developing countries to determine exactly what children at each age
level are capable of learning; this type of research should be
encouraged.
At the same time, concepts need to be introduced in a logical
order so they make sense to the learner. Many values and attitudes
that may affect population behaviour are formed early in life. For
this reason, learning activities that influence the formation of
attitudes and values should receive priority attention early in the
curriculum. "Facts" can come later, building upon a strong base of
attitudes and values. The knowledge base can then be expanded, and
applied to family formation and courting behaviour, for instance.
Even primary school children can learn from activities that
decisions can and should be made, responsible behaviour is
desirable, and actions carry responsibilities. In fact, this
understanding is especially important for primary school children
because many will leave school after the fourth year. In so far as
possible, this particular type of learning should be framed in a
population context.
As indicated above, family planning has an important place in
population education content. However, it has to be treated
properly and with care if it is to be meaningful and effective.
There is an order to be followed; the rationale for family planning
should be developed fully before moving into descriptions of
specific contraceptives and their use, and other potentially
controversial topics. Rationale can be developed very early, and
contraceptives can wait until the audience is at a sexually-active
age. Even with adults, discussing methods before the rationale for
their use is understood is not likely to produce positive results.
2. Positioning population content in the curriculum
Countries have used various approaches in placing population
education content within appropriate school curricula. These
include integration with "carrier" courses, a separate-unit
approach, and treating population as a separate subject.
Most countries have used infusion or the integration approach
to population education, mainly because curricula are so crowded
with other subjects. In many cases this approach has been found to
be relatively ineffective, because population topics are spread
over five or six subjects, diluting the content so that coherence
and focus are lost.
Sometimes, population contents are so diffused in the "carrier
subject" that it becomes difficult to identify any population
content in the textbooks. Moreover, some of the most important
population concepts are sometimes left out of curricula and
textbooks because curriculum developers and textbook writers lack
training in population education.
Despite the weaknesses of this approach, it is generally the
most feasible for most countries, because it takes advantage of
structures already in place. One way to make it a more effective
approach is to provide adequate training to curriculum developers
and textbook writers. Another is to ensure that key concepts are
selected on a priority basis.
The scientific and health aspects of human reproduction have
a logical place in the teaching of science. The affective and
behavioural aspects are vital to making this content meaningful in
terms of reproductive responsibility. Teacher training usually
includes attention to the scientific aspects (although textbooks
and teachers sometimes avoid them), but needs to devote more
attention to the health, affective and behavioural aspects.
Environmental issues are both biological and political, and
can logically be introduced in natural and social sciences.
Humanity's impact on ecosystems is a key entry point for population
issues. Combining these issues with development themes (or
development education) can further increase population education's
relevance.
Some countries have introduced population education as a
separate elective course at the secondary level. This approach is
the best one, ideally, as it assures inclusion of all core
population education topics. It also minimizes the cost of training
teachers.
Since the addition of a separate course in population
education is not feasible for all countries, some have used the
"unit" approach. This may involve including a chapter or two on
population in the textbooks of related school subjects at various
grade levels.
A different approach with the same name may also be applied at
secondary level. In this approach, several key topics are selected
for concentration in a series of units, each of which is taught for
a month or six weeks during the same classroom time period over the
school year. In this way, environmental education, drug abuse
education, health education, and other population-related topics
can receive focused attention for a short period of time. To gain
the benefits of cumulative learning, this activity should be
repeated in more than one school year.
Both of these "unit" approaches minimize the risk of diluting
the population content. Many countries are now finding it effective
to use a combination of unit and integration approaches.
Regardless of the structural approach taken, the attitudes of
teachers and supervisors will be a major factor in determining the
success of population education. Attitudes may be influenced
through training, but teachers who bring favourable attitudes to
the job are usually the most effective ones.
E. INVOLVEMENT OF PARENTS
Parental involvement in a school population education project
or programme can make a great deal of difference in its acceptance.
Parents who are informed about the contents of and rationale for
population education often become the strongest supporters of a
programme.
In numerous countries, parents and community leaders have met
with school officials before new content was introduced in the
local school programme. These sessions have identified problems and
appropriate responses in terms of curriculum content. This approach
has led to strong community support for population education from
the outset of the activities, based upon an understanding of what
is involved.
Programmes for parents can be offered just prior to
introduction of new classroom curricula. Every year an introductory
session can inform parents about what the course will cover, alert
them to any child homework that may involve them, and reassure them
so they will not be embarrassed or uncomfortable. The curriculum or
simple materials may be sent home, and parents may be given the
option to contact the teacher with questions or remove their child
from a sensitive course.
While some of these suggestions apply mostly to educated
parents, illiterate parents should also be involved. This can be
done through parent-teacher associations, adult-education
activities, and community-group meetings.
F. APPROACHES TO TEACHING
Children have to be taught to think, to reason, to analyse
rather than accepting whatever they hear. This kind of learning
originates with early child-rearing, which can encourage analytical
thinking or discourage it. Parent-education programmes can help new
parents avoid behaviour that discourages intellectual growth in
children; unfortunately, few such programmes exist. Schools can
also play an important role in promoting analytical thinking among
children.
1. Teaching future-oriented thinking and
problem-solving skills
Population education, like all education, aims to prepare
children for the future. The increasingly rapid pace of change
implies the need to equip children with the analytical and
problem-solving skills to deal with situations as yet undefined,
and to develop "futuristic-thinking" skills.
At the same time, children can be taught about projections of
what the future will be like. They should learn what projections
are, and that they are valuable, if imprecise, tools. They can also
learn to identify precautions or steps that may be taken to
safeguard the quality of life in case alarming projections prove
accurate.
In this connection, the study of history offers an opportunity
to learn about past mistakes, to avoid repeating them. History also
offers another lesson in futuristic thinking: be prepared for the
unexpected.
2. Recognizing and analysing propaganda
Older children should be taught to analyse newspaper articles,
and to recognize when writers or publication owners have a vested
interest that may result in misleading information. Sensational
articles on oral contraceptives, for instance, are a common
occurrence in some parts of the world.
A U.S. publication addressed to adolescents once published the
following tips on how to identify propaganda:
"The dictionary defines propaganda as ideas, information, or
rumours spread deliberately in order to help a cause, person, or
institute. Propaganda is used to influence people. It stretches the
truth in order to sway people's opinion. ...
Propaganda can be hard to spot. It's not always easy to
distinguish between propaganda and facts. You should get in the
habit of asking yourself questions about what you read, hear, and
see. Here are a few things to remember:
o Be sure you're getting all the facts. Propaganda often
uses facts to mislead Ä to sell an idea. Ask yourself: Are you
getting all the facts? Are the facts correct? Or are you being told
only one side of the story? People who write propaganda often use
only those facts which back up their side of the story.
o Watch out for scapegoats. A scapegoat is a person or
thing which gets all the blame for a problem. People who use
scapegoats are not being completely honest, and may be using
propaganda.
o Beware of name-calling. Certain words arouse strong
feelings in people. Propaganda often uses words that people dislike
to label someone or something. ... Instead of accurately
describing a person's beliefs, propaganda tries to slap an
unpopular label on them. ...
o Distrust simple solutions. No situation is all black or
white. The truth is usually in the grey area in between. Be
cautious when people tell you only one side of the story. Take the
time to get the whole story. Check another source of information."
3. Participatory learning
Participatory learning has long been a key part of population
education theory, and its value is well documented. The concept is
not being applied as widely as it should be, apparently because
some educators find it difficult to grasp. Population educators, at
all levels, need to ensure that the concept is understood and
applied (refresher training may be necessary).
When teachers are trained in this methodology, they need to
experience it. Participatory approaches cannot be learned by only
listening to lectures or reading.
4. Affect
The affect of what learners are taught, i.e., their feelings
about the implications of what they have learned, has not been
stressed in the past. Learning must go beyond memorization of facts
to include development of, inter alia, respect for others, and
dedication to protection of the earth's natural resources. Dynamic
teachers are able to inspire children, and to help them develop
feelings of commitment. More learners need to benefit from such
action. Participatory learning and values-clarification exercises
can both contribute to this end.
5. Values clarification
Values clarification has been encouraged from the beginning of
population education. It has not been widely understood, however,
and therefore has not been widely applied.
Values tend to change very slowly, in response to a number of
influences. Education can help facilitate this process, by helping
learners understand their own values, and those of others' that may
be in conflict with these. Values-clarification techniques include
role playing, discussions, debates and games.
In a classroom exercise in values clarification in regard to
gender, for example, students are divided into debating teams to
consider a list of gender stereotypes. One team argues in support
of the stereotypes; the opposing team argues against them. In the
second round, the teams switch sides; this encourages both sides to
reexamine commonly-held beliefs and values that may be
discriminatory and harmful, especially to girls and women.
Similar exercises may be conducted using role playing and
discussion to examine real-life situations that lead to adolescent
pregnancy, decisions relating to migration, etc. These activities
should encourage children to reflect on the implications of their
decisions, and the attitudes and values that influence them.
G. TEACHER TRAINING
One of the most important contributions population education
can make to an education system is the introduction of more
effective, participatory methods of teaching. These teaching
techniques have to be applied in teacher training, rather than
simply explained in lectures, and practised under supervision as
new skills are developed and refined. In the process, prospective
teachers may be helped in clarifying their own values on population
issues.
Up to now, in most countries, teacher-training objectives have
not included modification of the teachers' own family planning
behaviour. Large number of teachers being trained in population
education are in the reproductive age group and have a need for
family planning information, which national training programmes
could address in their own way. Just as with teaching children, the
rationale for family planning must be made clear before going into
specific methods, to ensure the formation of positive attitudes
towards family planning.
1. Pre-service teacher preparation
It is valuable to reach young teachers with population
education during their training, when they can devote more time to
the subject than is usually available through in-service courses.
Both teacher training institutes and university schools of
education should receive inputs from a population education
project, so that their programmes will address the specific needs
of the school curriculum being developed.
2. In-service teacher training
In-service training is usually an expensive undertaking. It
requires a great deal of planning and preparation to have the
desired impact. Several key issues follow:
a. Selection of teachers
Some teacher-training activities have aimed for universal
coverage of teachers in the subject areas selected for
concentration of population concepts. Issues of cost and quality
are now forcing educators to ask whether all teachers who teach the
relevant subjects should receive training in population education,
or whether it might not be better to be selective in some
instances.
When dealing with a potentially sensitive subject matter, such
as human sexuality, it is preferable that those uncomfortable with
the topic, and those with reputations as poor teachers, not be
involved. If such a selection is made, meaning that not all
children will be exposed to particular concepts, care must be taken
to avoid these concepts in examination questions (see the reference
in section H below to indicators of institutionalization).
In 1992, the Ministry of Education of Zanzibar developed a
Curriculum Guide and Resource Manual for Family Life Education
which contains a list of criteria for the selection of teachers to
teach sensitive subject matter in sexuality and family life. This
list, "Characteristics of Effective Teachers ..." may be found in
Annex III; other countries may want to adapt the list to meet their
specific needs. Experience in Zanzibar and elsewhere suggests that
such selection of teachers is best carried out by supervisors who
know the individuals (possibly together with parent groups).
b. Cost-effective strategies for in-service training
For a number of years, population educators have been
concerned with finding the most cost-effective ways to carry out
in-service teacher training, and have developed several models. A
combination of approaches, such as Egypt used in the early days of
its population education programme, has usually proven the most
valuable. While it is always important to look for ways to
economize, the least- expensive approaches to teacher training are
not always cost-effective, and may even be wasteful if little or no
learning occurs.
A frequently-used "linked" approach to training adds a modest
amount of time to training activities in the subject areas into
which population education has been integrated. This approach may
not give population all the attention it needs, but it is
economical; it may be most effective when used as a supplement to
other types of training.
In the "cascade" or tier approach, traditionally favoured by
population educators, a central nucleus of trainers trains a second
layer which, in turn, trains a third, and so on. This approach has
a serious weakness in the loss of content that occurs with the
involvement of each new tier of trainers. Knowledge held by the
core trainers may not reach the classroom teachers after being
filtered through intermediate trainers.
A face-to-face approach, while costly, may be a more practical
solution, when used in combination with correspondence or distance
learning. Issues and teaching techniques that cannot be taught
effectively only by distance methods can be selected for
short-term, high-quality face-to-face sessions, leaving the other
content to be learned through distance methods.
Printed and audio/visual material can be used to introduce
potentially-sensitive ideas tactfully and gradually. Then, in
face-to-face sessions, trainers can clarify questions or address
doubts about the material. There should also be a mechanism for
teachers to raise questions later, either by mail, phone or brief
refresher face-to-face sessions, after they have tried out new
subject matter in the classroom.
Teacher-training activities should be scheduled to follow the
production of teaching materials, so that teachers are trained
using the same materials they will later use in the classroom.
Teachers should begin applying what they have learned soon after
training. Conflicts in teachers' schedules, and competition from
other sources for their time, should be minimized. Planners need to
examine economic and other factors that may influence teacher
participation. Consideration should also be given to the different
needs of the various categories of teachers to be trained.
In Egypt, before funds were available for large-scale
training, officials responsible for population education devised a
low-cost scheme that relied heavily on correspondence, and selected
the most-interested teachers for face-to-face training. Teachers
who wanted to participate in a population education exercise were
mailed a collection of reading materials to analyse and react to.
Those whose reactions indicated that they had understood the
materials received a field-work assignment to organize and conduct
a community population census and report their findings.
Those able to fulfil this requirement were asked to write an
essay on a population topic. The authors of the best essays were
invited to the capital to participate in a short, face-to-face
educational course. The result was a core group of highly-motivated
teachers who had received more than one type of training.
H. PLANNING, PRINTING AND DISTRIBUTION OF MATERIALS
One perplexing problem facing population education is the cost
involved in planning, printing and distributing educational
materials in sufficient quantity to be effective.
Paper is costly, and availability is usually limited. However,
several bilateral donors, notably Scandinavian countries that
produce a surplus of paper, have been willing to donate it to
developing countries for educational purposes, as part of their
foreign aid or cooperation programmes.
Generally, the most effective use of scarce paper is for
teachers' guides. These explain the purpose of each lesson plan,
how to teach it and what results should be expected. Normally,
supplementary materials for children are prohibitively expensive,
but if paper supplies permit, workbooks for children can be a major
asset to learning and an excellent aid in monitoring pupils'
progress.
In many countries, good population education materials already
developed for other audiences may be adapted for school use.
International publications like the now well-known Facts for Life
may also be translated for use in schools.
Under another innovative approach to materials, used in Sri
Lanka, a mobile library was set up to serve trainees at training
sites scattered around the country, using a government vehicle that
regularly delivered supplies to distant education centres.
In Peru, a nationally-circulated newspaper agreed to publish
a weekly population education supplement for teachers, prepared by
population education project staff. The general reading public
proved to be interested in the topic and sales of the newspaper
increased significantly, making the publisher willing to continue
publishing the supplement.
Teachers often rely heavily on textbooks written by
independent authors or private publishing firms and sold to
students. One inexpensive way to ensure that new textbooks
incorporate appropriate population content is to conduct special
training courses for authors. It should not be difficult to
persuade publishers to participate once it is apparent that the
Ministry of Education is fully behind population education and
expects new textbooks to give the subject appropriate attention.
The ministry will need to provide authors with new curricula,
reference materials and possibly follow-up guidance. Existing
distribution channels should be used before creating new ones.
I. RESEARCH NEEDS
Principal research issues in population education that need
immediate attention are:
o Research to identify the main determinants of fertility
that can be addressed through education.
o Identification of the educational methods that produce
the best results in population education.
o Establishment of links with efforts by the campaign for
Education For All to measure Learning Achievement, and use of this
to measure the impact of population education.
o Research to identify discrepancies between the processes
of learning and those of teaching.
o Research on the perception of educators at various
levels regarding population issues, especially fertility.
o Research on the process of decision-making (and better
use of what is already known about this process).
o Research to determine children's intellectual capacity
for grasping concepts, by grade level. This type of research,
rarely conducted in poor countries, is needed for population
education and education in general.
o Research on increasing the effectiveness of teaching
through adaptation to students' different learning styles.
This last issue is new and insufficiently explored. Some
children, often those from homes where education is valued highly,
are adept at learning in the classroom. Others have difficulty
responding to teachers' demands and are sometimes disruptive. Many
drop out as soon as it is legally possible for them to do so. These
young people should not be assumed to be incapable of learning.
Once they leave school, many become skilled in the ways of "the
street". School systems are not tapping their learning potential.
Importantly for population educators, youth disaffected with
school are often involved in early, unplanned pregnancies.
Teachers can be taught to identify these "problem children"
before they drop out, and special programmes can be developed to
tap their ability to learn, so they can function more productively
in school and in society. This will require investment in research
and development of new teaching techniques designed especially for
this type of learner. Population organizations, donors with broader
mandates, and organizations involved in education,
adolescent-pregnancy reduction, crime prevention, etc., all have an
interest in addressing this problem in a coordinated effort.
J. EVALUATION ISSUES
Evaluation is an important part of population education and
should be included: in the process of designing programmes; as a
means of improving programmes that are being implemented; and to
determine the strengths and weaknesses of programmes at their
conclusion. If adequate attention is given to evaluation
considerations in the design of a programme, and good monitoring
provides relevant feedback which is then used to make needed
adjustments, the final evaluation is likely to indicate the effort
was a success.
Comprehensive "external" evaluations have been conducted in
several countries, e.g., Bangladesh, Burundi, the Dominican
Republic, El Salvador, Honduras, India, Morocco, Paraguay and Sri
Lanka; and smaller-scale evaluations have been conducted by project
staff in many areas.
Programme impact has been measured, for example, in China,
where delayed marriage resulting from exposure to population
education has been documented. In a number of countries in every
region, it has been observed that seeing children's enthusiastic
reaction to population education has a positive impact on teachers'
motivation.
Findings from evaluations have generally been positive
(projects receive political support, children learn population
facts, and teachers are enthusiastic about new teaching methods),
but important weaknesses have been identified, including weaknesses
in evaluation design and methodologies. While each evaluation has
been project-specific, common shortcomings include inadequate
numbers of teachers trained, and a failure to set priorities
adequately.
There remains an important unmet need to coordinate evaluation
efforts with health services in older projects. In some instances,
e.g., in Bangladesh, young couples who have been exposed to
population education in school over a number of years have been
observed seeking family planning services to plan their first
pregnancies. This has occurred without the motivational efforts of
health service providers or IEC targeting, implying a direct link
to population education. Evaluations need to take these behavioural
changes into account, but this is only feasible with the use of
health/family planning service records, requiring a coordinated
effort.
The key to successful evaluation of population education is to
identify the issues clearly. Two broad components of evaluation can
be readily applied. One is the measurement of learning achievement;
this may be the easier of the two to apply, despite the global
difficulties general education faces in this area.
The second component is monitoring of project activities, with
a view to keeping them on track or bringing them back into line
with project objectives. This involves process evaluation, and
requires early identification of achievement indicators. These
should be clear to project staff, so they know what to aim for.
Impact evaluation, may also be applicable in population
education, but only if it is defined very clearly and understood by
all concerned. If "impact" is taken to mean "impact on the
reproductive behaviour of children once they become adults",
evaluation implies a long-term study, an approach that is expensive
and not very feasible. It may be possible, however, to measure the
impact of a training course on participants in terms of knowledge
gained, for example. Programme impact can also be measured in terms
of changes in attitude and intermediate behaviour.
In general, evaluation of population education should include
the following:
o Early collection of baseline data describing the
situation with specific indicators.
o Measurement of the degree to which objectives have been
achieved, requiring that objectives be both clear and measurable.
o Monitoring the process of implementation throughout the
course of the project.
o Documenting project results, at crucial stages in its
implementation and at its completion, comparing results with the
indicators agreed upon earlier (including changes in knowledge and
attitudes).
Evaluation does not have to be sophisticated or costly. Simply
keeping track of numbers of teachers trained, by level and subject,
and numbers of schools served by trained teachers, will give
managers a good idea of the coverage and growth of their projects.
Documentation in the form of anecdotes is one useful way of
indicating qualitative achievements. These two kinds of monitoring
can begin immediately, while more intricate evaluation mechanisms
are being designed.
K. INSTITUTIONALIZATION
Institutionalization is a goal of most population education
projects. Project staff generally hope that, after an introductory
period, the new concepts and methodologies they introduce will be
fully accepted as legitimate, permanent components of the national
education system, without being largely dependent upon external
funding.
Indicators of institutionalization need to be clear from the
outset of a project, and the objectives and activities should aim
for their achievement. While the process of institutionalization is
usually long, the duration will depend on conditions in the
specific country.
A review of recent experience suggests that three goals are
particularly important for institutionalization. First, population
contents must be included in the textbooks and other basic
materials for existing courses:
"Most population education projects start by producing a
separate set of materials and distributing them to teachers.
Eventually, however, textbooks should be revised and, for this
purpose, textbook writers have to be trained in population issues
or population education staff can assist textbook writers in this
revision. Because textbook revision is complicated and expensive,
some population education programmes have successfully undertaken
this task in the context of a national curriculum reform.
Second, to ensure that population issues are given sufficient
classroom time and attention, they need to be part of national or
state examinations. ... (Obviously, all population concepts in the
curriculum cannot be included in standard examinations. Only the
key issues or concepts can be selected. Priorities must be based
upon what educators determine to be the most important for children
at school to understand at each grade level. This will not be easy,
because the most important concepts will usually relate to
analytical thinking and attitude change rather than memorization of
`facts').
Third, population education needs to be included in all
pre-service teacher-training institutions. Because many
teacher-training institutions are relatively independent bodies, it
may be necessary to issue a governmental decree requiring the
inclusion of population education in pre-service training."
When projects are designed, clear provision should be made for
achieving these three goals. The achievement of any or all of them
should be recognized as a major development in the process of
institutionalization. In addition, at some point a strategy must be
designed to train teachers who did not receive in-service training
during the life of the project, so that specific training needs can
be met with scarce resources.
To institutionalize the key population contents developed
through a project's activities, action must be taken early to,
inter alia, select the key concepts, decide where and at what
levels they fit, test them, and establish the internal linkages and
support necessary for their transition from experimental status to
inclusion in the official curriculum.
Population education staff should operate with an eye to the
date when national curriculum revision is scheduled to begin, so
that solid plans and agreements can be made for the transition.
Since national reforms do not occur frequently, ways need to be
developed to update out-of-date curricula in the interim between
reforms, maintaining curriculum relevance and interest and informed
teachers, without involving great expense.
L. ROLE OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS
A variety of non-governmental organizations operating at
national level may be important to population education, including
family planning associations, women's organizations, sex education
associations, environmental support groups, organizations serving
youth, civic clubs and associations of religious leaders.
Some of these organizations can be valuable sources of
information in the design of curricula and materials for teaching
about their areas of expertise. To avoid overloading curricula,
population educators must apply priorities and select only the key
concepts from each area represented.
Organizations serving youth may benefit from receiving
materials developed for schools, and may be able to complement this
material with supportive messages in their own materials. This, in
turn, will reinforce the school programme.
Civic clubs, parent-teacher associations and groups of
religious leaders should be made aware of the rationale for
proposing specific population education contents, and kept informed
of project developments. This may make it possible to call on these
groups for community support of a project facing opposition.
M. INVOLVEMENT OF PRIVATE SCHOOLS
Traditionally, official population education programmes have
involved only the public schools, requiring less effort than would
be needed to cover both public and private schools. In countries
with a centralized national curriculum and administration, and with
limited budgetary resources, this has been a logical approach.
However, it has left large numbers of young people without exposure
to population education concepts.
In poor countries, children in private schools are often
better off economically than their counterparts in public schools
and therefore more likely to attain positions of leadership when
they become adults. This makes them an important audience for
population concepts. And like all children, they will need
information and education to make wise reproductive decisions in
their own lives.
Private schools sometimes bring population issues into the
classroom via a visiting lecturer (e.g., a nurse from a family
planning clinic). The usefulness of these lectures depends on the
teaching skills of the guest and the classroom teacher's prior
preparation to ensure that the children clearly understand the
context for the new information. This approach is generally not
sufficient to meet all of the children's population education
needs. A cumulative approach, reinforcing learning over a period of
years, is necessary for a lasting impact.
There are several obstacles to the introduction of population
education in private schools. One is logistics. Private schools are
usually autonomous, not linked by a universally-accepted curriculum
and/or administration, although they may follow elements of the
national curriculum as a core. They have to be approached one by
one, a very time-consuming process.
Many private schools have religious sponsors that may not
encourage (or permit) classroom discussion of certain population
topics (e.g., particular contraceptive methods, in the case of the
Roman Catholic Church). This restriction could result in an
unbalanced approach to population education, but is not sufficient
reason to avoid working with such schools. It is important that
children in these schools learn a number of population concepts in
addition to family planning.
Even in these schools, official religious doctrine does not
oppose planning one's family. The controversy is about the choice
of methods to do so. In this connection, it is more important in
population education to develop a clear understanding of what
constitutes responsible behaviour, and personal commitment to it,
than to focus on contraceptive methods. Motivation to manage one's
own fertility should come before "how-to" skills, or the latter
will be largely meaningless.
Some private schools are less well-off economically than
others, and unable to afford the printed and/or audio-visual
materials needed to teach the key concepts.
To overcome these obstacles to working with private schools,
public-school materials may be shared with private schools (many
may be able to purchase them, at least at cost). Private-school
authorities and/or sponsors should be made aware of the value of
these materials for the private curricula. Where religious
representatives have already been brought into national or
community discussions of public-school curricula, these individuals
can help open the doors to inter-school cooperation.
Private-school teachers may also be invited to public training
courses (preferably at their own expense), especially when these
are local or regional. This will require a concerted effort by
project staff to convince private-school teachers that population
education is not only desirable, but also well worth the time and
effort required.
A national population education project that is just beginning
may be too weak to involve private schools. Involving them will be
easier once a strong base has been developed, and the activity has
become visible and popular among public-school teachers and
students.
It is probably not advisable to expend great effort trying to
recruit private schools that are very resistant to population
education; providing high-quality support to those that are
interested is preferable. Programme success is likely to provide
the best motivation for expanding outreach to new schools.
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ANNEX I Ä KEY NON-CONTROVERSIAL CONCEPTS OF POPULATION
EDUCATION
By O.J. Sikes, Jairo Palacio and Beverley Kerr
Traditionally, population education has drawn its content from
social demography, human ecology, family life and sex education.
The specific details of this content and the areas of emphasis have
varied between countries in response to the particular requirements
of individual cultures and population situations.
Selection and presentation of contents relating to sexual
behaviour have been particularly perplexing problems. While many
consider sex education important, it has had a turbulent history
and a number of its content areas tend to be associated with
controversy in most cultural contexts. How can we apply the most
useful concepts in sex education to population education?
Perhaps the best place to start would be to refrain from
talking about sex education as a source of contents, and look
instead at the area of sexuality as one part of the broad knowledge
base that provides the contents for population education. Key to
the successful selection of content from the area of sexuality is
the understanding that not all topics covered by the term
"sexuality" are necessarily appropriate content for population
education.
Most of those aspects that are most relevant, and most
important for population goals, are usually not controversial.
Potentially inflammatory topics such as homosexuality may have
little to do with population issues or fertility decisions,
although these topics are not always unimportant. Children and
adults should have access to accurate information about them. But
means other than the population education school curriculum should
be found to make this information available in communities where it
threatens to create enough controversy to destroy the population
education project. The community library, out-of-school youth
groups, health clubs and even religious groups may be among the
possible alternate sources of information. School counsellors
should be trained especially to answer questions upon referral by
teachers or when children seek information directly on these issues
and any others deemed potentially too sensitive for the curriculum.
In determining the most appropriate contents for population
education, it is vital to always keep the aims of the project in
mind, and to involve parents and community leaders in decisions on
what should be included. Successful involvement requires a clear
understanding of the rationale of the project. Mass media, when
used wisely, often have an important role to play in clarifying
issues and developing community support.
The practical experience countries have had in introducing
population contents into national curricula, is leading to new ways
of perceiving contents and their appropriateness. This experience
points to the need to establish priorities in the selection of
population contents for curricula that are already crowded. Less
emphasis will have to be given to content having only marginal
relevance to population issues. This is not as easy as it may seem
at first glance, due to the broad scope and implications of
population issues. Population is, after all, an integral part of
development.
While it is clear that population education, environmental
education, family life education and sex education share some
important contents, population education is a different field. Its
conceptualization should correspond to population issues or
problems and it should contribute to their solution. Therefore, the
contents of population education should respond to the specific
educational needs that emerge from population issues.
In this context, the contents of population education may be
divided into two major groupings. In the first, which might be
labelled contents for population awareness, criteria for inclusion
would include their contribution to a better understanding of the
nature, causes and consequences of the population changes
experienced by a community, country or region. This grouping draws
heavily from the fields of social demography and ecology.
The second grouping may be called contents for critical
awareness. Criteria for consideration in this grouping would
include the intent and ability to modify the socio- cultural or
educational characteristics which influence the three population
variables: fertility (especially when it occurs too early, too late
or too frequently), mortality (especially among mothers and
infants), and migration (especially from rural to urban areas).
This paper will focus on concepts that would fall into the
"critical awareness" category.
There are a number of basic concepts with universal
applicability. They are not controversial, if handled properly, and
they are more important than most controversial topics. Most of
these concepts are linked to a learner's ability to think and to
reason. Participatory learning, helping learners explore
alternatives, rather than only lecturing to them, helps develop
their ability to think.
The following list is not exhaustive, nor are the concepts
spelt out in great detail, but most of the six points which follow
come from the area of human sexuality and have not been dealt with
extensively in population education literature to date.
1. The importance of having respect for others, especially
persons of the other sex
If children can learn this, can understand what it means, and
can develop this as a strongly held value, then they will be more
likely to refrain from behaviour which is potentially harmful to
others. It is particularly important that boys learn to respect the
rights and feelings of girls and women. To a certain extent, the
concept of respect for others is taught in the curricula of many
school systems. However, respect for girls and women is not often
emphasized. The point needs to be made clearly, by exploring
harmful stereotypes and their effects, and other activities. This
may well be the most important of all gender issues. But it is not
simply teaching about gender issues that is important. The key is
developing healthy attitudes and values.
2. The importance of developing self-esteem for both boys and
girls
This is particularly important for girls and should be
accompanied by exposure to the variety of life options (employment
opportunities, etc.) which will be opening to them if they finish
their education, avoid early pregnancy, and so forth.
Low-esteem among women can limit the contribution that these
individuals make to society. Girls whose self-esteem is low often
see childbearing as the only way they can produce something of
value, thereby increasing their own worth. This perception may be
supported by friends and relatives. Childbearing may also be
perceived as a way of obtaining much-needed affection, either from
the baby or its father, but early childbearing limits a girl's life
options.
Since self-esteem is a term that is used frequently, but often
incorrectly, perhaps it is useful to attempt to clarify it here.
Self-esteem is a fundamental sense of self-worth; not merely
feeling good about oneself. In terms of its importance for
adolescents, self-esteem may be best reflected in what they can
envision for themselves in the future. When self-esteem includes a
positive vision of oneself in the future, high motivation is
possible and good, long-term results are likely. The challenge to
educators is to help children develop a positive, future-oriented
self-image. This can be brought about by helping children to
achieve competence, perseverance and optimism. Children need to
expand their visions of what they can become. When this happens, a
lasting sense of self-worth will follow.
3. The possibility and desirability of planning
Children should know that it is possible to make decisions, to
take action and to see results. Even very young children can and
should understand that ideally, children are born out of a
conscious, carefully thought out decision on the part of loving
parents. This may be the most important population education
concept young children can learn. It has implications for
preventing the formation of the fatalistic attitudes often found in
adults. If children learn that it is possible to decide on a
pregnancy, that is, to plan, then it will be easier for them to
function as thinking/planning adults.
This concept should be introduced at primary level, if it is
to have an impact. It is not necessary for a very young child to
know all of the details of the planning process (choice of
contraceptives, etc.) but it is vital that he grasp the concept. If
questions arise on how babies are born or "where did I come from?",
simple, general (but truthful) answers will usually satisfy
curiosity. Numerous publications have been written on how to answer
these questions for young children.
Many people let "destiny" make some of the most important
decisions in their lives, including those related to fertility:
when to initiate sexual relations, when to select a marriage
partner and when to have children. One can only plan when he
understands that it is possible and desirable to do so. But such
decisions should be based upon carefully thought-out plans. This
involves values clarification and critical thinking. Education has
a major role to play in helping individuals develop planning
skills, so that they can take charge of their lives.
4. The importance of postponing the first pregnancy
When children leave school, at whatever age, they need to
understand the importance of postponing the first pregnancy in
terms of the benefits (economic, emotional and physical) this
planning can bring to them and their eventual offspring. This
implies that the concept needs to be taught early. Like the concept
of fertility decision-making or planning, it is one of the most
important concepts in population education.
When a couple gets married, they usually take a year or so to
adjust to each other well enough so that a new baby coming into the
home will not put any undue strain on the relationship. Research by
physical anthropologists indicates that a woman is in the best
physical condition for pregnancy between ages twenty and thirty.
The risk of danger to the health of mother and baby is greater
during the teen years. In cultures where early marriage is the
norm, postponing the first pregnancy takes on particular importance
in terms of ensuring safe motherhood. There will often be social
pressure against such postponement, but the health considerations
are paramount.
5. Acceptance of responsibility for the consequences of behaviour
If adolescents behave irresponsibly in the area of
reproductive behaviour, the consequences may be life-long. Teenage
pregnancy may have dire consequences for the economic future of the
teenager and her family. Teenage mothers frequently fail to
complete their education and this, in turn, leads to low-paid
employment or unemployment (Moore and Burt 1982).
Mothers under age 20, whether they are married or not, tend to
suffer more pregnancy and delivery complications than do women who
bear children at age 20 or later. Some of these complications can
even lead to infertility. Pregnancy-related complications are the
leading cause of death among young women aged 15-19, globally.
Mothers aged 15 and younger are twice as likely to have low
birth-weight (that is, high-risk) babies as mothers aged 20-24
(Senderowitz and Paxman 1985).
A number of factors have a bearing on responsible behaviour.
In addition to decision-making skills, caring is of crucial
importance. An individual must care about what happens to himself,
his partner, his family and others. Caring goes far beyond cold
reasoning. It is very much in the affective domain, but it is at
the core of responsible reproductive decision-making and behaviour,
and other forms of socially responsible behaviour. For example, if
young people do not "care" about environmental issues, they are not
likely to take even basic actions which protect their environment,
much less become involved in solving environmental problems.
6. Ability to recognize and withstand social pressure
We have the right to make personal decisions without pressure
from others, pressure which may reflect their interests more than
our own. This implies that we have to learn how to say yes or no,
and to change, according to our own convictions.
Social pressure can come from peers in societies where early
adolescent sexual activity is popular. It can also come from
parents, other relatives and neighbours who expect young couples to
have their first child as soon as possible after marriage.
Population education should help learners recognize and resist
these types of social pressure. This is important at secondary
level and in non-formal education.
In societies where dating is customary, family living courses
often offer the opportunity for open discussion of dating practices
and strategies used by boys to convince girls to engage in sexual
activity. By exposing these behaviours and the "traps" adolescents
sometimes fall into, prevention is made easier. In both these and
other cultures, organized discussion of attitudes about early
pregnancy, available life options, how to set goals and what can be
done to attain them may allow adolescents to clarify their thinking
and to develop healthy attitudes that will shape their behaviour as
they grow. As they develop greater potential, conviction and
self-esteem, they become less susceptible to harmful social
pressure.
International Review of Education, Vol. 39, Nos. 1 and 2, March
1993, Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands
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ANNEX II Ä HEALTH RISKS OF EARLY, LATE, OR TOO-CLOSELY-SPACED
PREGNANCIES; AND THE AVAILABILITY OF FAMILY
PLANNING
The following four points, taken from the publication Facts
for Life, are universally applicable and have been agreed upon by
WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA, UNESCO and others:
Becoming pregnant before the age of 18, or after the age of
35, increases the health risks for both mother and child.
o Every year over half a million women die from problems
linked to pregnancy and childbirth, leaving behind over one million
motherless children. Most of these deaths could be prevented by
acting on today's knowledge about the importance of planning
pregnancies.
All girls should be allowed the time to become women
before becoming mothers. In societies where many girls marry at an
early age, couples should use family planning to delay the first
pregnancy until at least the age of 18.
o For health reasons alone, no girl should become pregnant
before the age of 18. A woman is not physically ready to begin
bearing children until she is about eighteen years of age. Babies
born to women younger than eighteen are more likely to be born too
early and to weigh too little at birth. Such babies are much more
likely to die in the first year of life. The risks to the mother's
own health are also greater.
o After the age of 35, the health risks of pregnancy and
childbirth begin to increase again. If a woman is over the age of
35, and has had four or more previous pregnancies, then another
pregnancy is a serious risk to her own health and that of her
unborn child.
The risk of death for young children is increased by about 50
per cent if the space between births is less than two years.
o For the health of both mothers and children, parents
should wait until their youngest child is at least two years old
before having another baby.
o Children born too close together do not usually develop
as well, physically or mentally, as children born at least two
years apart.
o One of the greatest threats to the health and growth of
a child under the age of two is the birth of a new baby.
Breast-feeding stops too suddenly, and the mother has less time to
prepare special foods a young child needs. Also, she may not be
able to give the older child the care and attention he or she
needs, especially during illness. As a result, the child
often fails to grow and develop properly.
o A mother's body needs two years to recover fully from
pregnancy and childbirth. The risk to the mother's health is
therefore greater if the next birth follows too closely upon the
last. The mother needs to give herself time to get her strength and
energy back before she becomes pregnant again.
o If a woman becomes pregnant before she is fully recovered
from bearing a previous child, there is a higher chance that her
new baby will be born too early and too light in weight. Low
birth-weight babies are less likely to grow well, more likely to
fall ill, and four times more likely to die in the first year of
life than babies of normal weight.
Having more than four children increases the health risks of
pregnancy and childbirth.
o After a woman has had four children, further pregnancies
bring greater risks to the life and health of both mother and
child.
Especially if the previous births have not been spaced
more than two years apart, a woman's body can easily become
exhausted by repeated pregnancy, childbirth, breast-feeding, and
looking after small children.
Further pregnancies usually mean that her own health
begins to suffer.
There are many safe and acceptable ways to avoid pregnancy.
Family planning services can give couples the knowledge and the
means to plan when to begin having children, how far apart to have
them, and when to stop.
o Most health clinics can offer different methods of family
planning so that all couples can choose a method which is
acceptable, safe, convenient and effective. Couples should ask
advice about the most suitable means of family planning from the
nearest trained health worker or family planning clinic. Some
methods of family planning, such as condoms and
contraceptive pills, may also be available from pharmacies and
other shops.
o Spacing births at least two years apart, and avoiding
pregnancies before the age of 18 and after the age of 35, can help
to ensure that each baby is born healthy and strong.
o Family planning is the responsibility of husbands as well
as wives. All men should be aware of the health benefits of family
planning and of the different methods available.
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ANNEX III Ä CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHERS IN FAMILY
LIFE EDUCATION PROGRAMMES
Skilled educators are vital to a successful family-life
education programme.
Good sex educators:
o Believe that education about family life and sexuality
is an important and necessary curriculum offering and are
enthusiastic about teaching it.
o Have achieved a healthy attitude towards their own
sexuality and are comfortable with the topics to be covered in the
course.
o Believe that sexual adjustment is an important aspect of
total personality adjustment.
o Are clear on their own personal codes of ethics and
values, but are open-minded and non-judgmental about values,
attitudes, beliefs, and behaviour different from their own.
o Respect differing cultural and religious beliefs.
o Are committed to the rights of parents as the primary
sexuality educators of their children.
o Have sufficient intelligence to understand clearly
material about human personality that comes from a variety of
fields of knowledge and to coordinate this material coherently in
their teaching.
o Are willing to learn and get excited by the prospect of
new information and teaching methodologies.
o Can communicate with young people effectively, with
honesty, warmth, and sensitivity, verbally and non-verbally, while
maintaining an appropriate professional attitude in the
relationship with them.
o Have an inherent respect and concern for other persons,
whether children, youths, or adults, regardless of race,
socio-economic status or other characteristics different from their
own.
o Find life satisfying and rewarding, particularly when
they can contribute to the happiness and well-being of others.
o Believe that adolescents are both intelligent and
resourceful.
o Can safeguard, with strict confidentiality, private and
personal material communicated to them.
o Can create a supportive climate that enables others,
especially young people, to express deep feelings and honest
opinions without fear of rejection or censure.
o Are able and willing to cooperate fully and easily with
professional colleagues and are respected by them.
o Have accurate, authoritative information about human
sexuality and communication skills that enable them to deal with
today's concerns and questions.
o Do not have to hide behind a "mask of authority" but can
say frankly, "I don't know," and talk and learn along with others.
Age and number of years of experience have been excluded from
this list. However, educators with many years of positive
interaction with parents and young people may be found, at least
initially, more acceptable and appropriate as sex educators than
those who are young, inexperienced, and new to the district.
Zanzibar Ministry of Education: Curriculum Guide and Resource
Manual for Family Life Education, April 1992
(Adapted from The Professional Training and Preparation of Sex
Educators, a publication of the American Association of Sex
Educators and Counselors Committee on Training and Standards, and
from The Sex Education Teacher's Guide and Resource Manual, by
Steve Bignell)
===================================================================
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Ketterlinus, R.D., et al, "Adolescent Nonsexual and Sex-Related
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Zanzibar Ministry of Education, Curriculum Guide and Resource
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Center, New York, April 1992