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                              * ADVANCE UNEDITED DRAFT *


                    THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ASPECTS OF THE SECTORAL
                ISSUE TO BE DISCUSSED BY THE COMMISSION ON SUSTAINABLE
                                 DEVELOPMENT IN 1995.


                                      Report of the Panel of 
                   the Commission on Science and Technology for Development on

Science and Technology for Integrated Land Management


                                         Executive Summary

     The goal of integrated land management is to optimize the combination of
economic and environmental benefits to society that are provided by the land's
soil, mineral, and water resources, while preserving or increasing the
capability of the land to provide these and other benefits in the future. 
Science contributes to effective land management by providing the information
and understanding needed to evaluate consequences of alternative approaches to
land management problems, and by developing technologies for land use and
management that more effectively achieve society's objectives, including
meeting basic human needs and reducing gender inequities.  The integrated
approach to land management is not a fixed procedure, but rather a continuous,
iterative process of planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation
that strives to meet as many of the multiple economic, social and
environmental needs of society as possible.

    Sciences and technologies that support 1) information needs, 2) evaluation
of options, 3) applications for solution of specific problems, and 4)
infrastructural capabilities provide the foundation for an integrated 
approach to land use planning and management.  Most of the basic scientific
knowledge and applied technologies needed for integrated land management are
already available.  The effective use of many of these technologies in the
developing countries that are experiencing the most severe land use problems,
however, is hindered by a number of factors, including:  1) limited access to
appropriate information and technology, 2) lack of appropriate infrastructure
to use science and technology effectively, 3) problems caused by current
unsustainable land use practices, and 4) unresolved conflicts between
different land use goals.  

     Elimination of these barriers requires approaches that are tailored to
the specific conditions and needs of each country, and that take advantage of
local knowledge and human resources that are already available.  Based on its
analysis and past experience, the Commission has identified four approaches as
having the greatest potential impact on the effective implementation of
integrated land management:  1) intra- and inter-governmental cooperation; 2)
private public partnerships; 3) targeted training and technology support
programs; and 4) direct public investment in resource protection.

     The Panel recommends that the principles developed in this report be
further elaborated to provide specific guidelines for the implementation of
technologies that support integrated land management.  In this regard, CSD and
CSTD may consider the establishment of a joint working group for identifying
specific technological needs and monitoring progress toward integrated land
management.  Such internatinally developed guidelines, once adopted by CSD and
CSTD, could provide a framework for cooperative action at the national level.
 

                                         Table of Contents


1. Challenges and Opportunities                                               

       1.1 Elements of an Integrated Approach
               to Land Management                                             

       1.2 Problems Caused by Poor Land Management                            

2. Contributions of Science and Technology to
       Integrated Land Management                                             

       2.1 Information Sciences and Technologies                              

       2.2 Evaluation Sciences and Technologies                               

       2.3 Application Sciences and Technologies                              

       2.4 Supporting Sciences and Technologies                               

3. Constraints to Integrated Land Management                                  

       3.1 Limited Access to Appropriate Technology
               and Information                                                

       3.2 Weaknesses in Institutional Infrastructure                         

       3.3 Unsustainable Land Use Practices                                   

       3.4 Conflicts between Different Land Use Goals                         

4. Recommendations and Conclusions:  Approaches to
       Technology Transfer and Capacity-Building                              

       4.1 Intra- and Inter-governmental Cooperation                          

       4.2 Private/Public Partnerships                                        

       4.3 Targeted Training and Technology Support                           

       4.4 Direct Public Investment in Resource Protection                    

       4.5 Agenda for the Future                                              

Annex

         I.    Examples

        II.    Bibliography

       III.    List of Panel members

1. Challenges and Opportunities

     The increasing severity of environmental, social, and economic problems
being experienced by both developed and developing countries around the world
has focused global  attention  on the sustainability of human activities.  
The necessity of improving current conditions for much of the world's
population and the needs of future generations are combined in the concept of
Sustainable Development.   The essential role of the Earth's  surface,  with
its minerals,  water, and other renewable  and nonrenewable resources,  in
supporting all current and future human activities requires that land
management be one of the primary tools of Sustainable Development.   Current
land management efforts around the world address a multitude of problems,
including deforestation, desertification, air and water pollution, and
uncontrolled expansion of human settlements in urban and rural areas. 
However, effective land management is hindered by  a piecemeal and
uncoordinated approach to these interrelated problems, often with duplication
of effort or conflicting sectoral goals.   A more holistic and integrated
approach to land management offers the possibility of solving multiple
problems within a single coherent framework.  

     The goal of integrated land management is to optimize the combination of
economic and environmental benefits to society that are provided by the land,
while preserving or increasing the capability of the land to provide these and
other benefits in the future.  The integrated approach to land management is
based on the recognition that land serves multiple functions in society, and
that there are competing or conflicting needs for land, multiple sectors of
society with interests in every land use decision, and diverse social,
economic, and environmental considerations that influence current and future
land uses.  By examining all potential uses of land in a logical manner,
integrated land management  makes it possible to: 1) minimize conflicts over
competing land uses, 2) maximize  benefits obtained from the land by using it
efficiently,  3) improve social and economic development while simultaneously
4)  protecting and enhancing the environment.  Integrated land management is
an essential prerequisite for Sustainable Development.  

     Potential opportunities to reduce gender inequities should be emphasized
in all aspects of the development and application of science and technology
for land use management.  The importance of this consideration is emphasized
by the knowledge that in a significant proportion of developing countries,
women bear a disproportionate burden with respect to land-related activities. 


1.1 Elements of an Integrated Approach to Land Management

     An integrated approach to land management involves  a logical sequence of
procedures that identifies the needs of all stakeholders in society in terms
of their  social, economic,  and environmental requirements, develops possible
land use options, and indicates the combination of options that would optimize
achievement of these requirements on a sustainable and long-term basis.  This
approach  includes the following steps:

     1)  Interaction among stakeholders, including decision-makers, land
management planners, land users, land owners, and beneficiaries of land
services to identify requirements and needs.

     2)  Collection of information about the physical, social, and economic
conditions of the land area, and the storage, and analysis of this information
in order to evaluate current land conditions and future potentials. 

     3)  Identification of spatial  planning units  for the land area, as 
well as  possible use options for each unit, in terms of use, long-term
economic returns, input/output relationships, and predicted social, economic,
environmental impacts. 

     4)  Agreement among stakeholders, based on  discussions among 
decision-makers, land users and beneficiaries, of the optimum land use and
management system for each land planning unit. 

     5)  Establishment of  infrastructure at the institutional, legislative,
and cadastral levels needed for implementation of the agreed-upon land uses
and  long-term land management.  

     The integrated approach to  land management is not a fixed procedure, but
rather a continuous  iterative process of planning, implementation,
monitoring, and evaluation that strives to meet as many of the multiple
economic, social, and environmental needs of society as possible, without
penalizing any sectors of society or sacrificing future benefits.  The
essential  components of this integrated approach are independent of scale,
and are therefore applicable at global, national, district, village, and farm
levels.   The basic technical methodologies for carrying out each of the steps
of this integrated approach to land management  are already available, but
their application in many parts of the world is limited primarily  by
training, financial, and institutional constraints.   Access to appropriate
technologies provides the key to effective implementation of integrated land
management on a global scale.  

1.2 Problems caused by Poor Land Management

     Failure to manage land resources in an integrated, holistic manner has
led to a number of serious problems that can prevent the achievement of
Sustainable Development.  Environmental problems are inevitably linked to
social and economic problems, including unemployment, poverty, disease, and
starvation. 

     1) Permanent destruction or degradation of the land's capability to
provide economic and environmental benefits.  Examples of this can be found
throughout the world in both developed and developing countries, such as
erosion, desertification, collapse of fisheries and other resource stocks,
groundwater depletion, salinization of soils, toxic mine wastes,  and the 
extinction of species and loss of biodiversity.  This degradation of the
land's capability to support human populations can also lead to uncontrolled
urbanization, mass migration, and social conflicts.  

     2) Inefficient use or waste of resources.    Lack of an integrated
approach to land management often leads to use of  technologies that are
inappropriate for a particular region or type of land.   Examples include the
development of irrigation projects in dry regions where agricultural
production is actually limited by soil nutrients rather than water.  Excessive
use of valuable resources, such as fertilizers and pesticides, may be
unnecessary or even have  a negative effect on agricultural efficiency and
lead to pollution and health problems that can affect both rural and urban
areas.  Increasing costs for water purification and treatment of
pollution-caused disease are often born by sectors of society that had nothing
to do with the cause of the pollution.  Inefficient use of energy resources is
a major impediment to all aspects of Sustainable Development.  Experience
throughout the developing world has demonstrated that the most effective
solution to many land use problems is the combination of local knowledge with
advanced technologies.  

     3) Accumulating Impacts.  In addition to the damaging local and national
effects that result from poor land management,  cumulative international
problems are becoming increasingly serious as the earth's population
increases.  For example, acidification of freshwater lakes in Scandinavia is
apparently caused by  industrial air pollution from northwestern Europe. 
Deforestation in Nepal and the surrounding mountains leads to downstream
flooding in the Ganges and other river systems that pass through countries
downstream.  Within Europe, pollution of the Rhine River by industrial
activities in upstream countries results in problems associated with reduced
water quality in downstream countries.  Land degradation and desertification
in some countries may lead to mass migrations, serious refugee problems, and
even land degradation in neighboring countries, particularly during periods of
extreme climate. 

     While the basic problems of land management around the world have many
common features, local variation in environmental, social, and economic
conditions requires that technological solutions be specifically adapted to
local conditions.   

                                  The High Costs of Soil Erosion
                                                 
         Many of the damaging effects of land degradation are interconnected,
with the effects of a problem in one area causing a cascading chain of
problems in other areas.  For example, soil erosion resulting from
inappropriate farming methods on steep slopes has the serious local effect of
reducing the food production and economic output of the eroded lands. 
However, other local effects such as landslides that block roads or rail lines
affect not only agriculture, but many other components of the local economy. 
Further away, the soil lost from the eroded hillslopes can pollute and clog
rivers, increasing the frequency and severity of floods, affecting navigation,
and reducing the fish harvest on which some downstream communities may depend.

Still more distant, where the river enters the sea, siltation may harm coral
reefs and estuaries, damaging both subsistence and commercial fisheries.  

         Soil erosion is one of the major causes of reduced food production
potential in both the developed and developing worlds.  For example, the
United States has lost approximately one third of its topsoil since farming
began less than three hundred years ago, and continues to lose 12 tons/ha/year
for a total loss of 50 million tons of plant nutrients each year.  The Huang
River of China is the most sediment-laden river in the world, and annually
carries 1.6 billion tons of soil from China's rich farmlands into the East
China Sea.  In Brazil, the huge Paso Real reservoir in Rio Grande do Sul has
lost 18% of its original volume in less than 8 years, and continuing input of
sediment from soil erosion threatens to reduce the life of this 530-megawatt
hydroelectric plant to less than 30 years.  86%  of the Andean Zone in
Columbia has some degree of erosion, with 21% at a critical level. Throughout
human history, there are examples of societies that have collapsed because
their agricultural activities destroyed the productivity of their land. 
Throughout the modern world the future human and economic security of both
developed and developing countries continues to be threatened by land
degradation.

     Unintentional effects of agricultural activities, such as loss of
vegetation or nutrient depletion, can result in erosion or desertification to
the extent that the land loses its capacity to produce the desired
agricultural products and other essential goods and services.   At the other
extreme, manufacturing and agricultural industries often inadvertently produce
toxic or harmfully high concentrations of chemicals that are extremely
beneficial at moderate concentrations,  such as  agricultural fertilizers and
industrial chemicals.  Most land use problems can be understood in terms of
this continuum  from  depletion to pollution.  Because the concentration of
resources generally requires the input of energy and use of advanced
technologies, pollution problems tend to be most serious in developed
countries and in  countries in transition.  In the absence of integrated land
management, resource depletion and the associated land degradation can be
quite serious in areas dependent on agriculture and forestry, both in
developing and developed countries.   

     The issue of land degradation is particularly critical in the developing
countries of the tropical zone. Problems of food security and rural poverty
are of urgent concern in many of these countries, where high populations and
weak or unstable economies severely limit the economic resources available to
each person, often exacerbating gender inequities.  Although developing
countries often possess valuable mineral and energy resources, the national
economies of many developing countries  depend much more heavily on
agriculture than the developed countries of the higher latitudes.  This heavy
dependence on agriculture for both food production and national economic
output makes any degradation of the productive capacity of the land a serious
threat to meeting basic human needs and achieving sustainable development. 
The inherent irreversibility of most forms of land degradation  and the
critical importance of food resources for the Earth's future generations leads
us to emphasize  the essential contributions of science and technology to
addressing issues related to land degradation.  This choice does not ignore
problems related to urbanization, industrialization and mining, all of which
must be considered for integrated land use planning and management.    

2. Contributions of Science and Technology 
       to Integrated Land Management

     Science involves the combination of information and understanding that
allows prediction of the consequences of specific actions or events, and thus
the comparative evaluation of alternative actions or different options. 
Technology is the application of science to provide better options for
achieving human objectives.   Solution of the complex, interacting issues  of
land management requires the contributions of many  disciplines of the
physical, biological, and social sciences.  Fortunately, most of the basic
scientific knowledge and applied technologies needed for integrated land
management are already available, including global satellite surveillance
systems, powerful computer-based geographical information systems, as well as
methods for land use planning and evaluation, reducing wind and water erosion
and increasing the productivity of the land.  Some of these technologies have
been well developed for many years, while others are currently undergoing
rapid development.  Many of these technologies are already being applied to
land management problems around the world.  However, in many cases, these
critical technologies that are widely used in developed countries are not
available in the developing countries where they are most needed, contributing
to many of the environmental and socioeconomic problems currently being
experienced around the world.  Even where technology and information are
already available in developing countries, they are at present not optimally
used because of ineffective or inefficient information storage, retrieval,
and/or sharing.    

     The sciences and related technologies needed to implement an  integrated
land management program can be grouped into four general areas:

     1) Information Sciences and Technologies.  Accurate information in a form
useful to all stakeholders is essential for integrated land management. 
Information technologies and their supporting scientific disciplines provide
access to the basic information about the current status, potential uses, and
limitations of the land, as well as market and transportation conditions and
other business information.  These technologies include traditional
cartography and statistical analysis, as well as remote sensing from
satellites and airplanes, ground-based monitoring and surveys, socio-economic
information, and the computer databases that allow land users and
decision-makers access to this information.  Monitoring of the status and
changing conditions of land, water, and biotic resources, using traditional
methods as well as advanced technologies,  is an essential component of
integrated land management.  

     2) Evaluation Sciences and Technologies.  These methods  allow the
interpretation and evaluation of information about the land, and also the
determination of the options that will lead to the most desirable pattern of
land use.  These methods include statistical analysis, decision support models
such as Multiple Goal Planning, and computer simulation models for crop
production, econometric analysis, environmental impact analysis, and
manufacturing design.  All of these tools facilitate communication among
stakeholders and provide input into the sociopolitical process of prioritizing
land use alternatives. 

     3) Application Sciences and Technologies.  These technologies are derived
from many different areas of science, as  well as from traditional knowledge
and land use practices. They address the specific land uses, agricultural
practices, and engineering activities that are implemented by land users to
achieve the objectives of an integrated land management plan.  These
technologies include methods from  forestry and agriculture, plant breeding
and genetics,  water resource management, non-destructive  extraction of
mineral resources, biotechnology, manufacturing sciences, energy sciences, and
economic planning.  

     4) Supporting Technologies and Infrastructure. These capabilities  help
implement the above technologies and are an essential part of the
infrastructure necessary to achieve integrated land management.  They include
training and extension facilities, analytical laboratories for soil and
product analysis, development of product standards, water and air quality
analysis, and veterinary and medical analysis, as well as survey methods and
databases for land evaluation, cadastral mapping and land registration
systems,  and socioeconomic evaluations.  

     Each type of technology is supported by a number of different scientific
disciplines, such as agronomy, applied physics, geology, ecology, and
economics.  Scientific research is essential to improve understanding of
specific land management issues, to refine existing technologies, and to
develop new technological capabilities.   The first two areas of science and
technology contribute primarily to the planning and evaluation components of
integrated land management, while the last two deal with implementation of
specific land management practices in order to move from the current situation
to the desired future condition.  

                        Challenges and Successes of Land Management in China
                                                  
         The world's most populous nation has made effective use of its land
resources, feeding 22% of  the world's total population with only 7% of the
world's total farmland.  Yet, the growing population and agricultural
intensification in China have led to a variety of environmental problems that
are currently being addressed.  Soil erosion is not only reducing current and
future agricultural production, but threatening water quality, navigation,
flood control, and hydroelectric power generation.  A vast system of
reservoirs for water storage and flood control has been constructed, with a
storage capacity of 408.6 billion cubic meters.  However, nearly one quarter
of that volume has already been lost to siltation, and 22 major reservoirs
have ceased to function (China, country report).  The Chinese government is
making great investments in science and technology related to agriculture,
water conservation, and forestry through its university and extension
services.   China addresses  the  problem of land degradation in harsh and
marginal environments by providing governmental support for agricultural
intensification, as well as for re-vegetation of  degraded lands (Breman,
1987).  Massive reforestation efforts are well underway to control wind and
water erosion, including the largest ecological  project in the world,
covering 42.4% of the total territory of China.  The Great Green Wall 
parallels the Great Wall of China with a reforestation project that has
reduced the duration of spring dust storms in Beijing by up to 90%, while
increasing soil moisture available for agriculture in the reforested regions
(Parungo et al.,  1994). The economic and technical support needed to allow a
decent and productive life for farm families in marginal lands is often more
cost-effective than the creation of employment for them in urban areas, and
has the added benefit of protecting economically and ecologically sustainable
land use in nearby productive regions.   Integrated land management efforts in
China are likely to have global effect, as well as local and national
benefits.

2.1 Information Sciences and Technologies 

     Many types of information are necessary to achieve effectively integrated
land management.  Existing historical and current information about land
conditions and land use practices is often scattered and difficult to access
in a comprehensive or  integrated manner.  Modern information technologies can
help make more effective use of  traditional information sources and local
knowledge by combining them with new information from advanced technologies. 
Computer-based information and analytical capabilities make integrated land
management more feasible than it was in the past.  Efficient collection and
analysis of the most needed  information is facilitated by the combination of
digital databases and statistical methods that allow identification of
critical processes and limitations.  

     Advanced information technology  is epitomized by satellite images of the
Earth that indicate the current conditions of the land and clarify the
interconnections between different regions.   Analyses of digital information
from satellites and aerial photography makes possible the accurate monitoring
of land conditions over large areas, and increases the value of traditional
ground-based surveys of soil properties, land use, crop productivity, mineral
resources, and land ownership.  Around the globe, international  boundaries
and even fencelines within farms, are visible from space because of the
different land uses on either side.  Dissemination of this type of information
in a form useful to all stakeholders in land use decisions requires a number
of different approaches.        

     The basic form of information needed for integrated land management is
maps, either printed on paper in traditional formats  or contained as
electronic data in computer-based Geographical Information Systems (GIS). 
Obtaining and analyzing this information is the first step in identification
of options for land management.  Remotely-sensed data have proven
indispensable for 1) accurate soil surveys, 2) evaluation of deforestation,
desertification, mining impacts, and other forms of land degradation, 3)
evaluation of the response of natural vegetation and agriculture to variations
in climate such as droughts, monsoons, and freezes, 4) determination of actual
land use patterns, including urbanization and industrialization, as well as
agriculture.  Satellite imagery provides a powerful vehicle for guiding land
use policies at the regional and national levels, as well as the local level. 
This information dramatizes to governmental policy makers the large-scale
impacts of  local activities, and provides a means of integrating local 
knowledge about effective land use practices into a regional or national land
management framework.  

      Satellite Images Used to  Evaluate Land Use Patterns in Colombia
                                                 
         Colombia encompasses a wide range of environmental conditions from
high montane regions to lowland rainforests to semi-arid savannas, each with
its own unique environmental problems.  To develop a coordinated, country-wide
approach to land management, the National Geographic Institute "Agustin
Codazzi"  used satellite images to compare actual land uses with the most
suitable land uses in each region.  Analysis for land use sustainability
indicated that 68.5% of the country's land area is best suited to forestry,
but only 49% is actually in forests.  Cattle pastures occupied more than 40%
of the land area, in spite of the fact that  only 16.8% of the land is
suitable for cattle raising.  These analyses help identify land use problems,
and the regional and national goals that are needed to develop an integrated
land use planning program.   

     Land users involved in market economies need accurate, up-to-date
information on current and predicted market conditions, transportation and
storage capabilities, and changes in regulations or other important factors. 
Long-distance educational programs can provide critical training in technology
applications and business practices in developing regions.
 
     In developing countries that are dependent upon agriculture, important
products of land evaluation include information on the best suited cropping
and/or grazing systems in relation to soils, climate, and other environmental,
social, and economic factors, and impacts of the agricultural systems on the
land.  The maximum sustainable productivity of these agricultural systems 
determines the  land's ability to continuously support human populations (the
carrying capacity).  Integrated land management allows sustainable
agricultural productivity to be increased toward its theoretical maximum.  For
example, FAO's Agroecological Zones project for Africa indicates that the
continent could produce enough food, fiber, and fuel to support a population
far larger than the current 500 million.  However, it is evident that the
needs of even the current population are not being adequately met.  Meeting
the basic human needs of Africa's population will require a continent-wide
integrated land management strategy that includes a major effort in soil
conservation and restoration of degraded lands, along with socio-economic
measures.

                              Planning for Economic Success in Botswana
       
         Economic growth and environmental planning are closely connected in
the African country of Botswana, which has had the highest rate of GNP growth
of any country in the entire world.  Careful economic and environmental
planning, along with good fortune, have made Botswana a showcase of the
developing world.  While diamonds and trade with European Common Market
dominate the economy, a long history of attention to land resources has laid
the basis for strong growth in the livestock sector. A thorough evaluation of
land potentials for grazing and cultivation was completed in the 1970s (Sims,
1981), including recommended stocking rates for different regions.  In spite
of the difficulties of improving food security in a climate with frequent
droughts, the government has developed and implemented plans to maintain and
strengthen rainfed arable agriculture by supporting rural communities during
droughts and recovery following droughts.  A strong institutional framework
for land use planning is implemented at both the national and the regional
levels, with land use planning groups in each of the districts corresponding
to the eight tribal regions.  Botswana's recent history suggests that a
continuing governmental commitment to careful planning, along with
implementation of new integrated land management technologies will allow
continued sustainable development of this country's land resources.        

2.2 Evaluation Sciences and Technologies
     
     Many of the decisions involved in integrated land management are
socioeconomic and political in nature and cannot be resolved by technology
alone. Alternatives must be evaluated in terms of societal values and
agreed-upon strategic goals.  For example, sociopolitical considerations such
as employment may justify policies to encourage crop production even at very
low yields.   Many African farmers cultivate land classified as economically
unprofitable for dryland farming because  even low yields contribute to
bringing total production up to a subsistence level.  Land management cannot
be effectively integrated  without the cooperation of the land users and local
communities,  as well as the input of decision-makers and political bodies. 
Evaluation technologies can assist planners and decision-makers in working
with the land users to choose the combinations of land use alternatives that
best meet a specified set of objectives.  

     Evaluation technologies are essential at numerous points in the land-use
planning process.  Computer-based analyses and models can be used to evaluate
the consequences of alternative land-use scenarios in terms of both
profitability and environmental sustainability.  These models can help
identify the critical limiting  factors for different land uses, as well as
the maximum potential for specific uses.  Systems analysis allows the
construction of mathematical models of different components of land use,
including biological components such as crop production and forest growth,
physical components such as hydrology and erosion, and socioeconomic
components such as households, villages, and national economies.  Moreover,
systems analysis can help identify those situations where technological
solutions are required and those where socioeconomic interventions are
necessary.

                       Planning for Conservation and Agriculture in Tanzania 
                                                 
     Efforts to improve land use for agriculture and conservation have a long
history in Tanzania.  integrated land management is essential for the future
of a country such as Tanzania, with generally infertile soils, a difficult
climate, concentrated areas of overpopulation, and spectacular natural beauty,
wildlife, and biodiversity.  In 1976 the World Bank planned a Rural Integrated
Development Project for the Tabora region in western Tanzania.  The project
included land evaluation, estimation of carrying capacities, and agro-economic
studies at the village level to provide the basis for land planning.  Tanzania
has continued efforts to plan for sustainable development while protecting and
enhancing its natural resources, but this is an extremely challenging and
difficult task for a poor African nation with many pressing social and
economic problems.  Current natural resource conservation efforts are being
supported by Finland (Forestry Action Plan), Sweden (National Conservation
Strategy), Denmark (environmental assistance), and Norway (soil conservation
and afforestation in the Shinyanga Region).  Major challenges exist in
virtually all areas of technological and infrastructural support for
integrated land management.  

     The monitoring of indicators characterizing key processes related to land
use and economic development is an essential tool for evaluating policy
measures. A variety of methods and systems are available to monitor the
quantity and quality of natural resources.  However, governmental commitment
and investments are required to guarantee a consistent and unbiased source of
both environmental and economic information. The type of measurement will
depend on temporal and spatial scales, properties of the land and the
objectives of the land users.  Indicators for resource use should characterize
the rate and the direction of  change of the processes underlying the
functions of the natural resources, reflecting their degradation, depletion,
pollution, etc.  The monitoring of socioeconomic indicators should be given as
much attention as the agro-ecological ones. They concern changes in production
systems (e.g. degree of integration of animal husbandry and arable farming),
processes like urbanization, industrialization, resource extraction, income,
price and trade statistics, and so on.

     Even with adequate monitoring data and  analysis of alternative
scenarios, it may not be obvious what the best combination of land uses might
be.  Tools such as Interactive Multiple Goal  Programming  can help organize
and prioritize socioeconomic and agroecological alternatives.  The method is
based on the observation that the various interest groups in society have
different objectives that at least partly conflict.  The values attached to
goals such as food production, export, employment, environmental protection
are likely to differ for different sectors of society.   The method allows all
stakeholders to participate in exploration of the possibilities for a
compromise that is acceptable to everyone, although it may not be ideal for
any specific group.  The strength of Multiple Goal Programming  is  its
ability to stimulate societal discussion about the consequences of specific
policy options.  Nonetheless, these methods alone cannot provide the final
solution to land use issues, which must be resolved on the basis of
agreed-upon values and goals. 

                     Atmospheric Science Allows Advanced Planning for Droughts
                                                 
         Recent advances in atmospheric science offer the promise of
long-range predictions of droughts.   Strong correlations have recently been
reported between the El Nino warming of the Pacific ocean and severe droughts
in Zimbabwe and other parts of Africa (Cane et al., 1994).  Because of
developing abilities to predict the El Nino warming a year or more in advance,
it may soon be possible to predict future growing season weather before crops
are planted in Africa.   The ability to plan in advance for growing season
weather conditions would be a major contribution to agricultural planning and
a totally new component of integrated land management.  Continuing development
of such technologies can potentially  improve land management and help
stabilize food availability in countries such as Zimbabwe and Botswana.

2.3  Application  Sciences and Technologies

     These are the "on the ground" methods that are implemented to achieve the
goals identified during the process of land use planning.  The contributions
of human innovation and experience, as embodied in many types of indigenous
knowledge, have made possible the rapid development and adaptation of methods
to improve all aspects of land use. Technologies for specific applications are
derived from  many different sciences, including agronomy, forestry,
hydrology, geology, soil science, wildlife biology, physics, chemistry,
mining,  civil  engineering, etc. 

     One of the best-known successes of an applications technology is the
"Green Revolution," which produced high-yielding varieties of cereals that
greatly improved food security in parts of the developing world.  Continuing
work in crop breeding and genetics is developing varieties that are tolerant
of less  favorable conditions and do not require the high inputs needed by the
original Green Revolution varieties.  Agricultural experiment stations around
the world are continuing to make great progress in developing productive crop
varieties that are successful with lower inputs and compatible with more
effective soil and water conservation.   Modern genetic engineering techniques
and more effective use of the genetic resources contained in wild varieties
and indigenous crops offer the promise of continued improvement.   Similar
gains in production and disease resistance are being obtained through
animal-breeding programs as well.  However, these new technologies cannot be
effectively applied where they are most needed without better information on
the distribution of soil and climatic conditions in developing countries.  

     In many cases the most effective application technologies result from a
hybridization of traditional methods  with  modern technologies that involve 
high efficiency input of resources.    The growing body of global experience
in land restoration and other aspects of integrated land management offers to
accelerate the process of solving environmental and development problems in
the Developing World.   Continued testing and refinement of these technologies
should lead to  further improvements  and adaptation to a wider range of the
environmental conditions in developing countries.

                                  Land Use Planning Decreases Erosion and
                                Increases Food Production in China 
                                                 
         China's Loess Plateau (530,000 km2) is one of the most severely
eroded areas in the world.  Beginning in 1979 the Chinese Government, in
cooperation with UNDP, set up an experimental erosion control station at
Mizhi, in the north of Shaanxi Province.  A variety of technologies were
evaluated on a 100 km2 experimental watershed that was shared by three
villages.  Technologies included conversion from cultivated annual crops to
perennial crops, building additional terraces, controlling gully erosion, and
introducing new crop varieties and animal breeds.  By the late 1980s the
project had achieved most of its goals.  The total land area used for food
production was reduced by more than 50%, while stable farmland also increased
by more than 50%.  47% of the total land area is now covered by grassland and
forest, which have greatly reduced erosion rates.  Total food production
increased by 70%, in spite of the large decrease in cultivated area.  This and
several similar projects in the Loess Plateau, implemented in collaboration
with WFP and FAO, have demonstrated unequivocally that integrated land
management can simultaneously reduce erosion, increase production and raise
living standards.  These methods are now being extended throughout Shaanxi
Province and into the Yulin Prefecture as well (FAO, 1992).  

2.4 Supporting  Technologies and Infrastructure 

     A strong educational, research, and analytical infrastructure is
essential to support an effectively integrated approach to land management. 
Integrated land management  projects are unlikely to succeed unless there is a
sufficient level of in-country expertise to carry out the process and
sufficient cooperation across traditional institutional and sectoral
boundaries to efficiently utilize the expertise.  A strong agricultural
extension service can provide critical practical experience and access to
indigenous knowledge, as well as the means to communicate the goals and
methods of the integrated land management to the land users.  Modern analytic
and research equipment, as well as computer hardware and software, must be
sufficiently available to meet the evaluation, research, and monitoring needs
of land management.  

     Because effectively integrated land management requires the support of
all stakeholders and a central authority for implementation, a public that is
sufficiently well-educated to understand and appreciate the goals of
sustainable  land management  is essential to the long-term success of such
efforts.  Both informal and formal education, using all available media, and
the legislative and cadastral structures to support long-term economic
security are critical to sustainable development.          

     While support technologies may not be as glamorous and exciting as remote
sensing and biotechnology, they are equally important to the success of
integrated  land management.  Support technologies can sometimes serve as 
integrating mechanisms that  encourage different sectors of society to work
together.   For example, linked computer networks in which each group is
responsible for providing a specific portion of the information that is needed
by everyone can encourage cooperation between agencies or groups that have not
formerly cooperated.  Investment in this type of infrastructure provides the
foundation for successful implementation of integrated land management.  

3. Constraints to Integrated Land Management

     There are numerous barriers to effective implementation of an integrated
approach to land management at  both local and global scales.  Some of these
barriers have technological solutions, however many of them result from the
fact that existing  technologies are not available in the locations  where
they are most needed.  Removal of many of the barriers to integrated land
management requires decisions about resource allocation at national and
international levels, which will affect the future of specific sectors of
society.  Barriers to integrated land management can be classified into four
general areas:

    1)  Limited access to appropriate  information and technology 

    2)  Weaknesses in institutional infrastructure 

    3)  Unsustainable land use practices

    4)  Conflicts between different land use goals
       
     Due to variation in environmental and socioeconomic conditions, the
appropriate technologies for integrated land  management vary, and the
barriers to integrated land management are different from region to region and
from one country to another.  While science and technology can make some
contribution to the removal of each of these barriers, the contributions of
the political and economic sectors are essential for providing the commitment
and resources to solve these problems. 


3.1   Limited Access to Appropriate Technology and Information

     The starting point for integrated land management is knowledge and
information on the quality of land resources and their actual land use.   This
includes 1) information on  basic land properties such as the potential for
forestry, agricultural production, mineral extraction, biodiversity, etc.; 2)
inherent limitations to the various land use forms; 3) susceptibility to
desertification, erosion, groundwater pollution and other forms of
degradation; 4) distribution of land use, ownership and regulatory
constraints; and 5) urban and industrial impacts, etc.  Unfortunately, for
many critical land management situations in the developing world  the needed
information either does not exist or is not available in a useable form.  

     A primary reason for lack of basic information is the difficulty of
obtaining access to the technological tools  needed to obtain and analyse the
information.   Tools and scientific methods already exist to evaluate
information for making decisions on land use and development.  However, they
are not uniformly available in all parts of the world.  This lack of
availability  result from inadequate financial resources to acquire the
technology, or an inadequate infrastructural and educational base to support
the technology after it is acquired.   The need for  tools like remote sensing
and multiple goal programming in land use planning increases with decreasing
resource quality.  But at the same time, the low productivity of marginal
lands   is less able to support the costs of the equipment and training
required to effectively use these evaluation technologies.  

     In some cases, the needed information is available, but it is ignored or
neglected.  The lack of a timely response to a  known problem may be as
serious  as the lack of early warning of a previously  unknown problem. 
Rather frequently, only incidental use is made of  the tools that are actually
available, resulting  in limited and inadequate land use planning and
management.  In such cases long-term observations on the state of the
environment will be scarce.  Monitoring of resources and their use through
indicators of sustainability is essential for the analysis of effectiveness of
policy measures and the resulting land use management.  Such monitoring must
have a strong local component, with measurements and observations by trained
personnel.  Advanced technologies such as remote sensing will often be useful.

     Currently, effective transfer of specific technologies and knowledge from
one country to another is hampered by the lack of common methods and
definitions for basic land properties such as soils, climate, land uses, and
land cover types.  Standardized definitions for these fundamental land
properties are being developed through a joint UNEP/FAO/Habitat initiative,
which should greatly facilitate the implementation of integrated land
management.

     Science and technology cannot solve all problems.  In some cases the lack
of useful information may be related to the  imprecision of available science
and technology.   Not all questions about land use and its implications for
the environmental, economic and social sectors will have a definitive
scientific answer.  Available data may be so ambiguous as to hinder an
appropriate interpretation or hamper extrapolation to other environments. 
More difficult is the fact that the dynamic interaction between humans and
environmental processes are complex and poorly understood.  For example, the
impacts of human behaviour on the global atmosphere and potential greenhouse
effect are ambiguous.  Scientific research on global climate change  predicts 
consequences ranging from cooling to a warming of the global atmosphere.  Such
information is worthless for decision makers.  A fundamental lack of
understanding of complex processes is the basis for this and other information
failures.  In these cases, further scientific research is the only way to
improve the decision-making process.    

                             Pakistan's National Conservation Strategy
         
     Growing population, coupled with rapid industrialization and
urbanization, was posing a great challenge to optimal resource utilization in
Pakistan.  The National Conservation Strategy was formulated by the Government
of  Pakistan as a response to organize and coordinate public action on issues
of concern in resource use.  The NCS comprehensive action plan envisages an
investment of  about $50 billion over a ten year period in fourteen core
areas, which include steps to  maintain soils in croplands, increase
irrigation efficiency, protect watersheds,  support forestry and plantations,
restore rangelands and improve livestock, protect water bodies and sustain
fisheries, conserve biodiversity, increase energy efficiency, develop and
deploy renewables,  prevent and abate pollution, manage urban wastes,
and support institutions for common resources [concerning land management].   
3.2 Weaknesses in Institutional Infrastructure 

     Although during the last decades our knowledge about many aspects of land
use has increased considerably, the  dissemination of  this information has
not kept pace.  Reasons include the lack of adequate transfer mechanisms, the
limited use of existing mechanisms, and lack of communication and cooperation
between agencies with responsibility over different aspects of land use.   The
mechanisms for transfer of information  include public awareness and
education, recovery and use of indigenous knowledge, trained professionals,
institutional infrastructure, and methods for local, regional, interagency,
and international exchanges of knowledge and technologies. 

     A  well-conceived and effectively implemented framework is needed to
promote resource management at different levels of society, from central,
regional and division level to the local (village) planning level.  
Unfortunately, trained personnel and staff acquainted with land resource
management and environmental education are often lacking at critical levels. 
In some cases, particularly in the past, insufficient attention has been paid
to environmental issues in public education.  Extension services sometimes
focus on the male part of the population, neglecting the role of women in
relation to agriculture, household energy, and other environmental impacts.
The accessibility of education to women is of crucial importance for
development programs aimed at integrated land management. 

     Lack of cooperation and communication between agencies may lead to
duplication of efforts and waste of resources.   Inadequacy of institutional
mechanisms for the transfer of information about market conditions and
business opportunities may be as damaging as the lack of information about
agricultural technologies.  In some cases, science-based technologies have
been introduced without emphasizing the drawbacks, such as the toxic
side-effects of an over-use of biocides.      
 
    Without two-way transfer of information, extension services are not able
to effectively create the required link between farmer needs and research
findings, so research is often ineffective.  Research institutes that
concentrate on well-endowed regions may produce results that have little
relevance to the less-endowed regions.  A rich fund of indigenous knowledge
built up over generations can be quickly lost, reducing opportunities for
maintaining sustainability.  Hybridization of the indigenous ecologically
sound  farming with modern high  input agriculture may result in the most
efficient use of the inputs involved and create the best chance for economic
feasibility, with restricted ecological side effects. 

3.3 Unsustainable Land Use Practices

     Unsustainable land use results from over-exploitation, pollution, and
destruction  of natural resources.  No individual or society intentionally
destroys its future well-being or survival by unsustainable practices. 
However, economic pressures resulting from pricing structure, subsidies, and
tax incentives, as well as simple necessity driven by needs for short-term
survival, can lead to the degradation or destruction of the resource base
needed for long-term survival and economic well-being.   Governmental pricing,
subsidies, and trade policies in relation to food, wood, energy, and mineral
resources  may encourage or even  force land users to deplete  natural
resources,  causing situations where they undermine their own livelihood. 
Both national and international economic policies can drive land use toward
unsustainable practices.

     Land degradation resulting from pressure for survival  can occur when the
land's carrying capacity is reduced by  extreme weather conditions, such as
droughts, or by gradual deterioration due to overgrazing or erosion.  Some
regions are much more susceptible to these problems as a result of climate,
soils, topography, or other factors.

     Inequitable distribution of land and other resources can effectively
reduce carrying capacity and  create a situation in which land degradation is
accelerated when people are forced to use marginal lands that are not able to
support them.   Lack of long-term land tenure or the absence  of technology
needed to determine or assign land tenure can lead to land degradation by
users who have no incentive to improve or conserve resources for the future.  

                         Scientific Knowledge Helps Preserve Biodiversity 
                                                 
         Scientific knowledge can  help identify situations where apparently
conflicting land uses are actually compatible.  For example, biodiversity
conservation is often considered to conflict directly with agricultural food
production.   Yet recent work indicates that many components of biodiversity
are naturally low on the productive lands that are best suited for
agriculture, while many components of biodiversity are actually highest on
marginal lands of lower productivity, where the economic value of genetic
material for biotechnology may be quite high.  Thus, protecting productive
lands from degradation and using them efficiently for food production with
methods such as mixed cropping can help preserve biodiversity by keeping
marginal lands out of intensive agriculture and using them instead for such
purposes as watershed protection, aquifer recharge, water quality improvement,
and tourism in addition to the protection of wildlife and other components of
biodiversity.

     While the concentration of population in urban areas has advantages in
terms of increased efficiency and reduced costs for social and physical
infrastructure, expansion of urban areas has also a direct effect on the
adjacent environment.  Critical thresholds may be exceeded in relation to the
environment's self-cleaning potential, or the availability of water and energy
resources for urban development and industrialization, as well as basic human
needs.  For example, fire wood is a common energy source for cooking and
heating in most developing countries.  The need for fire wood in urban areas
can easily exceed the annual production.  More expensive energy is not the
only consequence.  The decreasing buffering capacity of the adjacent
environment through deforestation leads to erosion and less efficient
agriculture, transport, and industry.  Deposition of air pollutants from urban
waste incinerators or industrial blast-furnaces can lead to harmful
concentrations of toxic materials in agricultural products, and the pollution 
of surface water due to industrial and urban discharges can make the water
unsuited for agricultural irrigation purposes.  

                            A Long History of Land Evaluation in Japan
                                                 
     Assessment and improvement of the human carrying capacity of the land
played an important role in the social and economic development of Japan. 
Careful record-keeping and evaluation of agricultural production during the
Tokugawa period allowed Japanese rulers to determine their tax base and
regulate the distribution of their rural and urban populations (Sato
(1769-1850); Sansom, 1931).   The fertile soils of the region surrounding
present-day Tokyo contributed to the development of an integrated agroeconomic
system that supported a high population density and a rich social and economic
structure. 

     Because the carrying capacity of a region results from economic and
social conditions, as well as the quantity and quality of the natural
resources, overpopulation is a relative condition, rather than an absolute
number.  One of the causes for self-destruction of a society's resource base
is overpopulation relative to  the current economic conditions.  The situation
is particularly difficult where the local or regional soil and climate are too
poor to guarantee profitable sustainable use of external inputs in
agriculture, while a low supply of qualified labor and other economic
conditions hinder the creation of employment outside agriculture, such as in
desert margins and semi-arid regions.   Large-scale technological investments
in these regions are not economically  feasible because the purchasing power
of the local population and the possibilities for increased production are
insufficient. In the long run, however,  such neglect of marginal regions will
threaten the more productive areas, through the deterioration or loss of the
ecological, social, and economic  functions of the marginal areas, which  may
be critical to the well-being of the more productive areas.  Public
investments to support sustainable land uses may be the most cost-effective
formula to maintain the functions of ecosystems in marginal regions and to
avoid migration and the accompanying social and economic problems. 

3.4 Conflicts between Different Land Use Goals
                                                    
     Land use planning is directed at the "best" use of land, in view of
accepted objectives and aspirations.  However, it is inevitable that there
will be  conflicts  between various interests groups that have different goals
and perceptions about land use.  For example, urban and industrial development
often requires land that is extremely valuable for agricultural production. 
In arid regions, migration of transhumance pastoralists usually results in
conflicts with farmers of arable lands.   Conservationists usually have
different goals  for  how land should be managed than do farmers or
businessmen.    Many of these objectives are interrelated and it is obvious
that they partially overlap as well as compete.  Where multiple goals are at
stake, trade-offs among these goals have to be made.  There are often no
simple technological solutions, and societies are forced to make difficult
decisions and compromises.   

       Conservation, Development, and Management of Land Resources in India

         With India's high population density and rich natural and cultural
resources, land use management is a critical concern.  Major policy issues
were identified at the National Consultation on the Prospective Plan for
Conservation, Development, and Management of Land Resources in 1991, which
called for an integrated, scientifically sound  approach to the  management of
land resources in the country.  A number of initiatives  were highlighted,
including: comprehensive land use planning to govern mining, quarrying,
industrial uses, and urban development; coordination of related sectoral
activities such as National Forest Policy, National Water Policy, National
Housing Policy, National Land Use Policy, etc.; higher priority for protective
and regeneration aspects of forestry;  diversification of agriculture
with special attention to problems of soil salinity, waterlogging, acidity and
drought-prone and desert areas; mitigation of hazards such as floods and
earthquakes in susceptible areas; proper training of personnel; and continued
updating of the information base on land resources in India through remote
sensing and computerized data banks. National and regional land use planning
is facilitated  by the Agro-Climatic Regional Planning Project of the Indian
Planning
Commission, which delineates the country into 15 agro-climatic regions to
provide technical and scientific inputs for agriculture and allied sectors
during the Eighth Five-Year Plan (1992-1997) and beyond.  Science and
technology  will contribute on a continuing basis to the process of planning,
implementation and management of the programs initiated to address the
above issues.  

     The appropriate response to conflicts is not always obvious.   For
example, high input agriculture usually attains higher efficiencies of inputs
per unit of output than low input agriculture because production resources are
used more efficiently due to a further optimization of the growing conditions.
However, due to the high chemical inputs, local contamination of the
environment is much more likely to occur than with low input agriculture.  In
addition, the higher productivity of high input agriculture allows a smaller
area of land to produce the same amount of food as a much larger area of low
input agriculture.  Thus, a larger area remains available for nature
conservation, maintenance of biodiversity, watershed protection, and other
socially important land uses.  In this contrast, the complex nature of the
trade-offs are particularly obvious.  Do we employ our non-renewable resources
as efficiently as possible in the well-endowed regions and allow locally high
pollution of the environment, or do we use them less efficiently and ensure
low pollution of the environment?  Such issues cannot be separated from the
prevailing socioeconomic conditions, which may emphasize subsidies on external
inputs, creation of employment outside agriculture, or income support. Careful
evaluation of all issues at stake are required to decide which option is
preferred.

     Some kind of public authority, such as village councils, boards of public
works, development councils, regional or national governments,  must be
involved in negotiating and implementing solutions to  conflicting land uses. 
The consequences of the absence of such public authority are demonstrated in
those parts of the world where efficient systems regulating land use in the
past were weakened during the colonial era.  Legislation based on colonial
jurisdiction was introduced while indigenous land tenure systems were still in
place, resulting in weak and confusing regulations. As a consequence,
agro-ecological conditions were neglected, resulting in serious deterioration
of land resources.
 
     Integrated land management requires that choices be based on valid and
explicit objectives.  Because land is multifunctional, it is inevitable that
conflicts occur due to these choices.  However, the lower the  availability
and quality  of  natural resources, the higher the risk of postponing
decisions and of  neglecting  integrated land use planning and management.
Unequal access to natural resources and to external inputs, and lack of
involvement of the population as a whole accelerate the destructive processes.
Irreversible degradation of less-endowed regions will occur and will threaten
the functions of the adjacent better-endowed regions.               

                     Scientific Research Helps Avoid Waste of Scarce Resources
                                                  
         Assessment of agricultural limitations and potential human carrying
capacity is particularly critical in marginal areas where extreme climatic
fluctuations may cause destabilizing swings in agricultural production and
human population densities.  In Mali, as in the rest of the Sahelian region,
periodic droughts cause the collapse of agricultural and grazing systems, with
the associated mass migrations and humanitarian crises.  Analysis of the
limitations imposed by climate and soils on the productivity of agricultural
and grazing systems indicated that the primary limiting factor was not water,
but rather soil nutrient availability.  Thus, expensive irrigation projects
would be a waste of money unless other limiting factors were addressed first. 
A similar example of how an integrated approach to  land management can avoid
the waste of resources comes from Ethiopia, where the FAO  performed a land
suitability analysis, based on the concept of Agro-Ecological Zones, for a
proposed dam in the Kesem region.  Soil analysis found soil properties and
spatial distributions that were incompatible with a successful irrigation
project.  However, the land evaluation also identified areas that would be
suitable for various types of rainfed agriculture.  

4.   Recommendations and Conclusions:  Approaches to Technology Transfer and
Capacity-building 
          
     The constraints to integrated land management discussed in the previous
section imply a number of specific actions that could help overcome them. 
Science and  technology contribute to  the solution of some of those
constraints, particularly those directly related to  land management planning
and implementation  (see 3.3, 3.4).   However, other problems require social
and economic solutions, particularly those related to the lack of the required
information and the inaccessibility of the needed technology (see 3.1,3.2). 
Education and infrastructure development are cross-cutting themes through all
components of integrated land management.   Specific barriers related to
education and extension, high costs, lack of use or bad use of equipment are
addressed in other reports, such as "Report of the Inter-sessional Ad Hoc
Open-ended Working Group on Technology Transfer and Cooperation" 
(E/CN.17/1994/11).  Nonetheless, these barriers remain significant 
limitations  on the effective integration of land use planning and management
in many developing countries.

     Both the types of constraints encountered in efforts to implement
integrated land use  management and the land use issues themselves are highly
specific to local environmental and socioeconomic conditions.   Consequently,
it is important to identify approaches to overcoming these constraints that
are sufficiently flexible and adaptable that they can provide the appropriate
level of technology and the type of solution needed in each specific country
or region.   Experience in  both developed and developing countries identifies
a number of methods that have been successful at eliminating the constraints
that hinder the effective integration of  land management planning.  These
methods can be grouped under the following general headings:  

       1)  Intra- and inter-governmental cooperation

       2)  Private/public partnerships

       3)  Targeted training and technology support programs

       4)  Direct public investment in resource protection         

4.1  Intra- and Inter-governmental Cooperation

     Limitations on the financial resources required to obtain needed
information and technologies, as well as limitations in terms of
within-country infrastructure, personnel training and expertise can both be
addressed by pooling resources among countries with common interests.   This
approach can increase the quality and level of information and technology 
that can be obtained by cooperating countries, as well as provide an effective
mechanism to share solutions to common problems.   

     Among past efforts at cooperative ventures of this type, not all have
succeeded.  Successful and unsuccessful experiences  help identify the
elements that are important for the success of cooperative efforts.  1) Common
goals and common methods.  It is essential that all cooperators share common
goals that are clearly addressed by the specific information or technology
that will be shared by the cooperative.   Some past "top-down" efforts by
international agencies to provide advanced information from satellite remote
sensing have failed because the information was not provided in an appropriate
form  or because it was too general and did not address the specific needs of
individual countries.  Successful cooperatives must be developed in a
participatory manner  to meet specific shared goals with an appropriate
technology that is sufficiently flexible to provide useful results at many
different levels of technological development.  2) Commitment by all partners.
The long-term nature of building a base of trained and experienced personnel
with the supporting technical infrastructure  requires  a serious  financial
investment and long-term commitment of personnel and institutional support in
order  to succeed.   Potential cooperators must be willing to make a
commitment to a sustained effort in order to participate.  Programs that
require no commitment rarely succeed.  3) Neutral  administrative structure. 
Successful cooperation  requires that all partners be treated equally and that
none dominate the resources or the selection of goals.   Structures with
neutral and independent administration or rotating leadership are essential to
avoid domination by any single partner.   Care must also be taken to respect
and provide legal protection for the intellectual property rights of
participants.

                              International Rice Research Institute: 
                          Successful Cooperation for Technology Transfer
                                                 
     An example of how to effectively develop technology where it is most
needed  is the IRRI-(International Rice Research Institute)-based
collaborative research effort by institutes from developed and developing
countries, including sixteen National Agricultural Research Centres (NARC's)
in Asia. Improved rice-based production systems through the transfer of
modelling and simulation skills is the major goal of the program.  To
establish a critical mass within the NARC's multidisciplinary teams were
formed. Hardware and software were donated, and courses how to use them
organized.  All  participating institutions  were required to make long-term 
commitments of personnel and support.   The common 'language' acquired and the
network created permits direct exchange of results,  access to common
databases, and coordination of  ongoing and complementary efforts.  The
combination of field and laboratory experimentation with modelling resulted in
the identification of key-variables and processes allowing improved crop
management systems. Moreover, NARC's can now  benefit from the scientific
capabilities at  international levels.

         Experiences in China, the Philippines, and India show that this
approach can be easily adapted for use at the national level, enhancing
inter-institutional and interdisciplinary work, and the integration of
knowledge (Penning de Vries, et al., 1991).  The Agricultural Research
Information System , in development by the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research and the State Agricultural Universities, with assistance of the
International Service for National Agricultural Research (ISNAR), will be an
invaluable tool for international information exchange in the future.  

     This cooperative networking approach can be used at a number of different
levels.   Among small countries within a region that share resources (e.g.,
watersheds, mountain ranges) or have common problems such as desertification,
international cooperation allows an efficient pooling of resources to achieve
what no single country could accomplish alone.  Within larger countries, this
approach has been successful in intrasectoral cooperation (e.g., agricultural
research stations in different regions) and could also be used for
intersectoral cooperation, as with shared computer systems for accessing
satellite data or traditional information sources.   Networks are an effective
mechanism for pooling and sharing governmental resources, but can also be an
effective and cost-efficient structure for  donor-supported activities.

     Cooperative arrangements of this type can make important contributions in
the areas of education, training, infrastructural development, and
institution-building.   Although most of the current examples of this approach
are in agriculture and natural resource areas, there are no limits to the land
management and sustainable development issues  that could be addressed using
this approach.  Important areas could include conflict resolution methods,
manufacturing technologies, energy-efficiency, recycling, and reuse
technologies, environmental geology technologies, urban and land use planning
methods,  and many other specific science and technology issues. 

4.2 Private/public Partnerships        

     The private sector can make major mutually-beneficial contributions to
technology development and infrastructure-building  in many different areas
that support an integrated approach to land management.  The mechanisms by
which this can occur are highly varied.   Banking credit that supports the
implementation of proven technologies or the development of new technologies
is a powerful tool that can link sustainable land use with economic
development.  Successful investment programs based on community lending and
women's cooperatives provide good examples of how capital can be provided to
support technology transfer.   Joint private/public support for research and
development institutes for new technologies or products, or to investigate
specific issues of importance to the private sector, are  already  implemented
in many developed countries and some developing countries.   This type of
private investment goes hand-in-hand with market development and will tend to
increase as markets develop.   Market development that involves training of
technical support staff and provisioning of field offices can also contribute
to integrated land management when it involves appropriate technologies.   In
this same area, corporate fellowship programs can build in-country expertise. 
Product  incentives can help develop markets while making technology available
and providing experience and training.   Examples include providing computers
to schools and municipalities or providing technical training with the
purchase of a product.     Existing private infrastructure, such as the
distribution networks for products and product information, can be used to
support the dissemination of information related to land management
technologies.   This is particularly important where the channels of public
communication are not well developed, such as in rural or mountainous areas,
and field research stations or agricultural extension offices have
difficulties communicating and shipping materials.

     This approach may prove extremely effective in furthering integrated land
management, particularly as national and international corporations adopt the
long-range goals of Sustainable Development.  

4.3 Targeted Training and Technology Support Programs

     Currently unsustainable land uses are the most serious threat to the
future sustainable food production over much  of the Earth's marginally
productive lands.        In some cases, specifically targeted applications of
technology can help remove the primary constraint to sustainable land use
planning.   For example, effective integration of land use planning activities
may be extremely difficult at the village level because of lack of needed
information on surrounding lands, including ownership and jurisdictional
boundaries, the boundaries of protected or reserved areas,  the current
conditions of the lands, and the  potential future values of the land for
agriculture, mining, tourism, watershed protection, and other uses.    More
effective land use planning at the village level can be made possible by local
training programs for data collection and assessment, along with provision of
appropriate tools and technology.  A small investment in training and
technology in support of cadastral programs can  alter land use practices by
providing the technical infrastructure for secure land tenure. 

     Support of conflict resolution methods,  such as Multiple Goal
Programming, can help involve all stakeholders in the resolution of conflicts
over competing land use goals.  Such conflicts result from differences in
private versus public interests, values, and influence; lack of local control
over land use and land resources; unequal distribution of resources and
authority; lack of effective mechanisms for discussing, evaluating, and
resolving conflicts, and lack of effective guidance or authority from 
decision-making bodies.   Resolution of differences over land use goals is
inevitably based on value judgments, and subjective or normative evaluation of
alternatives.   The  consensus and compromise necessary to resolve differences
and develop a sustainable land use plan that is  acceptable to all
stakeholders requires strong leadership and the guidance of the right 
authority, both for plan development and plan implementation.  Failure to
resolve these types of differences has historically led to civil strife.

                            North-South Technology Transfer in Trieste
                         Spawns South-South Collaborations around the World
                                                 
         Since 1982 the International Center for Theoretical Physics, along
with the Third World Academy of Sciences, in Trieste, Italy has been
sponsoring courses and workshops in Mathematical Ecology.  Every two years,
leading scientists from the U.S. and Europe meet with 50 to 60 sponsored
participants from developing countries for an intensive 3 to 4 week course
on the application of mathematical and computer approaches to issues such as
disease epidemiology, water pollution and ecotoxicology, resource management
and bioeconomics, and land use planning.  Course graduates are now applying
these methods at universities and governmental institutions around the world. 

International  workshops modeled on these courses have been organized by
course graduates and held in Nigeria, Argentina, and Mexico, with more planned
for Asia and throughout the developing world.  

     Improved capability for policy review and evaluation by decision-making
bodies at all levels is essential for development of an integrated land use
plan in support of sustainable development.  Essential requirements for
effective policy evaluation include accurate information on current land
conditions and on the potential capability of land to support the  various
needs of society, including agricultural production, energy sources, mineral
resources, clean and abundant water supplies, wildlife and conservation, and 
recreation and tourism.  Provision of the  training and analytical tools
needed to carry out policy review and evaluation  can make a major
contribution to implementing integrated land management. 

4.4  Direct Public Investment in Resource Protection 

     The urgency of stopping unsustainable land uses  before they result in
permanent  degradation of  the land's capability to support human populations
may often require public involvement in promoting sustainable land uses.   The
threat to populated areas and productive lands caused by deterioration of
distant regions, has historically led governments to make major investments in
economically marginal regions  that provide direct and indirect benefits to
more populated and economically robust areas.   For example, the massive
investment in the infrastructure of dikes and canals made over centuries by
governments in The Netherlands  provides protection to cities and agricultural
areas far from the locations where the investments are actually made.  
Likewise, the Chinese government has  supported extensive tree-planting
programs in semi-arid regions for the prevention of wind erosion that causes
serious pollution problems in major urban areas to the east.   Agricultural
price supports  can allow sufficient input of resources in marginal areas to
allow sustainable agricultural practices, rather than  continuing land
degradation.  Such price supports  may also be necessary to allow  a
transition from  unsustainable agricultural practices to  sustainable methods
that will  become self-supporting after a period of time.  Direct investments
in specific land uses that support the economies of marginal areas may often
be the most cost-effective solution to problems caused by unsustainable land
use.

     Another type of public investment that supports sustainable land use is
the establishment of research institutions that address specific problems of
marginal regions, such as issues related to sustainable agriculture, forestry,
mining, and use of other resources.  When these institutions are located in
the marginal regions themselves, they also serve the important purpose of
local education and infrastructure development.  This type of direct public
investment is particularly important in situations where the short-term market
solutions that motivate the private sector do not or cannot effectively
address the land use problems.    In these situations, it is essential that
the central governmental authority have the necessary information and tools
for  policy evaluation that will allow them to make decisions that will
support integrated land use and Sustainable Development.

4.5 Agenda for the Future

     Despite the availability of scientific and technological solutions to 
many of the land use problems around the globe, most of these problems remain
and are, in fact,  growing more serious.  Many previous approaches to land use
management and planning have failed because they were narrowly focused, and
did not address all factors relevant to sustainable development.  The panel
therefore wishes to emphasize the importance of a holistic and integrated
approach to land use planning and management as the basis for the successful
application of science and technology.
     
     Both advanced and traditional technologies have an essential role to play
in integrated land use planning and management.  The Panel has identified four
practical approaches for supporting technology transfer and capacity-building:
1) intra- and intergovernmental cooperation; 2) private/public partnerships;
3) targeted training and technology support; and 4) direct public investment
in resource protection.

    Each of the above approaches can be used to provide support for a variety
of technology transfer and capacity-building programs.  An integrated land use
management program should  include the following basic components, each of
which requires the application of appropriate technologies to meet specific
needs.

Information - accurate information in a useable form is essential for
stakeholders at all levels of society (see Section 2.1).  For example,
television and radio can provide local land users with weather and crop 
information, while satellites and computer systems provide maps and analyses
for government planners.  

Involvement - the effective participation of all stakeholders, including the
poor, women, and minorities,  is essential for sustainable land use.  For
example, communication technologies can foster local, regional, and national
dialogues, and interactive evaluation technologies can help develop consensus
at all levels of society.

Empowerment - the commitment to practice sustainable land uses only occurs
when land users have the assurance of receiving the future benefits of these
practices.  Supporting technologies include  navigation  satellites that can
help define land ownership and tenure boundaries, and access to information
that can enable decision-making at the local level.  

Facilitation - the effective implementation of integrated land management
requires a consistent supporting framework of regulations, market structures,
and sectoral agencies working cooperatively toward the same goals at regional
and national levels.  For example, it is widely recognized that public and
professional education are essential for sustainable development.

    Land management problems, needs, and solutions are specific to each
individual country.  The Panel recommends that the principles developed in
this report be further elaborated to provide specific guidelines for the
implementation of technologies that support integrated land management.  At
the international level, CSD and CSTD may consider establishment of a joint
working group, with participation of technology experts and donors, to develop
a set of general guidelines to be used by cross-sectoral technology planning
groups for identifying specific technological  needs and monitoring progress
towards integrated land management.   These guidelines would be considered by
the Commissions at their respective sessions in 1997.  Once adopted, these
guidelines would provide a framework at the national level for facilitating
cooperation among sectoral agencies, NGOs, and donors for the efficient
allocation and use of technological resources.  


                                              ANNEX I

 
                                      Examples of Application
                     of Science and Technology for Integrated Land Management

     Listed below are some examples of the areas where science and
technologies can make immediate contributions to integrated land management. 
These may provide basis for successful programming and technical assistance
projects:

       - Remote sensing to create basis for planning and monitoring for the
use of land;
       - Environmental monitoring;
       - Creation of basic Geographical Information Systems (GIS);
       - Environmental impact assessment;
       - Creation and dissemination of superior breeds and varieties;
       - Byproduct reduction and utilization;
       - Reclamation and restoration of land;
       - Wildlife management;
       - Soil management;
       - Efficient use of land resources and waste reduction;
       - Information exchange through networking;
       - Consensus building;
       - Creation of awareness;
       - Cadastral mapping & land registration;
       - Recycling of water;      
       - Systems modeling for water supply, irrigation, etc.
       - Information collection, storage, retrieval and dissemination;
       - Disaster prevention;
       - Pest control systems;      
       - Alternative technologies for energy capture;
       - Provision for market information;
       - Urban and rural land use and human settlement planning;
       - Pollution control.


                                             ANNEX II

                                       LIST OF PANEL MEMBERS


Chairman:             J. Dhar
                      Indian National Science Academy
                      New Delhi, India


Panel Members:        Mohd. Nordin Hassan
                      Institute for Environment and Development
                      Selangor, Malaysia

                      Amado R. Maglinao
                      Philippine Council for Research and Development
                      Laguna, Philippines

                      T. Mteleka
                      Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education
                      Dar es Salaam, United Republic of Tanzania

                      Gabriel Roveda
                      Corporation of Agriculture Research Institute
                      Mosquera, Colombia

                      Hilal A. Raza
                      Hydro Carbon Development Institute of Pakistan
                      Islamabad, Pakistan

                     
                      D. Sims
                      (FAO)

                      George Waardenburg
                      Ministry of Foreign Affairs
                      The Hague, Netherlands

                      Xuan Zengpei
                      State Science and Technology Commission
                      Beijing, China


Experts:              Hendrik Breman
                      Centre for Agro-Biologic Research
                      Wageningen, Netherlands

                      Michael Huston
                      Oak Ridge National Laboratory
                      Oak Ridge, Tennessee


Secretariat:          Kwaku Aning
                      Division for Science and Technology/UNCTAD

                      Hiroko Morita-Lou
                      Division for Sustainable Development/DPCSD


                                             ANNEX III
  
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