CHAPTER 2: WHAT DOES THE UNITED NATIONS DO TO PROMOTE PEACE AND SECURITY?
How does the UN work for peace?
The UN promotes peace in a multitude of ways, both directly and indirectly. In situations of manifest or simmering conflict, the UN employs tools ranging from mediation to the dispatch of peacekeeping forces. In the preventive sphere, the UN works to heal the economic and social causes of war. As a centre for diplomacy and debate, the UN provides a framework for the peaceful settlement of disputes, a means of defusing conflicts before they begin. In times of international crisis, it serves as a focal point for easing tensions and beginning negotiations. The UN also promotes peace through its development of a growing body of international law, as well as through development assistance.
What is the UN doing to prevent conflict?
For the United Nations, preventing conflict is as important as keeping the peace. Prevention has many aspects: it involves early warning, diplomacy, disarmament, preventive deployment and the use of sanctions when necessary. But above all, effective prevention addresses the structural faults that predispose a society to conflict. Through its activities aimed at promoting human security, good governance, equitable development and respect for human rights, the UN is helping to make the world a safer place by addressing the underlying causes of war.
To be successful, the work of prevention must be supported by the peoples and parties directly affected. It involves cooperation between countries, the United Nations, organizations, civil society and even the private sector. With the support of the international community, the UN employs integrated prevention strategies to avert the enormous material, human and moral costs of conflict. In so doing, the UN is facilitating the transition from a culture of reaction to a culture of prevention as the cornerstone of collective security.
What is the role of UN peace-building?
The UN is increasingly undertaking activities that address the underlying causes of conflict and in building what the Secretary-General has called "sustainable peace". The UN system does this through its efforts to support good governance, civil law and order, human rights and democratization in countries struggling with the aftermath of conflict. It repatriates refugees, provides electoral assistance and humanitarian aid, and helps to rebuild administrative, health, educational and other services.
The UN presence in the territory of East Timor - now the independent State of Timor-Leste - played a central role in helping its people move through serious difficulties to their chosen goal of independence, which was attained in May 2002. Some peace-building activities, such as the UN's supervision of the 1989 elections in Namibia, mine-clearance programmes in Mozambique and institution-building in Sierra Leone, take place within the framework of a UN peacekeeping operation and may continue when the operation withdraws.
UN peace-building in post-conflict situations often includes overseeing the collection and destruction of hundreds of thousands of weapons and facilitating the reintegration of former combatants into civil society. For example, in January 2002, the UN successfully completed its disarmament and demobilization programme in Sierra Leone and immediately began voter registration for presidential and parliamentary elections. In Kosovo, legislative elections in November 2001 led to the formation of a coalition government. During the same period, UN efforts in Afghanistan facilitated the establishment of an interim government and began coordinated action by the UN system to rebuild that war-torn country.
What is the UN doing to fight terrorism?
"Terrorism will be defeated if the international community summons the will to unite in a broad coalition, or it will not be defeated at all", Secretary-General Kofi Annan has said. "The United Nations is uniquely positioned to serve as the forum for this coalition, and for the development of those steps governments must now take, separately and together, to fight terrorism on a global scale."
Following the 11 September 2001 attacks on the United States, the Security Council played its part in this new global coalition. On 28 September, it adopted a wide-ranging resolution under the enforcement provisions of the UN Charter to prevent the financing of terrorism, criminalize the collection of funds for such purposes, and immediately freeze terrorist financial assets. The Council called on States to accelerate the exchange of information concerning terrorist movements and decided that States should afford one another the greatest measure of assistance for criminal investigations or proceedings relating to terrorist acts. It also established a Counter-Terrorism Committee to oversee implementation of its resolution.
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The International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism was signed by 91 nations in September 2005. It will enter into force following receipt
of its 22nd instrument of ratification.
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The UN has long stood at the centre of international efforts to combat terrorism and to create a legal framework covering all its aspects. Twelve global conventions on the issue have been negotiated under UN auspices, including the 1979 Convention against the Taking of Hostages, the 1997 Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings and the 1999 Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism. An additional text, the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism, was opened for signature in September 2005. The UN continues its efforts to strengthen the global norm against weapons of mass destruction, end the sale of small arms to non-State groups, eliminate landmines, improve the protection of nuclear and chemical facilities, and increase vigilance against cyberterrorist threats.
The UN System Fights Terrorism
In addition to actions by the Security Council, the General Assembly and the Secretary-General following the 11 September 2001 attacks against the United States, many members of the UN system have increased their anti-terrorist activities. For example:
- International Atomic Energy Agency - Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2005 along with its Director General, the IAEA acts vigorously to counter the threat of nuclear terrorism. Its enhanced and integrated plan of activities against nuclear terrorism is intended to guard against the theft of nuclear and related materials and to protect facilities against malicious attack.
- Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons - OPCW, another part of the UN system, tracks the movement of chemicals that can be used to make such weapons, provides research and information on the potential use of chemical weapons and implements provisions of the Chemical Weapons Convention. It acts to ensure that the most up-to-date information and strategies are in place for mobilizing and coordinating international responses to chemical terrorist attacks.
- The International Civil Aviation Organization - Within months of the 11 September 2001 attacks, 154 countries endorsed a new ICAO strategy to improve airline security, including a regime of regular mandatory audits to evaluate airport security.
- International Maritime Organization - The International Ship and Port Facility Security Code, adopted by the IMO in 2002, is mandatory for the 148 Contracting Parties to the 1974 Safety of Life At Sea (SOLAS) Convention. It aims to improve maritime safety and security and decrease the likelihood of maritime terrorism. Its provisions require that all ships over 500 tonnes in international waters have security plans and security officers, as well as automatic identification systems.
- Universal Postal Union - The UPU's world postal security network offers advice and training on ways to ensure that dangerous materials are not transmitted by mail - as well as on eliminating the use of mail systems for drug trafficking, money laundering, fraud and child pornography.
- World Health Organization - Following the 2001 anthrax outbreaks, WHO identified key lessons and provided guidance for public health systems. Since then, it has continued to devote specific attention to preparedness for deliberate epidemics (see www.who.int/csr/delibepidemics/en).
- Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention -UNODC operational activities focus on strengthening the legal regime against terrorism. Its Terrorism Prevention Branch provides technical assistance to countries in their fight against terrorism.
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What is the UN doing to stop the spread of arms?
Disarmament occupies a central place in UN efforts to advance peace and development in a safer world. Through its own bodies dealing with disarmament issues and its support for international negotiating forums, the UN works to set norms and strengthen multilateral principles for disarmament. Through the UN, countries have the means to build confidence and trust in each other and to verify that agreements are being honoured.
With UN support, multilateral negotiations, such as those in the Conference on Disarmament, have resulted in a wide range of agreements, including the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty, and treaties to establish nuclear-free zones. In addition, a number of bodies have been established to help control weapons of mass destruction. The International Atomic Energy Agency, for example, runs a system of nuclear safeguards and verification, while the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons helps ensure compliance with the Chemical Weapons Convention. Other confidence-building measures include the UN Register of Conventional Arms and the system for standardized reporting of military expenditures, which promote greater transparency in military matters.
During the 1990s, more than 2 million children were killed and 6 million seriously injured in conflicts involving small arms and light weapons - including revolvers, assault rifles, mortars, hand grenades and portable missile launchers. Through unscrupulous arms dealers, corrupt officials, drug trafficking syndicates, terrorists and others, such weapons continue to bring death and mayhem into streets, schools and towns worldwide. The UN is working to curb the illicit trade in these, the weapons of choice for terrorists, criminals and irregular forces. At a UN Conference on the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Lights Weapons in 2001, States agreed on measures to strengthen international cooperation in curbing this illegal arms trade.
What is the UN doing to rid the world of landmines?
 Some 15,000 to 20,000 people are killed or maimed every year by landmines and unexploded ordnance scattered in at least 60 countries. Most are civilians, living in countries that are now at peace. The UN has been active in efforts to rid the world of these deadly weapons, whose first victims are often children, women and the elderly.
* The UN played a crucial role in encouraging countries to support the 1997 Ottawa Convention - which provides for the total ban on the production, export and use of landmines - and continues to promote universal adherence to this treaty. Ratification of the treaty by nearly 150 countries has led to reduced use of these weapons, markedly fewer victims, a dramatic drop in production, an almost complete halt in their trade, increased destruction of stockpiles, and increased funding for humanitarian action. Since 1999, some 38.3 million stockpiled anti-personnel mines have been destroyed.
* As a result of this international momentum, most States which are not parties to the treaties have also ceased using, stockpiling, producing and transferring anti-personnel landmines. And more land is being demined than ever before - some 1,200 square kilometres worldwide since 1999 - destroying more than 4 million anti-personnel mines, around 1 million anti-vehicle mines, and millions of pieces of unexploded ordnance.
* The UN system provides direct support for mine action in more than 30 countries. The UN not only performs mine clearance, but also trains deminers, conducts mine surveys, carries out mine-awareness education, and supports demining schools.
* The UN also works to improve medical and rehabilitation services for landmine victims. Such programmes have been carried out since 1989 in the killing fields of some of the most affected countries, including Afghanistan, Angola, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cambodia, Croatia, the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Mozambique, Rwanda and Yemen (see UN Demining Database at www.mineaction.org).
Forgotten landmines kill or maim up to 20,000 civilians every year
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Why can't the United Nations impose peace?
The UN does not have the capacity to impose peace by force. It is not a world government. It has no standing army, no military assets. It is not an international police force. The effectiveness of the UN depends on the political will of its Member States, which decide if, when and how the UN takes action to end conflicts.
The Security Council has special responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. The Council can exert diplomatic and political pressure on the parties to a conflict or provide a means for settling the dispute, including fact-finding or mediation missions. The General Assembly can bring the power of world opinion to bear on warring parties. Diplomatic efforts and initiatives by the Secretary-General can lead to negotiations and an end to fighting. Once a truce is in place, the Security Council can deploy a peacekeeping operation to help the parties carry out their agreements.
When persuasion fails, the Security Council can take stronger action, such as imposing economic sanctions or declaring a trade embargo. It may establish international tribunals to try persons accused of war crimes, as it has done in the cases of Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia. On some occasions, the Council has authorized Member States to use "all necessary means", including force, to deal with armed conflict. Such enforcement actions - carried out under the control of participating States - have included actions to restore the sovereignty of Kuwait (1991); the legitimate government of Haiti (1994); peace and security in the Central African Republic (1997); and to end a campaign of violence in East Timor (1999) following a referendum on self-determination.
"Building Sustainable Peace"
"Peacekeepers and peace-builders should always be supporting national efforts and promoting self-reliance ... The aim must always be to create a sustainable peace, just as we aim to achieve sustainable development. And indeed, sustainable development itself is one of the conditions for lasting peace."
-- Secretary-General Kofi Annan, to Germany's Bundestag, February 2002
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What is a UN peacekeeping operation?
UN peacekeeping is truly an international undertaking. Peacekeeping personnel - soldiers, civilian police, electoral experts, deminers, human rights monitors, specialists in civil affairs and communications - come from many nations.
UN peacekeeping operations are established by the Security Council, where decisions are subject to veto by any of the Council's five permanent members - China, France, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and the United States. The Council determines the mandate, size, scope and duration of an operation based on recommendations, including financial information, provided by the Secretary-General. The General Assembly votes on the operation's budget.
The Council determines peacekeepers' duties according to the requirements of each situation. They may monitor a ceasefire, establish a buffer zone, help former opponents carry out a peace agreement, protect the delivery of humanitarian aid, assist with the demobilization of former fighters and their return to normal life, set up mine-clearance programmes, supervise or conduct elections, train civilian police, and monitor respect for human rights. UN missions have also been asked to assume temporary administration of certain territories, as in East Timor during the period leading up to its independence in 2002.
Troops who serve in a UN operation are generally authorized to carry light arms, for use only according to strict rules of self-defence or when an armed party attempts to prevent them from carrying out their mandate. Use of force by peacekeeping troops is rare and always involves difficult choices and controversy. A peacekeeper's most effective "weapon" is the support of the international community.
Peacekeeping is not a tool for every situation or a substitute for other forms of action by the international community. But in appropriate situations, with a realistic mandate, sufficient resources, international support and the cooperation of the parties, peacekeeping operations are indeed effective in helping resolve conflicts and maintain peace. There are currently more than 65,000 peacekeepers on the ground, serving the cause of global harmony in 16 missions worldwide.
In the midst of crisis, the UN's well-organized relief operations can be a lifeline to affected civilians
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How are peacekeeping operations funded?
Peacekeeping operations have their own budgets. These are assessed separately by the General Assembly, according to a special scale based on that used for the regular budget. This scale provides for a higher assessment on the five permanent members of the Security Council, which hold the power to veto Council decisions and, as stressed by the Assembly, have "special responsibilities" towards peacekeeping operations.
The peacekeeping scale divides Member States into 10 categories, based on their capacity to pay. At the high end are the "permanent five" - China, France, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and the United States - which were assessed at 45 per cent of peacekeeping costs in 2005 (down from 57 per cent in 1992). The next group includes 29 developed countries, which pay the same rate as under the regular budget. Most countries fall into one of the eight other categories, paying progressively reduced rates based on their per capita gross national product. The final group is of 49 least developed countries, which receive a 90 per cent discount.
As the Member State with the largest gross domestic product, the United States was assessed at just under 31 per cent for peacekeeping costs in 1996. By 2005, that was down to 26.5 per cent.
Two thirds of all Member States have provided military and civilian police personnel to UN peacekeeping operations
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Does peacekeeping cost too much?
The cost of peacekeeping should be compared to the enormous cost of war - financially and in terms of human suffering. The cost of UN peacekeeping for the 2005-2006 fiscal year is $3.55 billion - well under half of 1 per cent of world military spending (more than $1 trillion annually), and less than the transportation budget of the State of Virginia in the United States ($3.7 billion for fiscal year 2005). By comparison, General Motors Corporation spent $4 billion on advertising in 2004.
Who commands UN peacekeeping operations?
Operational control is in the hands of the United Nations, since UN peacekeeping functions under the authority of the Security Council. The Secretary-General, with the agreement of the Council, appoints a Head of Mission, as well as a Force Commander or Chief Military Observer. The Head of Mission, or Special Representative, reports to the Secretary-General, who in turn reports to the Security Council.
Governments volunteer military and civilian police personnel to peacekeeping operations on a case-by-case basis. Each government retains ultimate authority over its own personnel. A national contingent serves under its own commanding officer. All uniformed personnel wear their national uniforms. They are identified as UN peacekeepers by a UN blue helmet or beret and a UN badge. There is no oath of allegiance to the UN.
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Some 2,222 UN military and civilian peacekeepers from 111 countries have died in the line of duty since 1948
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What is the UN doing to make peacekeeping more efficient?
Member States, regional organizations and the UN Secretariat are working to improve overall preparedness, standby capacity, logistical support and training. By 2005, 83 Member States were participating at some level in the United Nations Standby Arrangements System. Within this framework, a group of Member States has established a Standby Forces High Readiness Brigade to enhance the capacity of their troops to serve together in a peacekeeping context.
At UN Headquarters in New York, the Situation Centre provides a 24-hour link with all peacekeeping operations. In Brindisi, Italy, the UN's supply and storage depot improves the storage and maintenance of reusable assets, saves money in procurement costs, and facilitates faster deployment of new operations.
Member States are continuing their efforts to create a more effective support structure for peacekeeping operations, based on recommendations by the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations, which issued its report in 2000 (see www.un.org/peace/reports/peace_operations).
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