EMISSIONS OF GREENHOUSE GASES
Environmental	Atmosphere	Climate Change

1. INDICATOR

(a) Name: Emissions of Greenhouse Gases (GHG).

(b) Brief Definition: Anthropogenic emissions, less removal by sinks, of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulphur hexafluoride (SF₆), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), together with the indirect greenhouse gases nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO) and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs).

(c) Unit of Measurement: Annual GHG emissions in gigagrams (Gg). Emissions of CH₄, N₂O, HFCs, PFCs and SF₆ can be converted to CO₂ equivalents using 100 year global warming potentials (GWPs) provided in the IPCC Second Assessment Report, 1995.

(d) Placement in the CSD Indicator Set: Environmental/Atmosphere/Climate Change.

2. POLICY RELEVANCE

(a) Purpose: This indicator measures the emissions of the six main GHGs which have a direct impact on climate change, less the removal of the main GHG CO₂ through sequestration as a result of land-use change and forestry activities.

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/ Unsustainable Development (theme/sub-theme): For about a thousand years before the industrial revolution, the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere remained relatively constant. Since then, the concentration of various greenhouse gases has increased. The amount of carbon dioxide, for example, has increased by more than 30% since pre-industrial times and is currently increasing at an unprecedented rate of about 0.4% per year, mainly due to the combustion of fossil fuels and deforestation. The concentrations of methane and nitrous oxide are increasing as well due to agricultural, industrial and other activities. The concentrations of the nitrogen oxides NO and NO₂ and carbon monoxide (CO) are also increasing. Although these gases themselves are not greenhouse gases, they affect atmospheric chemistry, leading to an increase in tropospheric ozone, which is a greenhouse gas. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF₆) and some other halogen GHGs do not occur naturally in the atmosphere but have been introduced by human activities. They are strong greenhouse gases and have long atmospheric lifetimes. CFCs and HCFCs also deplete the stratospheric ozone layer (see ozone depleting substances).

Since the late nineteenth century, the mean global temperature has increased by 0.4-0.8°C and the sea level has risen by 10 to 15cm. A doubling of the CO₂ concentration in the atmosphere is believed to cause an increase in the global mean temperature of 1.5 to 4.5°C. To appreciate the magnitude of this temperature increase, it should be compared with the global mean temperature difference of perhaps 5 to 6°C from the middle of the last ice age to the present interglacial period.

(c) International Conventions and Agreements: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change entered into force in March 1994 and as of July 2000 has received 184 instruments of ratification or accession. The Convention includes a commitment by developed country Parties, including economies in transition (Annex I Parties), to aim to return emissions of CO₂ and other GHGs not controlled by the Montreal Protocol to their 1990 levels by 2000. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in December 1997 and has received 84 signatures. It will enter into force after it has been ratified by at least 55 Parties to the Convention, including developed countries accounting for at least 55 per cent of the total 1990 CO₂ emissions from this group. Meanwhile countries are to continue to carry out their commitments under the Convention.

Ozone-depleting greenhouse gases (such as CFCs and HCFCs) are controlled by the Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol (see ozone depleting substances).

(d) International Targets/Recommended Standards: The Kyoto Protocol sets targets for each of the developed country Parties and economy in transition Parties with a view to reducing their overall emissions of the six main GHGs by at least 5 per cent below 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to 2012.

(e) Linkages to Other Indicators: This indicator is linked to many other socio-economic and environmental indicators, including GDP growth rate, energy consumption, environmental protection expenditures, and expenditures on air pollution abatement.

3. METHODOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: Greenhouse gases contribute in varying degrees to global warming depending on their heat absorptive capacity and their lifetime in the atmosphere. The global warming potential (GWP) describes the cumulative effect of a gas over a time horizon (usually 100 years) compared to that of CO₂. For example, the global warming potential of CH₄ (methane) is 21, meaning that the global warming impact of one kg of CH₄ is 21 times higher than that of one kg of CO₂. The global warming potentials of ozone-depleting greenhouse gases (such as CFCs and HCFCs) are highly uncertain, since they depend on the depletion of ozone, itself a greenhouse gas. No global warming potentials are provided for indirect greenhouse gases.

(b) Measurement Methods: In some cases, GHG emissions can be measured directly at the source. More commonly, emissions are estimated from data on emission sources, for example oil sales data or cattle numbers, using an emission factor for each source.

(c) Limitations of the Indicator: This indicator shows the net amount of GHGs entering the atmosphere for each reporting country each year. It does not show how much the climate will be affected by the increased accumulation of GHGs or the consequent effect of climate change on countries. Data is available and reported mainly for developed countries and economies in transition.

(d) Status of the Methodology: Developed country Parties to the Convention have been reporting GHG data beginning with 1990 data since 1994. The IPCC has published two sets of guidelines on methodologies for the estimation of GHG inventories and further elaborated this with guidance on good practice in 2000.

(e) Alternative Definitions/Indicators: GHG emissions can alternatively be measured on a gross instead of net basis in which case no account is taken of removal by sinks. There are a number of other gases that indirectly produce GHGs and these could also be included in the scope of the definition. The GWP potential can be calculated over different time horizons, such as 20 years or 500 years.

4. ASSESSMENT OF DATA

(a) Data Needed to Compile the Indicator: Greenhouse gas emissions data.

(b) National and International Data Availability and Sources: National communications from Parties to the Convention, including both developed and developing countries, are available. Developing countries report on a limited basis. At the international level, the UNFCCC Secretariat database has information based on annual data inventory submissions from developed and economy in transition countries.

5. AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDICATOR

(a) Lead Agency: The lead agency is the Secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The contact point is the Executive Secretary, Secretariat, UNFCCC, fax no. (41 22) 970 9034.

(b) Other Contributing Organizations: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

6. REFERENCES

(a) Readings:

First review of information communicated by each Party included in Annex I to the Convention. UN document A/AC.237/81 and corr. 1.

UNFCCC in‑depth review reports on individual countries.

(b) Internet sites:

www.unfccc.int (UNFCCC)

www.ipcc.ch (IPCC)

www.ipcc.nggip.iges.or.jp (IPCC technical support)

CONSUMPTION OF OZONE DEPLETING SUBSTANCES
Environmental	Atmosphere	Ozone Layer Depletion

1. INDICATOR

(a) Name: Consumption of Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS).

(b) Brief Definition: This indicator will show the amounts of Ozone Depleting Substances being eliminated as a result of the Montreal Protocol.

(d) Placement in the CSD Indicator Set: Environmental/Atmosphere/Ozone layer depletion.

2. POLICY RELEVANCE

(a) Purpose: This indicator signifies the commitment to phase out the ODS of the countries which have ratified the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer and its Amendments of London (1990), Copenhagen (1992), Montreal (1997) and Beijing (1999).

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development (theme/sub-theme): The phaseout of ODS, and their substitution by less harmful substances or new processes, will lead to the recovery of the ozone layer. Stratospheric ozone absorbs most of the biologically damaging ultraviolet radiation (UV-B). Without the filtering action of the ozone layer more UV-B radiation can penetrate the atmosphere to have adverse effects on human health, animals, plants, micro-organisms, marine life, materials, biogeochemical cycles, and air quality.

(c) International Conventions and Agreements: The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and its Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer and the London, Copenhagen, Montreal and Beijing Amendments to the Protocol.

(d) International Targets/Recommended Standards: The international target under the agreements listed in 2 (c) is the complete phase out of ODS.

(e) Linkages to Other Indicators: This indicator has links to other environmental and institutional indicators, such as number of chemicals banned or restricted and ratification of international agreements. It has significant implications to human health and natural resources.

3. METHODOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: Ozone Depleting Substance (ODS) means any organic substance containing chlorine or bromine, which destroys the stratospheric ozone layer. Controlled substance means a substance in Annex A, Annex B, Annex C or Annex E of the Montreal Protocol, whether existing alone or in a mixture. It includes the isomers of any such substance, except as specified in the relevant Annex, but excludes any controlled substance or mixture which is in a manufactured product other than a container used for the transportation or storage of that substance. Production means the amount of listed, controlled substances produced, minus the amount destroyed by technologies to be approved by the Parties to the Montreal Protocol and minus the amount entirely used as feedstock in the manufacture of other chemicals. The amount recycled and reused is not to be considered as "production". Consumption is the sum of production plus imports minus exports of controlled substances. We are addressing apparent consumption. Weighted tonnes of ODS means the amount of ODS multiplied by their ozone depleting potential. Ozone depleting potential (ODP) is a relative index of the ability of a substance to cause ozone depletion. The reference level of 1 is assigned as an index to CFC-11 and CFC-12. If a product has an ODP of 0.5, a given weight of the product in the atmosphere would, in time, deplete half the ozone that the same weight of CFC-11 or CFC-12 would deplete. ODPs are calculated from mathematical models which take into account factors such as the stability of the product, the rate of diffusion, the quantity of depleting atoms per molecule, and the effect of ultraviolet light and other radiation on the molecules.

(b) Measurement Methods: Weighted Tonnes of ODS for production are the sum of national annual production (in tonnes) of each controlled substance (as reported to the Ozone Secretariat in accordance with Article 7 of the Montreal Protocol) multiplied by the ozone depleting potential of that substance (as listed in Annexes A, B, C and E of the Handbook for the International Treaties for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, 2000). It can be found at: http://www.unep.org/ozone or http://www.unep.ch/ozone. Weighted Tonnes of Ozone Depleting Substances for consumption are obtained through a similar calculation using national annual consumption values (in tonnes).

(c) Limitations of the Indicator: Availability and accuracy of data and timely reporting will determine the country's ability to use the indicator. The indicator by itself does not reveal much about current trends in the deterioration of the ozone layer because of delays in ecosystem response.

(d) Status of the Methodology: For more information, please consult the Reports of the Secretariat on information provided by the Parties in accordance with Article 7 of the Montreal Protocol or the Home Page at: http://www.unep.org/ozone or http://www.unep.ch/ozone.

(e) Alternative Definitions/Indicators: An alternative indicator could focus on the phase out of ODS.

4. ASSESSMENT OF DATA

(a) Data Needed to Compile the Indicator: Data on production, imports and exports of controlled substances by the Parties to the Montreal Protocol.

(b) National and International Data Availability and Sources: The data are available for most countries, on a national level, on a regular annual basis, as part of their reporting obligations to the Montreal Protocol. At the international level from the Ozone Secretariat in Nairobi and from the Multilateral Fund Secretariat in Montreal. The data sources are the Ozone Secretariat and the national government ministry responsible for reporting to the Montreal Protocol.

(c) Data References: UNEP, Report of the Secretariat on Information Provided by the Parties in Accordance with Article 7 and 9 of the Montreal Protocol, United Nations Environment Programme, pp. 105, 1999. UNEP, Production and Consumption of Ozone Depleting Substances, 1986-1998, United Nations Environment Programme, pp. 41, 1999. Web site: http://www.unep.org/ozone or http://www.unep.ch/ozone.

5. AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDICATOR

(a) Lead Agency: The lead agency is the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)/Ozone Secretariat. The contact point is the Executive Secretary of the Ozone Secretariat, fax no. (254-2) 62-3601/62-3913.

(b) Other Contributing Organizations: Other organizations interested in the further development of this indicator would include: The Multilateral Fund Secretariat, the Global Environment Facility (GEF) Secretariat, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), UNEP Division of Technology, Industry & Economics (UNEP DTIE), United Nations Industrial and Development Organization (UNIDO), the World Bank, the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel to the Montreal Protocol, the Parties to the Montreal Protocol, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and members associated with the Alternative Fluorocarbon Environmental Acceptability Study (AFEAS).

6. REFERENCES

(a) Readings:

Ozone Secretariat, UNEP, Handbook for the International Treaties for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, pp.367, 2000. (ISBN: 92- 807-1867-3).

UNEP, Synthesis of the Reports of the Scientific, Environmental Effects and Technology and Economic Assessment Panels of the Montreal Protocol. A Decade of Assessments for Decision Makers Regarding the Protection of the Ozone Layer: 1989-1998, United Nations Environment Programme, pp. 161, 1999. (ISBN: 92-807- 1733-2).

UNEP, Reports of the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel of the Montreal Protocol.

Reporting of Data by the Parties to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.

(b) Internet sites:

http://www.unep.org/ozone

http://www.unep.ch/ozone

http://www.unmfs.org

http://www.uneptie.org/ozonaction.html

http://www.gefweb.org

http://www.teap.org

http://www.undp.org/seed/eap/montreal/index.htm

http://www.unido.org

http://www-esd.worldbank.org/mp

AMBIENT CONCENTRATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS IN URBAN AREAS
Environmental	Atmosphere	Air Quality

1. INDICATOR

(a) Name: Ambient concentration of air pollutants in urban areas.

(b) Brief Definition: Ambient air pollution concentrations of ozone, carbon monoxide, particulate matter (PM_10,PM_2,5, SPM, black smoke), sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, nitrogen monoxide, volatile organic compounds including benzene (VOCs) and lead.

(c) Unit of Measurement: μg/m³, ppm or ppb, as appropriate; or percentage of days when standards/guideline values are exceeded.

(d) Placement in the CSD Indicator Set: Environmental/Atmosphere/Air Quality.

2. POLICY RELEVANCE

(a) Purpose: The indicator provides a measure of the state of the environment in terms of air quality and is an indirect measure of population exposure to air pollution of health concern in urban areas.

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development (theme/sub-theme): An increasing percentage of the world's population lives in urban areas. High population density and the concentration of industry exert great pressures on local environments. Air pollution, from households, industry power stations and transportation (motor vehicles), is often a major problem. As a result, the greatest potential for human exposure to ambient air pollution and subsequent health problems occurs in urban areas. Improving air quality is a significant aspect of promoting sustainable human settlements.

The indicator may be used to monitor trends in air pollution as a basis for prioritising policy actions; to map levels of air pollution in order to identify hotspots or areas in need of special attention; to help assess the number of people exposed to excess levels of air pollution; to monitor levels of compliance with air quality standards; to assess the effects of air quality policies; and to help investigate associations between air pollution and health effects.

(d) International Targets/Recommended Standards: World Health Organization (WHO) air quality guidelines exist for all the pollutants of this indicator, except nitrogen monoxide. Many countries have established their own air quality standards for many of these pollutants.

(e) Linkages to Other Indicators: This indicator is closely linked to others which relate to causes, effects, and societal responses. These include, for example, the indicators on population growth rate, rate of growth of urban population, percent of population in urban areas, annual energy consumption per capita, emissions of sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides, life expectancy at birth, total national health care as a percent of Gross National Product, share of consumption of renewable energy resources, environmental protection expenditures as a percent of Gross Domestic Product, expenditure on air pollution abatement, childhood morbidity due to acute respiratory illness, childhood mortality due to acute respiratory illness, capability for air quality management, and availability of lead-free gasoline.

3. METHODOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: The indicator may be designed and constructed in a number of ways. Where monitored data are available, it is usefully expressed in terms of mean annual or percentile concentrations of air pollutants with known health effects – e.g., ozone, carbon monoxide, particulate matter (PM_10,PM_2,5, SPM), black smoke, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, volatile organic compounds including benzene (VOCs) and lead – in the outdoor air in urban areas. Alternatively, the indicator might be expressed in terms of the number of days on which air quality guidelines or standards are exceeded (though in this, comparisons need to be made with care because of possible changes or differences in guideline values).

Where monitoring data are unavailable, estimates of pollution levels may be made using air pollution models. Dispersion models, however, depend on the availability of emission data; where these are not available, surveys may be conducted using rapid source inventory techniques. Because of the potential errors in the models or in the input data, results from dispersion models should ideally be validated against monitored data.

(b) Measurement Methods: Suitable air monitors must fulfil several requirements, such as detection limits, interferences, time resolution, easy operation and of course, cost. There are several good references in the literature or available at agencies on air monitoring and analysis from where information can be obtained. It is important, however, to refer to the published scientific literature for the most appropriate and recent air monitoring methods.

A number of models are available for estimation of ambient concentration of air pollutants. Most of them are founded on the Gaussian air dispersion model.

(c) Limitations of the Indicator: Measurement limitations relate to detection limits, interferences, time resolution, easy operation, and cost. Evaluation of the accuracy of model results is critical before relying on model output for decision-making.

(d) Status of the Methodology: The methodology is widely used in many developed and developing countries.

(e) Alternative Definitions: None.

4. ASSESSMENT OF DATA

(a) Data Needed to Compile the Indicator: Data must be time and spatially representative concentrations such as, for example, mean annual concentrations (mean concentrations of the pollutant of concern, averaged over all hours of the year) or percentile concentration (concentration of the pollutant of concern exceeded in 100-X% of hours, where X is the percentile as defined by the relevant standards). In addition, information must be available on site location and type (e.g., industrial or residential area).

(b) National and International Data Availability and Sources: Data on ambient air pollution concentrations is often routinely collected by national or local monitoring networks. Data is often also collected for research purposes by universities and research institutes. In addition, industry collects many data.

(c) Data References: Data on ambient air pollution can be obtained from national and local monitoring networks. Sometimes, data is available from universities, research institutes and industry. In addition, a growing volume of data can be obtained from international sources such as the WHO Healthy Cities Air Management Information System (AMIS) of the European Environmental Agency.

5. AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDICATOR

(a) Lead Agency: The lead agency is the World Health Organization (WHO). The contact point is the Director, Department for the Protection of the Human Environment; fax no. (41 22) 791 4159.

(b) Other Contributing Organizations: The United Nations Environment Programme.

6. REFERENCES

(a) Readings:

WHO (2000 in print) Air Quality Guidelines for Europe (revision of Air Quality Guidelines for Europe 1987). WHO Regional Office for Europe, Bilthoven Division.

WHO (2000 in print) Human Exposure Assessment, Environmental Health Criteria Document 214, Programme of Chemical Safety.

WHO (2000) Decision-Making in Environmental Health: From Evidence to Action, edited by C. Corvalan, D. Briggs and G. Zielhuis, E & FN Spon, London, New York.

WHO (1999) Monitoring Ambient Air Quality for Health Impact Assessment, WHO Regional Publications, European Series, No. 85.

WHO (1999) Environmental Health Indicators: Framework and Methodologies. Prepared by D. Briggs, Occupational and Environmental Health.

WHO (1999) Global Air Quality Guidelines: Occupational and Environmental Health (available on the web only).

WHO (1987) Air Quality Guidelines for Europe, WHO Regional Office for Europe, Bilthoven Division.

Schwela & Zali (eds. 1999) Urban Traffic Pollution. Edited by D. Schwela and O. Zali, E & FN Spon, London, New York.

UNEP/WHO (1992) Urban Air Pollution in Megacities of the World, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, UK.

UNEP/WHO (1994) Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS/Air), Methodology Review Handbook Series. Volumes 2, 3, and 4.

(b) Internet sites:

http://www.who.org

http://www.unep.org

ARABLE AND PERMANENT CROP LAND AREA
Environmental	Land	Agriculture

1. INDICATOR

(a) Name: Arable and Permanent Crop Land Area.

(b) Brief Definition: Arable and permanent crop land is the total of “arable land” and “land under permanent crops”. Arable land is the land under temporary crops, temporary meadows for mowing or pasture, land under market and kitchen gardens and land temporarily fallow (for less than five years); and land under permanent crops is the land cultivated with crops that occupy the land for long periods and need not be replanted after each harvest.

(d) Placement in the CSD Indicator Set: Environmental/Land/Agriculture.

2. POLICY RELEVANCE

(a) Purpose: This indicator shows the amount of land available for agricultural production and, inter alia, the cropland area available for food production. The data when related to other variables such as population, total land area, gross cropped area, fertilizer use, pesticides use, etc., can also be used to study agricultural practices of the country. In order to be useful, it must be available as a time series.

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development (theme/sub-theme): Population growth in developing countries is driving a rapid increase in the demand for food and fibre. At the same time, rising population density in rural areas diminishes the farm size. Small farmers are forced to extend cultivation to new areas, which are fragile and not suitable for cultivation. Crop intensification, which has contributed significantly to agricultural growth in recent years, can ease the pressure on cultivating new lands but farm practices adopted for raising yields can also, in some situations, result in damaging the environment (such as when expanding into new areas). Changes in the indicator value over time or between various components may show increased or decreased pressure on agricultural land. This indicator is of value to land planning decision making.

(d) International Targets/Recommended Standards: Not applicable.

(e) Linkage to Other Indicators: The indicator is primarily linked to other measures related to land resources covered in the Chapter 10: “Integrated Approach to the Planning and Management of Land Resources” and Chapter 14: “Promoting Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development” of the Agenda 21. This includes indicators such as land use changes, share of irrigated area in the arable and permanent crop land area, per capita arable and permanent crop land area, etc.

3. METHODOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: The concept of arable land and land under permanent crop is clearly defined. Arable land is the land under temporary crops (double-cropped areas are counted only once), temporary meadows for mowing or pasture, land under market and kitchen gardens and land temporarily fallow (less than five years). The abandoned land resulting from shifting cultivation is not included in this category. Data for arable land are not meant to indicate the amount of land that is potentially cultivable. Similarly land under permanent crops is the land cultivated with crops that occupy the land for long periods and need not be replanted after each harvest, such as cocoa, coffee and rubber; this category includes land under flowering shrubs, fruit trees, nut trees and vines, but excludes land under trees grown for wood or timber.

(b) Measurement Methods: The indicator is connected to the use of land for agricultural activity and is historically based on point estimates derived from data collected in periodic agricultural censuses and surveys.

(c) Limitations of the Indicator: This indicator does not reveal anything about increased productivity of agricultural land, or of the spatial variation in land quality.

(d) Status of the Methodology: Concepts and methods of measurements for the indicator are well defined and documented. However, some of the countries follow somewhat different concepts. For example, some countries take arable land as the land that is potentially cultivable, whereas the actual definition excludes permanent fallow land and land under permanent meadows and pastures. Similarly, “permanent” status for pastures, etc., is taken as ten years by some countries instead of the period of five years recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).

(e) Alternative Definitions/Indicators: Agricultural land that includes permanent pastures and meadows is a more appropriate indicator which could universally be related to data on use of fertilizers, pesticides and statistics on irrigated area (as some countries have permanently cultivated pastures).

4. ASSESSMENT OF DATA

(a) Data Needed to Compile the Indicator: Data on arable land and land under permanent crops. Data on permanent pastures and fallow land also would be useful for undertaking quality check.

(b) National and International Data Availability and Sources: National data for the indicator has been estimated generally through agricultural census/surveys. However, in the case of many countries such statistical exercises are undertaken only at selected points of time. At the international level data are being produced by FAO. This data set is produced as a continuous time series where missing data for intercensal/survey periods have been derived by using data from various official and non-official sources. Thus the data for many countries are of unknown reliability.

(c) Data References: The primary data source at the international level is the Production Yearbook released annually by the FAO and FAOSTAT database included in the World Agriculture Information Centre (WAICENT).

5. AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDICATOR

(a) Lead Agency: The lead agency is the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The contact point is the Assistant Director-General, Sustainable Development Department, FAO; fax no. (39 06) 5705 3152.

(b) Other Contributing Organizations: None.

6. REFERENCES

(a) Readings:

FAO. 1995. Programme for the World Census of Agriculture 2000. In: FAO Statistical Development Series (FAO), no. 5 / FAO, Rome (Italy). Statistics Div., 85 pp.

(b) Internet site:

FAO Statistical Databases. http://apps.fao.org/

USE OF FERTILIZERS
Environmental	Land	Agriculture

1. INDICATOR

(a) Name: Use of Fertilizers.

(b) Brief Definition: Extent of fertilizer use in agriculture per unit of agricultural land area.

(d) Placement in the CSD Indicator Set: Environmental/Land/Agriculture.

2. POLICY RELEVANCE

(a) Purpose: The purpose of this indicator is to measure the intensity of fertilizer use in agriculture (crop husbandry).

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development (theme/sub-theme): The challenge for agriculture is to increase food production in a sustainable way. This indicator shows the potential environmental pressure from agricultural activities. Extensive fertilizer use is linked to eutrophication of water bodies, soil acidification, and potential of contamination of water supply with nitrates. The actual environmental effects will depend on pollution abatement practices, soil and plant types, and meteorological conditions.

(d) International Targets/Recommended Standards: Targets should be based on national situations.

(e) Linkages to Other Indicators: This indicator is closely linked to others in the agricultural, water, and atmospheric groups, such as pesticide use, biochemical demand in water bodies, algae index, and emissions of greenhouse gases.

3. METHODOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: The concepts are available. Data on the quantities of fertilizers used are converted into the three basic nutrient components and aggregated. The three components are nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P₂0₅), and potassium (K₂0). Factors for chemical breakdown are standardized. Agricultural land is the sum of arable and permanent crop land and land under permanent pastures and meadows. However, due to the limitations discussed in section 4(d) below, this indicator should be regarded as interim for sustainable development purposes.

(b) Measurement Methods: Data on fertilizers are compiled from industry sources and non-traditional sources. Data for developing countries generally refer to domestic disappearance based on imported products. The derived figures in terms of nutrients are then divided by the agricultural land area.

(c) Limitations of the Indicator: Environmental impacts caused by leaching and volatilization of fertilizer nutrients depend not only on the quantity applied, but also on the condition of the agro-ecosystem, cropping patterns, and on farm management practices. In addition, this indicator does not include organic fertilizer from manure and crop residues, or the application of fertilizers to grasslands. The indicator assumes even distribution of fertilizer on the land.

(d) Status of the Methodology: Not available.

(e) Alternative Definitions/Indicators: A more relevant and sophisticated indicator would focus on nutrient balance to reflect both inputs and outputs associated with all agricultural practices. This would address the critical issue of surplus or deficiency of nutrients in the soil. This would need to be based on agro-ecological zones.

4. ASSESSMENT OF DATA

(a) Data Needed to Compile the Indicator: Data on fertilizer use for N, P₂0₅, and K₂0; and agricultural area.

(b) National and International Data Availability and Sources: Data for all countries exist at the national level only. The data are updated on a regular basis. At the international level, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) is the primary source.

5. AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDICATOR

(b) Other Contributing Organizations: The International Fertilizer Association is associated with the development of this indicator.

6. REFERENCES

(a) Readings:

FAO. 1998. Food and agricultural sector profiles. Country tables 1997. Statistics Div.; FAO, Rome (Italy). Agriculture and Economic Development Analysis Division, 427 pp.

FAO. 1996. Fertilizer use by crop, 3. International Fertilizer Industry Association, Paris (France); International Fertilizer Development Center, Muscle Shoals, AL (USA); FAO, Rome (Italy). Statistics Division, 49 pp.

(b) Internet sites:

FAO Statistical Databases. http://apps.fao.org/

International Fertilizer Association. http://www.fertilizer.org/

USE OF AGRICULTURAL PESTICIDES
Environmental	Land	Agriculture

1. INDICATOR

(a) Name: Use of Agricultural Pesticides.

(b) Brief Definition: Use of pesticides per unit of agricultural land area.

(d) Placement in the CSD Indicator Set: Environmental/Land/Agriculture.

2. POLICY RELEVANCE

(a) Purpose: This indicator measures the use of pesticides in agriculture.

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development (theme/sub-theme): The challenge for agriculture is to increase food production in a sustainable way. One important aspect of this challenge is the use of agricultural pesticides which add persistent organic chemicals to ecosystems. Pesticides can be persistent, mobile, and toxic in soil, water, and air; and can have impact on humans and wildlife through the food chain. They tend to accumulate in the soil and in biota, and residues may reach surface and groundwater through leaching. Humans can be exposed to pesticides through food. Exaggerated use may result from government subsidies and/or failure of pesticide users to internalize health-related costs. The indicator is related to other agricultural intensification practices.

(c) International Conventions and Agreements: Some agricultural pesticides are banned by international trade agreements.

(d) International Targets/Recommended Standards: Not available.

(e) Linkages to Other Indicators: This indicator is closely linked to others in the agricultural area, such as fertilizer use. Use of pesticides can have wide implications for the environment, and is linked to the indicators listed under toxic chemicals and biodiversity.

3. METHODOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: The concepts are available, however, because of the limitations discussed below in section 4(d), it should only be regarded as an interim indicator. More work is required to develop a more suitable pesticide indicator pertinent to sustainable development.

(b) Measurement Methods: Data on pesticide use are usually derived from sales or “domestic disappearance” and expressed as active ingredients. Agricultural area data are widely available. Interpretation will benefit from information on types of active ingredients in use, seasonal doses, rate of application, and variability on use for different crops and regions.

(c) Limitations of the Indicator: This indicator provides an aggregation, which ignores toxicity, mobility, and level of persistence; and spatial and application variances. It does not consider the use of pesticides outside of agriculture, which can be significant in developed countries. Data omissions and errors often occur during the transfer of the primary data to statistical authorities.

(d) Status of the Methodology: Not available.

(e) Alternative Definitions/Indicators: To meet some of the limitations expressed above in section 4(d), an indicator could be developed which would recognize the classification of pesticide into classes, ranging from less harmful to highly toxic. Such a pesticide index would show if pesticide use is becoming more sustainable or not. The interpretation value of this indicator would benefit from its application to crop types or agro-ecological zones. However, data availability does not support this in many areas.

4. ASSESSMENT OF DATA

(a) Data Needed to Compile the Indicator: Pesticide sales data; agricultural land area.

(b) National and International Data Availability and Sources: The land area data are readily available for most countries. However, pesticide supply-use data in metric tons are only available from international sources for selected countries and limited to the major types of pesticide. Some pesticide data are available for about 50-60 countries. The data are not regularly collected and reported, and not usually available on a sub-national basis. Some data are available on total national pesticide use from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Eurostat maintains a database of their members’ data. Landell Mills Market Research Ltd. (Bath, UK) also has data.

5. AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDICATOR

(b) Other Contributing Organizations: OECD, the European Union, and Landell Mills Market Research Ltd. have been involved in the development of this indicator.

6. REFERENCES

(a) Readings: Not available.

(b) Internet sites:

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). http://www.fao.org/

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). http://www.oecd.org/

European Union Eurostat. http://europa.eu.int/comm/eurostat/

Landell-Mills. http://www.landell-mills.com/

FOREST AREA AS A PERCENT OF LAND AREA
Environmental	Land	Forests

1. INDICATOR

(a) Name: Forest Area as a Percent of Land Area.

(b) Brief Definition: The amount of natural and plantation forest area tracked over time.

(d) Placement in the CSD Indicator Set: Environmental/Land/Forests.

2. POLICY RELEVANCE

(a) Purpose: The purpose of the indicator is to show the area covered by the forest formations of a region/country over time.

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development (theme/sub-theme): Forests serve multiple ecological, socio-economic, and cultural roles in many countries. They are among the most diverse and widespread ecosystems of the world. Forests provide many significant resources and functions including wood products and non-wood products: recreational opportunities, habitat for wildlife, water and soil conservation, and a filter for pollutants. They support employment and traditional uses, and biodiversity. There is general concern over human impact on forest health, and the natural processes of forest growth and regeneration. Combating deforestation to maintain the production of wood and non-wood products and to preserve soils, water, air and biological diversity is explicitly considered in Agenda 21.

A continuing and fast decreasing forest area in a country might be an alarm signal of unsustainable practices in the forestry and agricultural sector. The availability of accurate data on a country's forest area, which is a basic characteristic of its forest resources, is an essential requirement for forest policy and planning within the context of sustainable development.

(c) International Conventions and Agreements: Many international agreements cover forests. Countries are supported to maintain or increase their forested areas. Specific forest agreements would include the Non-Legally Binding Authoritative Statement of Principles for a Global Consensus on the Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of All Types of Forests (the Forest Principles of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)); and the International Tropical Timber Agreement. Many other international agreements deal with forests within the context of natural resources and environment conservation, for example, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), the Convention on the Conservation of Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention), the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Convention on Climate Change and the Convention to Combat Desertification. In addition, several regional conventions cover forests.

(d) International Targets/Recommended Standards: There are no international targets or standard sets for size of forest or rate of deforestation. It is, however, understood that the higher the deforestation rate is, the more critical the forestry situation is in a country/region. Several countries have set targets for the extent of their forest area, either in absolute values or as a percentage of total land area of the country. Nevertheless, the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) Year 2000 Objective states that by the year 2000 all tropical timber products traded internationally by Member States shall originate from sustainably managed forests.

(e) Linkages to Other Indicators: The indicator is closely linked with several other environmental indicators, such as land use and land condition change, wood and non-wood products harvesting intensity, protected forest area, arable land, threatened species, sustainable use of natural resources in mountain areas, etc. In some countries, it will also be generally linked to some of the socio-economic indicators, such as population growth and share of natural resource industries in manufacturing.

3. METHODOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: Definitions are available from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Forest Resources Assessments. The forest area is defined as "lands with a tree crown cover equal or more than ten percent of the area”; plantation as the artificial establishment of forests by planting or seeding; and natural forests as natural and/or semi-natural established forests. In addition, the definition of forest exists in most countries. The comparisons of forest area over time using reference years allows the calculation of change in absolute values, and as a percentage of the deforestation rate.

Different land uses practices and ranges of ecological condition result in different forest types, such as tropical or temperate. These differences should be recognized, especially in country comparisons.

(b) Measurement Methods: The measurement methods for forest area can be contained in national forest inventories, and obtained by sampling ground surveys, cadastral surveys, remote sensing, or a combination of these.

The forest area is calculated as the sum of plantations and natural forest areas with tree crown cover equal or more than ten percent. This calculation is made at given reference years as follows:

The deforestation rate (DR) is the compound annual rate in percent from year P to year N:

(c) Limitations of the Indicator: The area figure does not give any indication of the quality of the forest, its ecosystem context, nor forest values or practices. The indicator does not provide information on the degradation of the forest resources in a country. The total forest area in a country might remain unchanged, but the quality of the forest can become degraded. Due to the definition used, the indicator covers a very diversified range of forests ranging from open tree savanna to very dense tropical forests.

(d) Status of the Methodology: Not available.

(e) Alternative Definitions/Indicators: Plantation area compared to natural forest would provide a measure of the intensity of forest practices for timber production and possible ecosystem implications.

4. ASSESSMENT OF DATA

(a) Data Needed to Compile the Indicator: The total forest area of a country, including plantations, at different yearly intervals.

(b) National and International Data Availability and Sources: Data on the extent of forest areas (natural and plantations) are available for most countries, both at national and sub‑national scales. The data are often estimates, which are not always comparable because of changes in definitions and assessment methodologies. International data are available from FAO Forest Resources Assessments (FRA). National data is available from ministries responsible for forestry and statistics.

5. AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDICATOR

(b) Other Contributing Organizations: The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP); United Nations regional commissions; and national agencies responsible for forestry, remote sensing and geographic survey; and universities and research institutes could all play a useful role in the development of this indicator.

6. REFERENCES

(a) Readings:

FAO. 1999. State of the World's Forests (FAO). / FAO, Rome (Italy). Forestry Dept., 154 pp.

FAO. 1995. Forest resources assessment 1990: global synthesis. FAO Forestry Paper (FAO), no. 124 / FAO, Rome (Italy). Forestry Dept., 100 pp.

FAO. 1993. Forest resources assessment 1990: Tropical countries. FAO Forestry Paper (FAO), no. 112 / FAO, Rome (Italy). Forestry Dept., 110 pp.

FAO. Forest Resources Assessments 1980, 1990 and 2000.

Harcharik, D.A. 1995. Forest Resources Assessment 1990: non-tropical developing countries. / FAO, Rome (Italy). Forestry Dept., 12 pp.

(b) Internet sites:

International data provided by other institutions, for example World Resources Institute, are mostly based on the FAO Forest Resources Assessment information and data. http://www.wri.org/

FAO Statistical Databases. http://apps.fao.org

The FAO Forestry Department Information Note on Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management. http://www.fao.org/forestry/FODA/infonote/infont-e.stm

The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO). http://www.itto.or.jp/

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). http://www.unep.org/

WOOD HARVESTING INTENSITY
Environmental	Land	Forests

1. INDICATOR

(a) Name: Wood Harvesting Intensity.

(b) Brief Definition: The indicator compares the total forest fellings as a percentage of the net annual increment.

(d) Placement in the CSD Indicator Set: Environmental/Land/Forests.

2. POLICY RELEVANCE

(a) Purpose: The indicator aims at assessing whether forests are being used within the limits of their actual productivity. If the ratio is smaller or equal to one, it means that the country is harvesting less, or equal, to the annual forest increment. This represents the sustained yield principle. If the ratio is more than one, a country is over-harvesting its wood, or other specific forest resource.

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development: Forests serve multiple ecological, socio-economic, and cultural roles in many countries. They are among the most diverse and widespread ecosystems of the world. Forests provide many significant resources and functions including wood products and non-wood products: recreational opportunities, habitat for wildlife, water and soil conservation, and a filter for pollutants. They support employment and traditional uses, and biodiversity. There is general concern over human impact on forest health, and the natural processes of forest growth and regeneration. Combating deforestation to maintain the production of wood and non-wood products but also to preserve soils, water, air and biological diversity is explicitly considered in Agenda 21.

This indicator is relevant for assessing the sustainability of forest management when interpreted over a long time period. The harvest rate set by a country is a function of the size of its forests, the proportion of the forest area dedicated to timber production, the productivity of the forest and its age class structure, and the management objectives and sustained yield policies of the country. The indicator relates sustained yield to actual harvest in terms of a relative balance between forest growth and harvest.

(c) International Conventions and Agreements: Many international agreements cover forests. Countries are supported to maintain or increase their forested areas, and discouraged to strongly reduce their forest lands. Specific forest agreements would include the Non-Legally Binding Authoritative Statement of Principles for a Global Consensus on the Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of All Types of Forests (the Forest Principles of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development [UNCED]); and the International Tropical Timber Agreement. Many other international agreements deal with forests within the context of natural resources and environment conservation, for example, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), the Convention on the Conservation of Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention), the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Convention on Climate Change, the Convention to Combat Desertification. In addition, regional/ecoregional agreements on sustainable forest management have been established.

(d) International Targets/Recommended Standards: In general, the target would be set by the sustained yield principle. Several countries have calculated their total annual allowable cut, or total annual increment, and their total annual removals. Most developed countries are harvesting between 70 and 80 percent of the total annual increment of their forests. Targets still need to be established for tropical forests.

(e) Linkages to Other Indicators: This indicator is linked to other natural resource indicators within the environment category, such as protected forest area, and land use and condition change. It is also linked to such socio-economic indicators as share of natural resource industries in manufacturing.

3. METHODOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: Concepts and definitions are generally available for developed countries, and for all countries in the case of plantations. Additional work is required to determine the natural increment concept for tropical forests. The following definitions are available from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Annual Roundwood Production includes all wood obtained from removals from forest and from trees outside the forest. FAO statistics include recorded volumes as well as estimated unrecorded volumes. Forest Growing Stock means the above-ground volume of all living standing trees down to a stated minimum diameter. Total Annual Increment represents the total annual increment of wood due to the growth of the trees during a year.

(b) Measurement Methods: The enumerator is the total annual roundwood production. The denominator is the total annual productive forest increment. An adequate time series is required to show meaningful trends. For tropical natural forests, where no data is available on the forest annual increment, or where the harvested wood comes only from a few species, an adjustment is proposed which relates annual production to the total standing volume of the forest and the average rotation cycle applied in a country for a given reference year. This, for example, would be 120 years for teak forests in Burma.

(c) Limitations of the Indicator: The indicator is related to timber production. It does not relate to the production of non-wood products, nor to the provision of forest and forest ecosystems of environmental and social service which, together with wood production, should be measured and monitored to access sustainability. It has implication for other forest resources, but an indicator considering all values of forest ecosystems would be more appropriate from a sustainable development perspective. For the present indicator, reliable data are only available from a minority of countries, mostly developed, and for plantations. However, research data on the annual increment of tropical natural forests are improving, and it is expected that sufficient data and estimates should become available during the coming years.

Harvesting intensity gives us an indication of the degree of tree cover reduction at a given time, but does not refer to what will happen to the forest after it has been “intensely harvested”. Clearfelled forest, for example, maybe harvested at an intensity of 100 percent, but may also be reforested afterwards. Thus, additional indicators for deforestation are needed, which contain time components (time during which the area will stay without tree cover), and land uses other than forest.

This indicator should be interpreted over the longer term. In given cases, the annual roundwood production might exceed the forest increment for market reasons, age structure of forests, or other reasons for a few years without being an indication for unsustainable management. However, such an unsustainable situation should under no circumstances persist over several decades.

(d) Status of the Methodology: Not available.

(e) Alternative Definitions/Indicators: This indicator compares the amount of yearly, or other time period, harvested wood, or any other forest product, with the annual increment from the forest. If the annual increment is not known, allowable cut can be used as a surrogate.

4. ASSESSMENT OF DATA

(a) Data Needed to Compile the Indicator: Data are needed on growing stock, annual roundwood production, annual increment, and the rotation cycle.

(b) National and International Data Availability and Sources: Data are available for most countries at both national and sub-national levels. However, in many cases, especially for natural forests where rough estimates are only available, data are available for only one time period, with no time series data. The primary international source of data is FAO. At the country level, the data would be available from national ministries responsible for forestry.

5. AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDICATOR

(b) Other Contributing Organizations: The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) could assist with the development of this indicator.

6. REFERENCES

(a) Readings:

FAO. 1999. State of the World's Forests (FAO). / FAO, Rome (Italy). Forestry Dept., 154 pp.

FAO Forestry publications including Forestry Papers.

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Timber Studies, Timber Bureau, Geneva.

(b) Internet sites:

FAO Statistical Databases. http://apps.fao.org

The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO). http://www.itto.or.jp/

1. INDICATOR

(a) Name: Land Affected by Desertification.

(b) Brief Definition: This is a measure of the amount of land affected by desertification and its proportion of national territory.

(d) Placement in the CSD Indicator Set: Environmental/Land/Desertification.

2. POLICY RELEVANCE

(a) Purpose: The indicator describes the extent and severity of desertification at the national level. It should be: (i) a measure of the state of the problem at any one time; (ii) an indication of the trend in the severity of the problem over time and success of response mechanisms; and (iii) a means of comparing the severity of the problem from one country to another.

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development (theme/sub-theme): The indicator should be a mechanism for determining the importance of this issue at the national level. Trend data over time can indicate success of response mechanisms. For dryland areas, desertification is a central problem in sustainable development. While many dryland ecosystems have generally low levels of absolute productivity, maintenance of that productivity is critical to the present and future livelihood of many hundreds of millions of people. Combating desertification is the core of sustainable development for large areas of the world. Severe degradation is a major impedent to sustainable development; moderate or slight degradation is also a significant barrier.

(c) International Conventions and Agreements: The two most significant agreements are: Agenda 21 of the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development; and the UN Convention to Combat Desertification, 1994. In addition, the Desertification Convention texts (INCD-10/ New York) spell out a sound methodology for developing indicators. No definitive set of indicators has been agreed upon within the context of the desertification Convention.

(d) International Targets/Recommended Standards: No specific targets have been defined, however, the goal should be to reduce the area and percentage of land affected by desertification, and/or reduce the severity of desertification.

(e) Linkages to Other Indicators: This state and trends indicator needs to be considered in conjunction with related driving force and response indicators, integrating physical and socio-economic processes, for meaningful interpretation and policy relevance at the national level. It is closely linked with indicators concerning land use, such as deforestation, use of marginal land, protected area as a percent of total land area, and population living below the poverty line.

3. METHODOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: For the purposes of this indicator, desertification is defined as land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities (UN Convention to Combat Desertification, 1994). Land degradation means reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of rainfed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes, including processes arising from human activities and habitation patterns, such as: (i) soil erosion caused by wind and/or water; (ii) deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological or economic properties of soil; and, (iii) long-term loss of natural vegetation. Land degradation, therefore, includes processes which lead to surface salt accumulation and waterlogging associated with salt-affected areas.

Arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas means areas, other than polar and sub-polar regions, in which the ratio of annual precipitation to potential evapotranspiration falls within the range from 0.05 to 0.65 (UN Convention to Combat Desertification, 1994).

(b) Measurement Methods: Measurement for this indicator initially requires an assessment of the extent of land degradation throughout the arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid zones of the nation. This is best done by a combination of previous assessments represented in map form, carried out by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) with the United Nations Office to Combat Desertification and Drought (UNSO), and the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO); and updates from a combination of remote sensing and local knowledge.

The creation of an index that combines degrees of severity will require the following measures:

(i) Area subjected to severe land degradation xKm² (severe here includes both the severe and very severe categories of UNEP.

(ii) Area subjected to moderate land degradation yKm².

(iii) Area subjected to slight land degradation = zKm².

(iv) National area (excluding surface water bodies) nKm².

(v) National area of drylands (vulnerable to desertification, assuming that all drylands are potentially vulnerable to desertification. Hyper-arid lands are excluded), consisting of arid, semi-arid, and dry subhumid land = dKm².

From the above measurements, the following sets of numbers can be derived:

Indicator computations:

a. National area affected by desertification

= x + y + zKm²

b. Percent of national area affected by desertification

= x + y + z X 100
n

c. Percentages of national area affected by severe, moderate and slight desertification respectively can be calculated in the same way.

d. Percent of national drylands affected by desertification

= x + y + z X 100
d

e. National area not affected by desertification

= n - (x + y +z)Km²

f. National dryland area not affected by desertification

= d - (x + y + z)Km²

Trends can be determined by comparing results computed for a sequence of years (for example, every five years).

A useful extension of the indicator would be for countries to report dryland areas (d) as a percentage of all agriculturally productive areas (e=n-hyper arid land) to give an indication of the overall vulnerability of the country to desertification.

While it is based on a combination of analytical and subjective assessment, if these are done systematically on an annual basis, a sound database can be developed. Given the importance of determining the extent and severity of desertification to the index, it may be that a periodic special survey using remote sensing and ground assessment may be important, though this may only be technically feasible for some countries.

An important issue in the basis measurement of degradation is the factors that are measured to assess the degree of local degradation. As Bie (1990) clearly points out, the two factors of productivity and resilience are the most important elements in assessing the existence and the extent of dryland degradation. Accurate measurement of land affected by desertification is a problem about which there is not yet complete consensus and further work needs to be done to agree on a comparable methodology for the various countries affected by desertification (UNEP, Atlas of Desertification; UNEP/ISRIC/ISS/FAO, Global Assessment of the Status of Human-induced Soil Degradation (GLASOD)).

(c) Limitations of the Indicator: There are a number of issues to be resolved before this indicator can be entirely satisfactory. The ecosystems addressed in this definition undergo cyclic episodes of more or less rainfall, as well as long-term degradation in many cases. Separating short-term fluctuations from longer-term trends is important, though scientists often find this difficult to determine, except for longer time periods. Also, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has generally defined desertification (degradation) in categories (severe, moderate, slight), and a national indicator needs to include an assessment of this kind. It has been a practice to include problems of waterlogging and salinization as part of desertification, if they occur within the ecosystems as defined above. In this case, the area affected by these problems should also be included in the desertified area.

Because of these issues, the indicator may well benefit from further refinement and definition. The concepts of land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas are well defined and described in a number of UNSO, UNEP, and other UN publications, as well as in the academic literature. The translation of these concepts into agreed national level indicators has not been so well articulated. (Mabbutt, J.A. 1986; Maimuet 1991).

(d) Status of the Methodology: The methodology for the compilation of the above statistics has not yet been agreed upon by any inter-governmental fora, however negotiations are underway. It has therefore the status of a recommendation for guidelines.

(e) Alternative Definitions/Indicators: Not available.

4. ASSESSMENT OF DATA

(a) Data Needed to Complete the Indicator: The data needed to compile the indicator are the extent and severity of dryland degradation in the country concerned, the dryland area, and national area (excluding surface water bodies). The degree of accuracy and reliability of both spatial and statistical data varies considerably and are often poorly documented and/or out of date. For some countries, the data do not yet exist. Benchmark data on desertification is critical to measuring progress.

(b) National and International Data Availability and Sources: Dryland and national areas can be obtained from national statistical institutions and publications, and can also be found in standard World Resources Institute (WRI), UN and World Bank publications. Some data on extent and degree of land degradation are available at the country level in national institutions or from non-government organizations, in donor countries, and in publications of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)/UNSO, UNEP, FAO and other international institutions.

5. AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDICATOR

(a) Lead Agency: The lead agency is the Office to Combat Desertification and Drought (UNSO) of UNDP. The contact point is the Director, UNSO; fax no. (1 212) 906-6345.

(b) Other Contributing Organizations: Other contributing organizations include: UNEP, FAO, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), International Fund for Agricultural Development (FAD), ISRIC, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (ACNE), and selected national governments.

6. REFERENCES

(a) Readings:

Bie, Stein W. 1990. Dryland Degradation Measurement Techniques, World Bank, Environment Work Paper No. 26, 42 p.

Dregre, H., Kassas M. and Rozanov, B. 1991 A new assessment of the world status of desertification. Desertification Control Bulletin 20. p. 6-18.

Dumanski, J. And Pieri, C. 1994. Comparison of available frameworks for development of land quality indicators. Agr. Tech. Div., World Bank. p. 14.

Mabbutt, J.A. 1986. Desertification Indicators. Climatic Change 9. P. 113-122.

Mainguet, M. 1991 Desertification: Natural Background and Human Mismanagement. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 306 p.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 1998. “Towards Sustainable Development:Environmental Indicators”. OECD. Paris.

O Connor, J. et al. 1995. Monitoring Environmental Progress(Draft). World Bank. 72 p.

UNDP/UNSO and NRI. 1995. Development of Desertification Indicators for Field Level Implementation. 53 p.

UNEP. 1992. World Atlas of Desertification. Edward Arnold. London.

UNEP. 1994. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those countries experiencing drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa. Text with Annexes. 71 p.

UNEP/ISRIC. 1988. Guidelines for General Assessment of the Status of Human-induced Soil Degradation (GLASOD).

UNEP/ISRIC. 1990. World Map of the Status of Human-induced Soil Degradation: An Explanatory Note (GLASOD).

UNEP/ISRIC. 1991. World Map of the Status of Human-induced Soil Degradation. (GLASOD).

UNEP/ISRIC/ISSS/FAO. 1995. Global and National Soils and Terrain Digital Databases (SOTER), Procedures Manual (revised edition). ISBN 90-6672-059-X.

UNEP/Netherlands National Institute of Public Health and Environment (RIVM). 1994. An Overview of Environmental Indicators: State of the art and perspective. UNEP/EATR.94-01:RIVM/402001001. Environmental Assessment Sub-Programme, UNEP, Nairobi. ISBN 92-807-1427-9.

WB/FAO/UNDP/UNEP. In print. Land Quality Indicators. World Bank Discussion Papers.

(b) Internet sites:

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. http://www.unccd.ch

United Nations Development Programme’s Office to Combat Desertification and Drought (UNSO). http://www.undp.org/seed/unso.html

AREA OF URBAN FORMAL AND INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS
Environmental	Land	Urbanization

1. INDICATOR

(a) Name: Area of Urban Formal and Informal Settlements.

(b) Brief Definition: Urban residential area in square kilometres occupied by formal and informal settlements.

(d) Placement in the CSD Indicator Set: Environmental/Land/Urbanization.

2. POLICY RELEVANCE

(a) Purpose: The indicator measures the sizes of both formal and informal settlements. By focusing on the legality of human settlements, this indicator measures the marginality of human living conditions.

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development (theme/sub-theme): Settlements characterized by illegality of tenure and unauthorized shelter are generally marginal and precarious, and do not cater to basic human needs such as affordable housing. They affect sustainable human settlements development, human health, and socioeconomic development.

Illegal dwellers generally live in an unsafe and precarious environment, lack basic services, suffer from the absence of tenure security, and have no legal claim in case of eviction. Also, numerous illegal settlements are established on lands which are predisposed to natural disasters. Informal settlements have usually a much higher population density than formal settlements and these living conditions constitute a threat to human health.

(d) International Targets/Recommended Standards: No international targets have been established for this indicator.

(e) Linkages to Other Indicators: This indicator is closely linked with several other socioeconomic and environmental indicators, such as rate of growth of urban population, human and economic losses due to natural disasters, access to adequate sanitation, primary health care, infant mortality, infrastructure expenditure, and land use.

3. METHODOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: Informal settlements refer to: i) residential areas where a group of housing units has been constructed on land to which the occupant have no legal claim, or which they occupy illegally; ii) unplanned settlements and areas where housing is not in compliance with current planning and building regulations (unauthorized housing). Formal settlements refer to land zoned residential in city master plans or occupied by formal housing.

(b) Measurement Methods: Area of formal and informal settlements can be evaluated through aerial photography or land use maps. Informal settlements should not cover dwelling units which have been regularized, that is those units for which land titles, leases or occupancy permits have been granted. They should only include those units which presently occupy land illegally and/or housing units which are not in compliance with current regulation. Where feasible, the interpretation and meaning of this indicator would be supported by the comparison of formal and informal settlement areas to total urban area.

(c) Limitations of the Indicator: The ephemeral nature and lack of an acceptable operational definition for this indicator, limit its usefulness, especially for trend analysis. The legal framework for settlements on which this indicator is based varies from country to country. Informal housing is not registered in official statistics, any measure of informal settlements remains limited. Information may be obtained from specific research studies, but it difficult to obtain and may be of variable quality. Homelessness, which is one of the extreme symptoms of human settlements inadequacy, is not accounted for by this indicator and in fact the existence of illegal settlements may reduce the incidence of homelessness. This indicator does not cover informal settlements in rural areas.

(d) Alternative Definitions/Indicators: Many concepts intended to measure marginality of human settlements have been formulated: unplanned, squatter, marginal settlements, unconventional, non permanent structures, housing in compliance, inadequate housing, slums, etc. "Unconventional dwellings" is one of the most common measures, defined by the number of housing units occupied by households, but considered inappropriate to human habitation. ‘Improvised housing units’ is another category used by the Census, defined as independent, makeshift shelters constructed of waste materials and without a predetermined plan for the purpose of habitation by one household. Included in this category are squatters’ huts, favelas, hongos, jhuggis, etc. The type of building (permanent, semi‑permanent, non permanent), which describes the building structures in which households live, is another common measure but the criteria widely vary from country to country.

4. ASSESSMENT OF DATA

(a) Data Needed to Compile the Indicator: Area of formal and informal settlements.

(b) National and International Data Availability and Sources: These data are more likely to be available at the city level and are generally collected in large cities affected by informal settlements. Data sets at the national level will only occur sporadically.

5. AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDICATOR

(a) Lead Agency: The lead agency is the United Nation Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat). The contact point is the Head, Urban Secretariat, UNCHS (Habitat); fax no. (254 2) 623080.

6. REFERENCES

(a) Readings:

World Bank. Housing: Enabling Markets to Work. A World Bank Policy Paper. The World Bank, Washington D.C., 1993.

UNCHS (Habitat) and The World Bank. The Housing Indicators Programme. Report of the Executive Director (Volume I). UNCHS, Nairobi, 1993.

UNCHS (Habitat). Monitoring the Shelter Sector. Housing Indicators Review. UNCHS, Nairobi, 1995.

(b) Internet site:

UNCHS (Habitat) home page: http://www.urbanobservatory.org/indicators/database

LAND AFFECTED BY DESERTIFICATION
Environmental	Land	Desertification