1.                  INDICATOR

(a)                Name:  Energy Use per unit of GDP. 

(b)               Brief Definition:  Ratio of total energy use to GDP. 

(c)                Unit of Measurement:  Megajoules (mJ) per $. 

(d)               Placement in the CSD Indicator Set:  Economic/Consumption and Production Patterns/ Energy Use. 

2.         POLICY RELEVANCE  

(a)        Purpose:  Trends in overall energy use relative to GDP indicate the general relationship of energy consumption to economic development and provide a rough basis for projecting energy consumption and its environmental impacts with economic growth.  For energy policy-making, however, sectoral or sub-sectoral energy intensities should be used. 

(b)        Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development (theme/sub-theme):  Energy is essential for economic and social development, but consumption of fossil fuels is the major cause of air pollution and climate change.  Improving energy efficiency and delinking economic development from energy consumption, particularly of fossil fuels, is essential to sustainable development. 

(c)        International Conventions and Agreements:  UNFCCC and its Kyoto Protocol call for limitations on total greenhouse gas emissions, which are dominated by CO₂ from fossil fuels. 

(d)        International Targets/Recommended Standards:  No specific target for energy intensity.  The Kyoto Protocol sets targets for total greenhouse gas emissions for annex I (developed) countries.  

(e)        Linkages to Other Indicators:  The ratio of energy use to GDP is an aggregate of sectoral energy intensity indicators and is thus linked to the energy intensities for the manufacturing, transportation, commercial/services and residential sectors, for which separate methodology sheets have been prepared.  This indicator is also linked to indicators for total energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution emissions.  

3.                  Methodological Description

(a)              Underlying Definitions and Concepts:  The ratio of energy use to GDP is also called “energy intensity”.  The term “energy intensity” is better used for sectoral or sub-sectoral ratios of energy use to output.  The indicator could be called “aggregate energy intensity” or “economy-wide energy intensity”. 

 The ratio of energy use to GDP indicates the total energy being used to support economic and social activity.  It represents an aggregate of energy consumption resulting from a wide range of production and consumption activities.  In specific economic sectors and sub-sectors, the ratio of energy use to output or activity is the “energy intensity” (if the output is measured in economic units) or the “specific energy requirement” (if the output is measured in physical units such as tonnes or passenger-kilometers).  

Due to the limitations described in section 3 (c) below, total energy use should be disaggregated into components, by sector (manufacturing, transportation, residential, commercial/services, industry, agriculture, construction, etc.) or sub-sector.  For each sector or sub-sector, energy use can be related to a convenient measure of output to provide a sectoral or sub-sectoral energy intensity.  Examples include energy use for steel-making relative to tonnes of steel produced; energy consumption by passenger vehicles relative to passenger- or vehicle-kilometers; energy consumption in buildings relative to their floor area.  (See separate methodology sheets for manufacturing, transportation, commercial/services, and residential sectors). 

The energy intensity of a process (energy consumed per unit of output) is the inverse of the “energy efficiency” of the process (output per unit energy consumed).  

(b)               Measurement Methods: 

·        Energy Use:  Total and sectoral energy consumption is obtained from national energy balances. Household and services/commercial consumption should be carefully separated, and manufacturing (ISIC D, formerly 3) should be separated from other industrial uses (ISIC C and F, formerly 2 and 5) and agriculture (ISIC A and B, formerly 1).  

Unit:    Energy is measured in terajoules (TJ, 10¹²J), petajoules (PJ, 10¹⁵J), or exajoules (EJ, 10¹⁸J).  

·        Output:  Components of GDP should be deflated to constant dollars by chaining each component, not simply by deflating each component by the overall GDP deflator.  

Unit:    GDP is measured in US dollars, converted from real local currency at purchasing power parity for the base year to which local currency was deflated.  

(c)                Limitations of the Indicator:  The ratio of aggregate energy use to GDP, often called “energy intensity” or the “energy ratio”, is not an ideal indicator of energy efficiency, sustainability of energy use, or technological development, as it has been commonly used.  The aggregate ratio depends as much on the structure of the economy as on the energy intensities of sectors or activities, and changes in the ratio over time are influenced almost as much by changes in the structure of the economy as by changes in sectoral energy intensities. 

Measurement and interpretation of energy intensities are complicated by differences among products within a category, such as size (e.g., automobile weight or refrigerator capacity), features (power steering and automatic transmission in cars, freezer compartments in refrigerators), and utilization  (hours per year a stove is used, vehicle occupancy if passenger-km is the measure of output). 

Comparison among countries of the ratio of energy use to GDP is complicated by geographical factors.  Large countries, for example, tend to have high levels of freight transportation as many goods are distributed nationwide.  Compared with countries with moderate climates, cold countries may consume as much as 20 per cent more energy per capita due to demand for space heating, while hot countries may use 5 per cent more energy per capita, due to demand for air conditioning.  Countries with large raw materials industries may use twice as much energy per unit of manufacturing output compared to countries that import processed materials, due to the high energy intensity of raw material processing.  Canada, for example, has a high ratio of energy use to GDP, due in part to that fact that it is a large, cold country with a large raw materials processing sector.  In Japan, the climate is milder, raw materials are limited, and high population density results in smaller residential units and less distance travelled, contributing to a lower ratio of energy use to GDP. 

Interpreting the ratio of energy use to GDP in terms of environmental impact or sustainability is also complicated by differences in environmental impact among energy sources.  Canada, for example, has substantial hydropower, nuclear power and natural gas, all of which have lower environmental impacts than coal or oil. 

Given the large number of factors that affect energy consumption, the ratio of total energy consumption to GDP should not be used as an indicator of energy efficiency or sustainability for policy-making purposes. 

(d)               Status of the Methodology:  The ratio of energy use to GDP, as well as sectoral and sub-sectoral energy intensities, are in widespread use, but without a standardized methodology.  

(e)                Alternative Definitions/Indicators:  The ratio of sectoral or sub-sectoral energy use to the output or activity of the sector or sub-sector provides a more useful indicator of energy intensity. Four separate methodology sheets have been prepared for manufacturing, transportation, commercial/services, and residential sectors.  

4.         ASSESSMENT OF DATA

(a)                Data needed to compile the indicator: 

(i)        Sectoral energy consumption;

(ii)     Real GDP in US dollars. 

(b)        National and international data availability and sources:  The International Energy Agency maintains the most thorough set of energy balances and energy accounts, based primarily on national data or data collected from reliable regional agencies.  For OECD countries, the OECD maintains the most reliable set of national accounts with a breakdown of GDP by sector and sub-sector.  IEA energy data now cover virtually all developing countries. 

GDP and value-added by industry are published in the United Nations National Accounts Statistics.  The IMF “International Financial Statistics” provides nominal and real GDP for most countries.  Data on components of GDP are often available from regional development banks or national sources. 

(c)        Data References:  

IEA:     Energy Balances of Member Countries  

             Energy Balances of Non-Member Countries

Eurostat:   Energy balances

Latin American Energy Organization/ OrganizacRon Latinoamericana de EnergRa (OLADE)

                  Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre (APERC)  

UN:      National Accounts Statistics 

IMF:    International Financial Statistics 

5.         AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDICATOR

(a)        Lead Agency:  The lead agency is the International Energy Agency (IEA). 

(b)        Other Contributing Organizations:  Virtually every national and international energy agency uses the ratio of total energy use to GDP, often inappropriately.  Key agencies involved in more detailed development of sectoral and sub-sectoral indicators, including energy intensity and energy efficiency indicators, are Eurostat and the Directorate-General for Energy and Transport of the European Commission.  The IEA has a parallel effort with a particular focus on non-EU countries.  Work is also being done by APERC, with a focus on the Asia-Pacific Region, and OLADE for Latin America. 

6.                  REFERENCES  

Internet site:  International Energy Agency:  http://www.iea.org/

 

 

1.         INDICATOR 

(a)        Name:  Intensity of Energy Use in Manufacturing.  

(b)        Brief Definition:  Energy consumption per unit of manufacturing output.  

(c)                  Unit of Measurement:  Megajoules (mJ) per unit output of the manufacturing sector in constant US dollars.  

(d)                 Placement in the CSD Indicator Set:  Economic/Consumption and Production Patterns/Energy Use.

2.         POLICY RELEVANCE

(a)               Purpose:  The manufacturing sector is a major consumer of energy.  This indicator is a measure of the efficiency of energy use in the sector that can be used for analysing trends and making international comparisons in energy efficiency, particularly when the indicator can be disaggregated to specific branches of manufacturing.

(b)              Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development (theme/sub-theme): Sustainable development requires increases in energy efficiency in order to reduce fossil fuel consumption, greenhouse gas emissions and related air pollution emissions.  

(c)               International Conventions and Agreements:  UNFCCC and its Kyoto Protocol.  

(d)               International Targets/Recommended Standards: Although there are no specific international targets regarding energy use or energy efficiency, many industrialized countries have targets for reducing energy use and carbon emissions from manufacturing branches.  

(e)               Linkages to Other Indicators:  This indicator is one of a set for energy intensity in different sectors (manufacturing, transportation, commercial/services and residential), with the indicator for energy use per unit of GDP as an aggregate energy intensity indicator.  These indicators are also linked to indicators for total energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, and air pollution emissions.  

3.                 Methodological Description 

(a)             Underlying Definitions and Concepts:  Energy consumption per unit of value added is one way of measuring energy requirements and energy efficiency in manufacturing.  While energy consumption per unit of physical output is a better indicator of energy efficiency in specific manufacturing processes, energy use per unit of economic output is more useful both for relating energy efficiency to economic activity and for aggregating and comparing energy efficiency across manufacturing sectors or across the entire economy.  

(b)            Measurement Methods:  

·     Energy Use:  Energy use is usually measured at the point of consumption, i.e., the factory or establishment. “Own energy” (including internal use of hydropower, biofuels, or internal waste heat) should be combined with purchased energy at useful heating values. For combined production of heat and electricity, no simple method exists for dividing the total energy consumed between these two outputs.  Where excess heat or electricity is sold or provided to outside establishments or a grid, the energy required for this out-going supply should not be allocated to the product of the establishment or branch and the income or apparent value added from these sales should be excluded from output value.  

In some cases, it may be preferable to measure total primary energy consumption, including losses incurred in the external production and distribution of the purchased electricity and heat, since these losses would occur if the establishment or branch used the primary energy directly. Primary energy consumption is a better measure of the total energy burden on the economy of a unit of output from an industry.  Generally, the energy loss from converting primary energy to electricity is estimated by the average ratio for electricity production in the economy. 

Complications in interpreting energy intensity data arise from the fact that some branches of manufacturing may be concentrated in regions of a country rich in certain kinds of power or heat sources, such that those branches constitute a lower energy burden on the economy than the indicator would suggest.  Interpretation is also complicated when a particular branch has significant internal energy resources, such as captive hydro, biofuels or coal.  There are various conventions for calculating the primary energy corresponding to electricity produced by nuclear, hydro or geothermal sources. 

It is also possible to measure total energy consumption, internal and external, for any final product by using input-output tables to measure the energy embodied in materials and intermediate products. This is much more data intensive, because the input-output tables are complex. Such tables are not produced regularly, so this approach is difficult to follow, except at long intervals. 

Unit:  Preferable units for measuring energy are multiples of joules, usually terajoules (10¹²J), petajoules (10¹⁵J), or exajoules (10¹⁸J).  

·        Output.  There are different approaches for measuring output in manufacturing. For some purposes, physical output would be preferable, but this is not possible using the energy consumption statistics available in many countries, and there are many sectors for which aggregate physical output cannot be easily defined.

There are two basic alternatives for measuring economic output.  In either case, we use real local currency, deflated by the deflator for the sector or branch to a base year.  This step is crucial, so that the weight of each sector or branch reflects the correct weight in the base year.  The value of output is then converted to a common international currency, usually US dollars, preferably using purchasing power parities (PPP). One alternative is to calculate the total value of production or shipments.  This measures literally the total output from an industry, and is defined for most countries.  The other alternative is to calculate the value-added or contribution to GDP, representing only the increase in economic output produced by the sector or branch in question.  

The total value of output tends to be more stable over time, but has the disadvantage that it cannot be aggregated to total output, because of double counting: inputs to one branch may be the outputs of another branch.  Value added can be aggregated, but may have greater fluctuations from year to year if input costs or output prices change, which is common for many basic raw materials, particularly crude oil.  Unfortunately, there is no simple correspondence between the two measures of output.  

Unit:  Constant US dollars.  Market value of output in real local currency deflated to a base year using GDP deflators for each sector or branch.  Local currency is converted to US dollars, using purchasing power parity for the base year.  

(c)               Limitations of the Indicator:  The aggregate indicator for the manufacturing sector reflects both the energy intensity of various branches of manufacturing and the composition of the manufacturing sector.  Changes in the aggregate indicator can therefore be due either to changes in energy intensity or to changes in relative branch output.  Similarly, differences between countries may be due either to differences in energy efficiency or differences in the structure of the manufacturing sector.  A country with large energy-intensive industries, such as pulping, primary metals or fertilizers, for example, will have a high energy intensity, even if the industry is energy efficient.  For this reason, it is desirable to disaggregate energy intensity by branch of manufacturing.  

Detailed calculations such as total energy consumption for particular products, using input-output tables, while desirable, are very data intensive and difficult to update regularly.  

(d)        Status of the Methodology:  The methodology is in use in many developed countries.  

(e)        Alternative Definitions/Indicators: In the context of climate change, it has become increasingly desirable to convert energy consumption to carbon emissions per unit of production.  The fuels consumed can be converted to carbon emissions using IPCC coefficients. Carbon emissions will therefore change both with changes in energy efficiency and changes in fuel type. 

4.         ASSESSMENT OF DATA 

(a)                Data needed to Compile the Indicator:  

(i)      Energy consumption by manufacturing sector and branches;

(ii)     Real output of the sector and branches.  

(b)        National and International Data Availability and Sources:  Value added in manufacturing at the three and four digit ISIC level for most OECD countries is now compiled by OECD as part of its STAN data base.  The United Nations compiles value added at the two or three digit level for developed and developing countries.  The European Union produces data on value added at the two and three-digit level in the NACE system, and suitable bridges exist to translate NACE into ISIC.  

One persistent data problem at the aggregate level is distinguishing between “industry” (ISIC C, D, F and even E) and manufacturing (ISIC D).  Some countries also lump agriculture, forestry and fishing (ISIC A, B) in the aggregate “industry” classification.  For these reasons, it is strongly recommended that data be checked to ascertain exactly what sectors are covered.  Manufacturing is the preferable aggregate, since inclusion of the other sectors mentioned can distort time series analysis and comparisons among countries.  

(c)        Data References:  

IEA:     Energy Balances of Member Countries

            Energy Balances of non-Member Countries 

Eurostat:  Energy Balances 

The   Latin American Energy Organization /OrganizacRon Latinoamericana de EnergRa (OLADE)  

Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre (APERC)           

UN:  Industrial Statistics, National Accounts           

OECD:  STAN database (structural analysis database)           

EU:  NACE system 

5.         AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDICATOR 

(a)        Lead Agency:  The lead agency is the International Energy Agency  (IEA).  

(b)        Other Contributing Organizations:  OECD and IEA have collected detailed value added and energy consumption data at the four-digit level in the ISIC database.  Less detailed two-digit data are also available.  IEA now collects two-digit energy consumption data for manufacturing for about half of the developing countries as well.  

6.         REFERENCES 

(a)               Readings:  

Energy Policy, June/July 1997 issue, Elsevier Science Limited, various articles in this issue discuss the physical and monetary measures of output and various problems associated with indicators of manufacturing energy use and intensity.  

Phylipsen, G.J.M, Blok, K., and Worrell, E., 1997. Handbook on International Comparison of Energy Efficiency in the Manufacturing Industry.  Utrecht: Dept. of Science, Technology, and Society.            

IEA, 1997.  Indicators of Energy Use and Energy Efficiency.  Paris: OECD.  

(b)               Internet site:  International Energy Agency:  http://www.iea.org  

 

 

1.         INDICATOR

 

(a)                Name:  Intensity of Energy Use in the Residential Sector.  

(b)        Brief Definition:  Amount of energy used per person or household in the residential sector.  

(c)                Unit of Measurement:  Gigajoules (GJ) per capita or GJ per household.  

(d)                Placement in the CSD Indicator Set:  Economic/Consumption and Production Patterns/ Energy Use.  

2.         POLICY RELEVANCE 

(a)                Purpose:  The indicator is used to monitor energy consumption in the residential sector.  

(b)               Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development (theme/sub-theme):  The residential sector is a major consumer of energy with a distinctive pattern of usage. Reducing energy consumption contributes to reducing air pollution and climate change.  Many policies addressing energy efficiency and savings have been formulated for this sector.  In colder countries, for example, the space heating component has been the focus of many energy-saving policies, while in almost all countries, the electric-appliance and lighting component is still the focus of many policies.  

(c)                 International Conventions and Agreements:  None specifically for this sector.  

(d)                 International Targets/Recommended Standards:  None as such.  However, thermal standards for new homes are in effect in almost all OECD and Eastern European countries, China and some other countries in colder climates.  Efficiency standards for boilers are also important in many countries.  Efficiency standards on new electrical appliances are important in the United States and indirectly in Canada, and voluntary programmes have been important in Japan and Europe.  

(e)                 Linkages to Other Indicators:  This indicator is one of a set for energy intensity in different sectors (manufacturing, transportation, commercial/services and residential), with the indicator for energy use per unit of GDP as an aggregate energy intensity indicator.  These indicators are also linked to indicators for total energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, and air pollution emissions.  

3.                   Methodological Description

(a)            Underlying Definitions and Concepts:  Household or residential energy use encompasses energy used in residential buildings, including urban and rural free-standing houses, apartment dwellings, and most collective dwellings such as dormitories and barracks.  These energy uses typically include cooking, water heating, space heating and cooling, lighting, major appliances for refrigeration, washing and drying, TV and communications, computers, conveniences like food machines, vacuum cleaners, etc., as well as a myriad of small appliances.  Household or residential energy use should exclude energy for farm processes, small businesses or small industry.  The household sector must be separated from the commercial/services sector, although data for many IEA countries did not separate these two sectors in the past.   The energy sources should include not only purchased energy, but also gathered energy such as fuelwood or other biomass and miners’ coal.  

(b)        Measurement Methods: 

·        Energy Use:  Purchased energy for residences/households is usually recorded in the energy statistics of a country with data provided by electric, gas, or heat utilities according to customer definitions that correspond to “households”.  Data on purchases of LPG, other oil products, coal or similar fuels and wood are not always recorded correctly since suppliers may not know where or how these fuels are being used.  

Alternatively, household/residential energy use can be measured through household surveys. The most direct surveys collect detailed information on both fuels consumed and energy-consuming equipment owned or used.  The most accurate surveys also obtain permission from households to ask energy suppliers for quantities consumed, or they leave fuel-use diaries for households to record what they consume. They measure usage in a variety of appliances and in heating equipment using miniature data loggers. Less detailed surveys estimate the use of each fuel for each major purpose through regression analysis over a large number of households. 

      Unit:    Energy is measured in megajoules (mJ) or gigajoules (gJ) (net calorific value).  In most cases, electricity and purchased heat are counted at final or delivered value.  In some cases, primary energy is recorded. (See methodology for manufacturing sector).  

·        Residential unit:  Energy consumption is calculated on a per capita or per household basis.  In general, energy consumption depends both on the physical size and characteristics of the dwelling and on the number of people.  As the number of people in a household declines, energy consumption per household declines, while the energy consumption per capita increases.  As a rule of thumb, energy use for water heating, cooking and many appliances tends to vary with the square-root of household size.  

For developing countries with large rural sectors or large numbers of homes without access to electricity, the share of homes in the urban sector and the share in each sector connected to grid electricity is an important factor in total residential energy consumption. The shares of homes using different kinds of biomass fuels are also important. 

(c)        Limitations of the Indicator:  When energy consumption by end-use is not known, energy use per household is a valuable indicator of energy intensity, but it does not measure energy efficiency.  Some important conclusions can be drawn, however, if the average winter temperature, ownership of energy-consuming appliances, and dwelling size are known.  In a country with cold winters and high penetration of central heating systems, a low total consumption of energy for all purposes, relative to total floor area and the severity of winter climate, probably implies efficient heating practices.  Conversely, high energy use relative to floor area in a country with mild winters may imply inefficiencies.  However, since energy consumption habits vary so much, both among countries and among end-uses, few conclusions about “efficiency” can be drawn from the indicator on “residential energy use per household”.  (See alternative definitions/indicators below).  

(d)        Status of the Methodology:  The indicator, with some variations in the methodology, is used in many OECD countries.  It is not widely used in developing countries.  

(e)        Alternative Definitions/Indicators:

·        Measurement of Efficiency:  A true energy efficiency can be expressed as energy use per unit of energy service.  Examples of true energy efficiency would be litres of refrigerated volume at a given temperature divided by electricity use, lumens of light per watt of power consumed, or computer tera-flops per second divided by power consumption.  In practice, these are not measured for large populations.  Specific energy requirements for particular services, taking into account equipment efficiency and the time the service is used, are easier to estimate since these can be summed for a given household and compared with actual consumption.  

·        Output (services provided):  Ideally, output units would be in energy services delivered, such as lumens of lighting, meals cooked, area and time heated, litres of hot water provided, litres refrigerated, kilogrammes of clothes washed, etc.  In practice, such data are rarely available, even for individually metered homes.  A suitable proxy for each service may be either the area heated (or lit), the number of people in the household receiving meals or hot water, and the average number of appliances, by type, per household or per capita.  

·        Energy requirements:  If both energy use and equipment ownership for each major service is known, then specific energy requirements can be developed as follows:  

            -     Space heating: energy use per sq. meter heated or per sq. meter per degree day;

            -     Energy use per capita for water heating and cooking; and

-     Energy use per year for each major appliance: refrigerator, freezer, clothes washer, dryer, dishwasher, TV, etc.  

These specific energy requirements are related to, but not identical to, energy efficiencies.  They differ in that they do not measure accurately the service provided, since, for example, a large refrigerator gives more service than a smaller one. 

4.                  ASSESSMENT OF DATA 

(a)        Data Needed to Compile the Indicator:   

(i)      Energy use in the residential sector (as indicated in section 3(b) above);

(ii)    Number of households and/or population.  

(b)       National and International Data Availability and Sources:  Until the early 1980s, the residential or household sector was not well distinguished from the commercial/service sector in a majority of OECD member country energy statistics, particularly for liquid and solid fuels.  In OECD countries, this distinction is now common.  In developing countries, data often distinguish residential and commercial consumption of electricity and natural gas, but users of liquid and solid fuels are often not accurately identified.  Many national energy balances thus fail to distinguish between the residential and commercial/service sectors.  Such problems are indicated when data show electricity and natural gas consumption for both the residential and commercial/service sectors, while liquid and solid fuel consumption is shown for only one of the two sectors. 

The other major challenge is to estimate the use of biomass fuels of all kinds in developing countries.  This is important in almost all developing countries, even in urban areas.  

Because of these two problems, aggregate national or international statistics must be used with caution. 

Data on equipment are usually developed by electric and gas utilities, as well as by trade associations representing electric and gas appliance manufacturers.  These have generally not been compiled in an internationally compatible form.  No single agency collects all the data, except in a few IEA countries (United States, France, Netherlands) where detailed household surveys are undertaken.  The World Bank has sponsored many one-time household surveys in developing countries, focusing either on rural or urban areas.  As noted above, national or private energy companies often undertake marketing surveys.  Oil industry sources in most IEA countries often compile data on oil-equipment sales and ownership. 

(c)        Data References:

IEA:     Energy Balances of Member countries.

            Energy Statistics of non-Member countries.

5.         AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDICATOR 

(a)        Lead Agency:  The lead agency is the International Energy Agency (IEA).  

(b)       Other Contributing Organizations:  None. 

6.         REFERENCES 

(a)        Readings:  

Schipper, L., Ketoff, A., and Kahane, A. “Estimating Residential Energy Use from Bottom-Up, International Comparisons. Ann. Rev. Energy 10. Palo Alto CA: Ann. Revs., Inc. 1985.  

(b)        Internet sites:  

International Energy Agency:  http://www.iea.org  

World Bank:  http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/    

 

1.         INDICATOR

(a)               Name:  Intensity of Energy Use in Transportation.  

(b)              Brief Definition:  Energy consumption for transportation relative to the amount of freight or passengers carried and the distance traveled.  

(c)               Unit of Measurement:  Magajoules per tonne-kilometer (mJ/tonne-km) for freight, and Megajoules per passenger-kilometer (mJ/passenger-km) for passengers.  

(d)               Placement in the CSD Indicator Set:  Economic/Consumption and Production Patterns/ Energy Use.    

2.         POLICY RELEVANCE

(a)                Purpose:  Transportation is a major consumer of energy, mostly in the form of fossil fuels, and the share of transportation in energy consumption is generally increasing. The indicator is a measure of how efficiently energy is used for moving goods and people. The indicator can be used to monitor trends in energy consumption for transportation and for international comparisons. Separation of freight and passenger travel is essential.

(b)                Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development (theme-sub-theme):  Transportation serves economic and social development through distribution of goods and services and through personal mobility.  However, energy consumption for transportation also leads to air pollution and climate change.  Reducing energy intensity (increasing energy efficiency) in transportation can reduce the environmental impacts of transportation while maintaining the economic and social benefits.  

(c)                International Conventions and Agreements:  UNFCCC and its Kyoto Protocol.  The European Union voluntary agreement on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from automobiles (to which Japanese and Korean producers have also agreed) require reductions in GHG emissions per kilometer from new automobiles.

(d)               International Targets/Recommended Standards:  Many industrialized countries have targets for reducing energy use and carbon emissions from transportation, for which these energy intensities are key indicators.  

(e)                Linkages to Other Indicators:  This indicator is one of a set for energy intensity in different sectors (manufacturing, transportation, commercial/services and residential), with the indicator for energy use per unit of GDP as an aggregate energy intensity indicator.  These indicators are also linked to indicators for total energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, and air pollution emissions.  This indicator is also linked to the indicator for distance traveled per capita by means of transport.  

3.                   Methodological Description 

(a)            Underlying Definitions and Concepts:  Energy consumption per unit of transportation activity is a key measure of how efficiently transportation systems convert energy into human mobility and goods distribution. Because it is not meaningful to add freight and passenger travel, these types of transportation must be disaggregated. Separating the two activity measures is generally not difficult, but separating the energy consumption is often complicated.  

(b)           Measurement Methods:  

§         Energy Use:  Energy consumption should be measured for each kind of vehicle, including two-wheelers, automobiles, busses, small trucks, heavy trucks, and miscellaneous road vehicles, as well as trains, ships and aircraft for domestic transport, and even pipelines.  In general, however, national energy balances are only disaggregated by fuel and broad traffic type: road, rail, water, and air.  Considerable work is required to disaggregate road fuels consumed by vehicle type.  It is important to take into account the different energy content and carbon emissions in different fuels and not simply add the weights or volumes of different fuels consumed (e.g., tonnes, or cubic metres in the case of natural gas).  Some of the difficulties in disaggregating road fuels consumed by vehicle type are explained in Schipper et al. (1993). International air or marine transportation should not be included. Electric power consumption for rail, subway and trams, as well as electric road vehicles, should be converted to primary energy consumption, although there is no standard method for such conversion.

Unit:  Preferable energy units are multiples of joules, usually terajoules (10¹²J), petajoules (10¹⁵J), or exajoules(10¹⁸J), converted from weights or volumes of fuels at net heating values.  

·        Output or Activity:  There are two different measures of activity. Vehicular activity, in vehicle-km, provides a measure of traffic that is important for transport policy and road and infrastructure planning.  Most often, these data can be divided further into basic vehicle types. However, economic and human activity is better measured in passenger-km and tonne-km, taking into account utilisation or load factors.  A bus carrying 20 passengers for 10 km (200 passenger-km) is less energy intensive (more energy efficient) than the same bus carrying 5 passengers for the same distance (50 passenger-km). Similarly, a fully-loaded truck is less energy intensive than the same truck carrying a partial load.  

·        Indicators:  

(i)     Vehicle Intensities:  Energy consumption per vehicle-km by vehicle and fuel type is an important indicator, as many standards for air pollution (and more recently, goals for CO₂ emissions reduction) are expressed in terms of vehicle characteristics, i.e., emissions per vehicle-km.  

(ii)    Modal Intensities:  Energy use per passenger-km or tonne-km should be disaggregated by vehicle type, i.e., two-wheeler, car/van, bus, air, local and long-distance rail, subway, tram, ship or ferry for passengers; and truck, rail, ship, air for freight.  

Note:  Aggregate energy intensity for travel or freight is a meaningful summary indicator, the value of which depends on both the mix of vehicles and the energy intensities of particular types of vehicles.  The energy intensities of train and bus transportation per passenger-km are commonly 60 to 80 per cent less than the energy intensities for cars or air transportation.  For freight, rail and ship transportation are commonly 65 to 90 per cent less than the energy intensive for trucking per tonne-km. These differences between modes are of the same order of magnitude as the differences between the lowest and highest energy intensities of transportation within each mode. It should also be noted that fuel consumption per vehicle-km also depends on traffic conditions as well as vehicle characteristics.  

The energy intensity for a vehicle type depends on both capacity and capacity utilisation.  A large vehicle that is fully loaded generally has a lower energy intensity per tonne-km than a fully-loaded smaller vehicle, but a small vehicle fully loaded will have a lower energy intensity than a large vehicle with the same load.  Typical load factors for private cars are 1.5 people per car.  Typical load factors for rail and bus vary from well below 10 per cent (e.g., United States city busses on average) to over 100 per cent of nominal capacity at peak times, and in many developing countries during most of the day.  Typical load factors for trucking might be 60 to 80 per cent of weight capacity when loaded, but trucks commonly run 20 to 45 per cent of their kilometers empty, yielding a relatively low overall load factor.  Under-utilized transport capacity means more pollution and road damage (and other impacts) per unit of transport service delivered, hence capacity utilisation itself is an important indicator of sustainable transportation.  

(c)            Limitations of the Indicator:  Data availability may limit the disaggregation of the indicator to the desired level.  Considerable work is often required to disaggregate energy balances into various modes of transportation.  

Some countries’ transportation energy statistics include fuel consumed by domestic airlines or shipping lines in international transportation. Efforts should be made to exclude such transportation and energy consumption from the indicators.   

(d)               Status of the Methodology:  The methodology is in use in many developed countries.  

(e)        Alternative Definitions/Indicators:  An alternative, simpler, broad measure of energy intensity for transportation could be average fuel consumption per vehicle for all vehicles, but the results would be strongly influenced by the mix of vehicles, which varies enormously among countries and over time.  In particular, it would be influenced by the number of two- and three-wheelers.  

4.         ASSESSMENT OF THE DATA

(a)               Data Needed to Compile the Indicator:  

(i)     Energy consumption by mode of transportation, vehicle type and fuel;

(ii)   Distance traveled by vehicles, passengers and freight, including load factors.  

(b)             National and International Data Availability and Sources:  

Energy use by fuel type in each branch of road transport, rail, ship, and air transport is published by most transport ministries in OECD countries. National energy balances (as well as present IEA/OECD Energy Statistics) do not disaggregate road transport by mode.  Few sources of energy data separate fuel consumption for rail or shipping into that for passengers and that for freight, but national or private rail and shipping organizations often do this.  Energy consumption for local electric transport (commuter rail, subways, trams) is often published separately by national authorities.  

Eurostat is a lead agency for collecting data on vehicle, passenger, and tonne-kilometers in Europe.  Ministries of Transport in the United States, Canada, Japan, Australia and other countries, often through their statistical agencies, publish similar data.  In developing countries, fewer data are available.  

(c)                Data References:  

Eurostat:  Transport Annual Statistics  

5.        AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDICATOR

(a)             Lead Agency:  The lead agency is the International Energy Agency (IEA).  

(b)            Other Contributing Organizations:  None.  

6.         REFERENCES 

(a)               Readings:  

Schipper, L. and Marie-Lilliu, C., 1999.  Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Transport in IEA countries: Recent lessons and long-term Challenges. KFB Meddelande 1999:11.  Stockholm.  

Schipper, L., Figueroa. M.J., Price, L., and Espey. M., 1993. “Mind the Gap: The Viscious Circle of measuring automobile fuel use”.  Energy Policy (October).  

Samaras. Z., et al. 1999. Study on Transport Related Parameters of the European Road Vehicle Stock.  Prepared for Eurostat and DG-7.  Thessalonikai: Laboratory of Applied Thermodynamics, Aristotle University.

Schipper, L., and Tax, W., 1994. “Mind the Gap”. Transport Policy.  

(b)             Internet site:  IEA:  http://www.iea.org/  

   

 

1.         INDICATOR  

(a)        Name:  Generation of Industrial and Municipal Solid Waste.  

(b)        Brief Definition:  The generation of industrial and municipal solid waste is derived from the production of waste on a weight basis at the point of production.  

(c)        Unit of Measurement:  Tonnes per capita per annum.  

(d)        Placement in the CSD Indicator Set:  Economic/Consumption and Production Patterns/Waste Generation and Management.  

2.         POLICY RELEVANCE  

(a)        Purpose:  The main purpose is to represent the production of solid waste produced by all types of human settlements activity.  

(b)        Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development (theme/sub-theme): Generation of waste as an indicator is intimately linked to the level of economic activity in a particular country.  It is also an indication of the patterns of consumption of raw materials. Wealthier economies tend to produce more waste.  In many developed countries, a reduction in the volume of waste generated is an indication of changes in consumption patterns with respect to raw materials and increase in recycling and reuse.  

(c)        International Conventions and Agreements:  No international agreements exist for reduction in solid waste production.  

(d)        International Targets/Recommended Standards:  Some countries have set national targets for the reduction of solid waste within a specified time frame.  

(e)        Linkages to Other Indicators:  This indicator is intimately linked to other socio-economic and environmental indicators especially those related to income‑level and economic growth.  Those would include: rate of growth of urban population, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita, waste disposal, and waste recycling.  

3.         METHODOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION 

(a)        Underlying Definitions and Concepts:  The precise definition of what constitutes solid waste is variable, but principally it can be considered as that material which has no further useful purpose and is discarded. It is, therefore, perceived to have no commercial value to the producer.  This does not, however, preclude it being of value to some other party.  Solid waste is generally produced in three ways: through the production and consumption of goods and services; through the processing of wastes from these services; and through end‑of-pipe control or treatment of emissions.  Waste is generally reported based on source under the following categories: mining and construction wastes; energy production wastes; agricultural wastes; municipal wastes; and industrial waste or sludge.  

Industrial wastes can be expressed in terms of tonnes per annum or in some cases related to the production volume of the product being processed or manufactured.  Municipal wastes are produced by a variety of establishments in the urban environment in addition to households, including institutions such as schools, government buildings, commercial establishments such as hospitals and hotels, and some scattered sources of hazardous wastes.  

(b)        Measurement Methods:  Solid waste production at source is difficult to measure for municipal wastes, except by using intensive studies at the household level.  It is highly dependent on the mode of collection by the local authorities and whether or not the waste is actually disposed of in the official system.  For industrial wastes, the volume of waste can most easily be measured as the weight which leaves the factory compound.  

(c)        Limitations of the Indicator:  Solid waste production is expensive to measure at source; thus, consistent and comparable statistics are difficult to obtain.  The indicator does not distinguish between toxic and hazardous wastes, and those more benign; nor does it cover waste stored on site.  It is often confused with the amount of solid waste disposed, which is measured by recording the weight or volume of waste disposed at the disposal or treatment site.   

Volume of waste produced may be significantly affected by the presence of particular wastes.  For example, the inclusion of construction wastes in domestic refuse will greatly affect the waste density and hence the indicator.  The actual method of storage of waste and its moisture content will also affect the waste density.  The volume of waste produced is often affected by seasonal variations in the production of various agricultural foodstuffs.  

(d)        Status of the Methodology:  Not Available.  

(e)                Alternative Definitions/Indicators:  The use of solid waste disposal, which is easier to measure, may be a suitable proxy measure for this indicator in some countries.  

4.                  ASSESSMENT OF DATA

(a)              Data Needed to Compile the Indicator:  The weight of waste produced by municipal and industrial sources; and population.  

(b)        National and International Data Availability and Sources:  Generally, data is scattered, may be difficult to obtain, and consist of only rough estimates.  Where it is available, data for municipal wastes can be obtained from studies of representative cross‑section of the population.  For industrial sources, data on the volume of waste is monitored by waste collection contractors.  

(c)        Data References:  At the international level, specialised research surveys have been conducted by the Settlement Infrastructure and Environment Programme of the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS or Habitat).   At the national level, data sources would include ministries responsible for urban affairs and the environment, and statistical agencies.  

5.         AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDICATOR 

(a)        Lead Agency:  The lead agency is the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat).  The contact point is the Head, Urban Secretariat, UNCHS (Habitat): fax no. (254 2) 623080.  

(b)        Other Contributing Organizations:  The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the World Bank, the World Health Organization (WHO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and Eurostat are involved in the development of this indicator.  

6.         REFERENCES

(a)        Readings:  Various publications from the Settlement Infrastructure and Environment Programme, Habitat.  

UNEP.  Environmental Data Report.  1993-94.  

OECD.  OECD Environmental Data Compendium 1995.  OECD, Paris, 1995.  

Eurostat.  Europe's Environment: Statistical Compendium for the Dobris Assessment.  1995.  

(b)        Internet site: 

UNCHS (Habitat) home page: http://www.urbanobservatory.org/indicators/database

   

 

1.         INDICATOR

 

(a)                Name:  Generation of Hazardous Wastes.    

 

(b)               Brief Definition: The total amount of hazardous wastes generated per year through industrial or other waste generating activities, according to the definition of hazardous waste as referred to in the Basel Convention and other related conventions (see sections 3(e) and 7 below).  

 

(c)                Unit of Measurement:  Metric tonnes or tonnes per unit of Gross Domestic Product (GDP).  

 

(d)               Placement in the CSD Indicator Set: Agenda 21:  Economic/Consumption and Production Patterns/Waste Generation and Management.

2.         POLICY RELEVANCE  

(a)        Purpose:  It provides a measure of the extent and type of industrialization in a country and in this connection the nature of the industrial activities including technologies and processes generating hazardous wastes.  

(b)        Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development (theme/sub-theme): The generation of hazardous wastes has a direct impact on health and the environment through exposure to this kind of wastes.  Normally, long-term exposure is required before the manifestation of harmful effects.  Reduced generation of hazardous wastes may indicate either reduced industrial activities in a country, introduction of cleaner production in the industrial processes, or changing patterns in consumers' habits, which implies savings in the use of energy and raw material as well as improving protection of landscapes or change in statistical records.  The introduction of environmentally sound management systems for hazardous wastes implies reduction of risks to health and environment due to lesser exposure to hazardous wastes.

A review of different categories of wastes being generated provides an indication of the nature of industrial activities being undertaken in a country.  In the case of other hazardous wastes such as hospital wastes, it is first of all a measure of the size of the population, and secondly, the percentage of this population being treated in hospitals and other medical care units.  

(c)                International Conventions and Agreements:  The following conventions and agreements pertain to this indicator: Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal; Bamako Convention on the Ban on the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes within Africa; Waigani Convention to Ban the Importation of Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes into Forum Island Countries, and to Control the Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within the South Pacific Region; Central American Agreement; Protocol for the Prevention of Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Council Decisions, and EC Council Directives and Regulation on Waste and Hazardous Wastes.  

(d)        International Targets/Recommended Standards:  No quantitative targets exist at the international level.  In Agenda 21, Chapter 20, an overall target of "preventing or minimizing the generation of hazardous wastes as part of an overall integrated cleaner production approach" is provided.  Targets exist at the national level in many countries.  

(e)        Linkages to Other Indicators:  This indicator is linked to the amount of hazardous wastes exported or imported; as well as to the indicators on area of land contaminated by hazardous wastes, and expenditures on hazardous waste treatment or disposal.  It is further directly connected to indicators related to material consumption and energy use, including intensity of material use, annual energy consumption per capita, and intensity in energy use.  In a wider context, it is also related to the indicators on international cooperation concerning implementation of ratified global agreements.  

3.         METHODOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION

(a)               Underlying Definitions and Concepts:  In order to facilitate the definition of whether a waste, as defined under the Basel Convention, is hazardous or not, the Technical Working Group established under the Basel Convention has developed lists of wastes that are hazardous and wastes that are not subject to the Convention, as well as an outline of a review procedure for the inclusion, or deletion, of wastes from those lists.  These lists were approved at the Fourth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties (UNEP, 1998).  It is expected that such lists will considerably facilitate the development and application of indicators of hazardous wastes as mentioned later.  

In relation to the definition of hazardous wastes under the Basel Convention (article 1 of the Convention), it should be noted that under article 3 of the Convention, Parties should inform the Secretariat of the Convention (SBC) of wastes, other than those listed in Annexes I and II of the Convention, considered as hazardous under national legislation.  Such information is being disseminated by the Secretariat to all Parties in order to enable them to respect such definitions in relation to planned transboundary movements involving such wastes.  

(b)       Measurement Methods:  In relation to the Basel Convention, its Secretariat requests information from the Parties to the Convention on a yearly basis regarding the amount of hazardous wastes generated at the national level.  This information is being introduced in the SBC database, which includes data and information on hazardous wastes related issues in accordance with Articles 13 and 16 of the Convention.  Other agencies, such as OECD, are also collecting information on hazardous wastes generated by OECD countries.  

(c)        Limitations of the Indicator:  The problem of defining whether a waste is hazardous or not will, in some cases, cause difficulties in relation to the use of an indicator on hazardous wastes generation.  The quantity of the hazardous wastes generated alone may not reflect changes towards a more "sustainable" society.  Consideration of the nature of the different kinds of hazardous wastes generated would be a better indicator of sustainable development progress. Availability and accuracy of data represents another limitation of this indicator.  Finally, the nature of the waste itself makes it sometimes difficult to use them as indicators because wastes are often mixed and not produced to specifications.  

(d)       Status of the Methodology:  The methodology has not at present been considered by Parties of the Basel Convention.  However, Decision V/14 of the Fifth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties requested the Secretariat of the Convention to explore possibilities of developing indicators on hazardous wastes to facilitate decision-making and report thereon to the Conference of the Parties at its sixth meeting. 

(e)        Alternative Definitions:  The amounts and type of specific waste streams generated per year through industrial or other waste generating activities as defined in the Basel Convention represents an alternative indicator which would allow for normalization based on hazardous properties of the wastes (e.g., infectious, flammable, toxic, corrosive, ecotoxic).  

Consideration of the waste management infrastructure at national level could constitute an indicator on the status of addressing hazardous wastes related issues in any particular country.  

In general, hazardous waste indicators, in order to be useful for management, have to have some resonance with policy makers whether they are within the local community, or at the national level.  There is, therefore, the need to develop hazardous waste indicators that reflect concern for the hazardous properties of waste, the implications of their impacts on the environment, on ecosystems and their functioning, as well as on human health.  A profile or set of indicators that can address these multiple issues and meet the needs of a variety of users is essential.  Such indicators would be broader than the indicator on generation of hazardous wastes as referred to in this paper and the Secretariat of the Basel Convention will take the lead in the further development of indicators on hazardous wastes in collaboration with relevant institutions.  

4.         ASSESSMENT OF DATA  

(a)        Data Needed to Compile the Indicator: Data on the generation of hazardous wastes.  

(b)        National and international Data Availability and Sources:  Data are available for many developed countries, but, so far, few developing countries are collecting data on hazardous waste generation.  The Parties of the Basel Convention are requested to provide data to the Conference of the Parties through the Secretariat of the Convention on a yearly basis.  

Assistance to developing countries will be needed in identifying the main hazardous waste streams being generated in their countries in order to prepare and maintain inventories of hazardous wastes. In this connection difficulties may be encountered in relation to hazardous waste generation by small scale enterprises, since they are scattered and often operating on an informal basis and are therefore not registered.  It may be less of a problem to identify amounts of hazardous waste generated by larger industries, since they are normally registered.  

(c)        Data References:  The primary source of data at the international level is the Secretariat of the Basel Convention.  

5.         AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDICATOR 

(a)        Lead Agency:  The lead agency is the Secretariat to the Basel Convention (SBC), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).  The contact point is the Executive Secretary, SBC; fax no. (41 22) 797 3454, e-mail:  sbc@unep.ch.  

(b)        Other Contributing Organizations: Other organizations include: UNEP, ICRED, OECD, European Topic Centre for Wastes, Denmark, US Environmental Protection Agency, Institute for Applied Environmental Economics, the Netherlands, European Institute of Business Administration, France, Technical University, Graz, Austria, Wuppertal Institute, CEFIC, Netherlands National Institute of Public Health and Environment, Canada.  Additional  organizations with expertise in the domaine of hazardous waste generation are: UN-ECE (Transport); IMO (Maritime); FAO (Pesticides); WHO; ILO; IAEA; UNIDO, SPREP.  

6.         REFERENCES 

(a)                Readings:  

Basel Convention for the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal.  

Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa, 1991.  

Waigani Convention to Ban the importation into Forum Island Countries of Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes and to Control the Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within the South Pacific Region.  

Protocol for the Prevention of Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal.  

Bakkes, J.A. et al. An Overview of Environmental Indicators: State of the Art and Perspectives. Environment Assessment Technical Reports. Netherlands National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection in cooperation with the University of Cambridge, United Kingdom.  June 1994.  

Å. Granados and P.J. Peterson “Hazardous Waste Indicators for National Decision-makers”, Journal of Environmental Management (1999).  

1. Reporting and Transmission of Information under the Basel Convention for the year 1993.  Geneva, 1996.

2. Reporting and Transmission of Information under the Basel Convention for the year 1994.  Geneva, June 1997, document SBC No. 97/014, 175 p.

3. Reporting and Transmission of Information under the Basel Convention for the year 1995.  Geneva, May 1999, document SBC No. 99/004, 130 p.

4. Reporting and Transmission of Information under the Basel Convention for the year 1996.  Geneva, June 1999, document SBC No. 99/006, 178 p.

5. Reporting and Transmission of Information under the Basel Convention for the year 1997: Part II (Statistics on generation and transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and other wastes).  Basel Convention Series SBC No. 99/001, Geneva, November 1999, 148 p.

(b)           Internet sites:  

Secretariat of the Basel Convention:  http://www.basel.int/ 

European Topic Centre on Waste:  http://www.etc-waste.int/

 

 

1.        INDICATOR

(a)       Name: Management of Radioactive Waste.

(b)       Brief Definition: Radioactive waste arises from various sources, such as nuclear power generation and other nuclear fuel cycle related activities, radioisotope production and use for applications in medicine, agriculture, industry and research.  The indicator provides a measure of both the current status of radioactive waste management at any point in time and the progress made over time towards the overall sustainability of radioactive waste management.

(c)       Unit of Measurement: a dimensionless indicator ranging from 0 (least sustainable condition) to 100 (most sustainable condition) in increments dependent on the progress towards safe storage or disposal.  The factor may be calculated for each waste class used by a country or it may be presented as an average for all waste classes.

(d)       Placement in the CSD Indicator Set: Economic/Consumption and production patterns/Waste generation and management.

2.         POLICY RELEVANCE

(a)        Purpose: The purpose is to represent the progress in managing the various radioactive wastes that arise from the nuclear fuel cycle and/or from nuclear applications. Quantitative information is required to indicate this progress by way of a baseline for full sustainability coupled with a knowledge of the key steps towards full sustainability.

(b)        Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development (theme/sub‑theme): Radioactive waste, if not properly managed, can have a direct impact on health and the environment through exposure to ionizing radiation. In order to protect human health and the environment, appropriate waste management strategies and technologies must be employed. Fundamental principles of radioactive waste management, as well as activities such as minimization of waste arisings, involve systematically considering the various steps in treatment, conditioning, storage and disposal.  Effective management of waste (control of inventory) has a positive impact regarding sustainability as it reduces the pressure on the environment and the commitment of resources. Waste management strategies seek ultimately to confine and contain the radionuclides within a system of engineered and natural barriers so that any releases to the environment are small compared to natural background.

(c)        International Conventions and Agreements: The Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management [Ref 1] entered into force June 2001. This convention binds Contracting Parties to manage spent nuclear fuel and radioactive wastes using sustainable waste management practices.

(d)        International Targets/Recommended Standards: The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has established Safety Standards, Fundamentals, Requirements and Guides [Ref 2 - 4] applicable to the management of radioactive wastes. It has also established Basic Safety Standards for the Protection of Humans against Ionizing Radiation [Ref 5], that are consistent with recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (Ref 6,7).

(e)        Linkages to Other Indicators: A large portion of radioactive waste arises from practices within the nuclear fuel cycle, therefore major current arisings are related to a significant generation of electricity by nuclear means with an equivalent reduction of environmental impacts by other energy sources (Chapter 4 of Agenda 21). This implies a reduction in the release of atmospheric pollutants; notably greenhouse gases, contributing to the protection of the atmosphere (Chapter 9 of Agenda 21). Since some radioactive waste arises from medical applications, such as treatment with radioisotopes or sealed radiation sources and nuclear medicine research, a link exists with the extent of these applications and with the protection and promotion of human health (Chapter 6 of Agenda 21). Additional links are with the transfer of environmentally sound technology (Chapter 34 of Agenda 21) and with the environmentally sound management of hazardous waste (Chapter 20 of Agenda 21).

3.         METHODOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION

(a)        Underlying Definitions and Concepts: Principles regarding the protection of future generations are formulated in the International Atomic Energy Agency's Safety Fundamentals [Ref. 4]. IAEA definitions and the classification of radioactive waste are given in relevant standards, accessible via  [Ref 8].

(b)        Measurement Methods:.  Management progress is measured against key milestones related to both the processing of waste into forms suitable for either safe storage or for placement into a designated endpoint (the “form factor”) and to the placement of waste into an endpoint facility (“endpoint factor”). Each factor has four states with values assigned according to specified milestones. Determination of progress to towards sustainable waste management requires a knowledge of the status of the designated milestones, which is in turn related to (1) the rate of waste generation, (2) the rate that wastes are put into suitable forms and (3) the rate that wastes are placed into an endpoint facility. All rates have units m3/a or tonnes/a (mass is typically used for spent nuclear fuel that is declared to be waste). A five year moving average is recommended for the determination of these rates. Details of the methodology to calculate the indicator can be obtained via the contact point identified in Point 5 below or via the link “GUIDANCE FOR CALCULATING THE INDICATOR OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT FOR RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT” before Point 4 below.

(c)        Limitations of the Indicator: The management of radioactive waste is only a first approximation of its hazard. It is assumed that only improperly managed waste can have an impact on human health and the environment. The actual impact requires a site specific analysis taking into account the isotopic and chemical composition of the waste. This indicator gives a measure of progress towards reduction in the volume of waste that could impact upon health and the environment. As configured, this indicator does not seek to establish progress with historic waste management.

(d)        Status of the Methodology: Safety assessment of the radiological hazard of radioactive waste disposal is considerably advanced and is used as the basis for regulatory decisions in many countries (the milestones of factors are related to specified regulatory decisions, such as the approval of a disposal facility for operation).

(e)        Alternative Definitions/Indicators: None.

GUIDANCE FOR CALCULATING THE INDICATOR OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT FOR RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT

4.         ASSESSMENT OF DATA

(a)        Data Needed to Compile the Indicator: the volumes or masses of the various classes of radioactive waste (1) arising annually, (2) processed to suitable forms and (3) consigned to an endpoint facility expressed in cubic metres per annum (m3/a) or tonnes per annum (tonnes/a) plus a knowledge of the status of specified milestones for the form and endpoint factors

(b)        National and International Data Availability and Sources: At the national level, the volume or masses of radioactive waste arisings can be obtained from the waste accountancy records maintained by the various waste generators or, in consolidated form, from either national waste management organizations or regulatory bodies. Almost one third of the IAEA member states keep some type of national radioactive waste registry. The Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management requires Contracting Parties to report an inventory of radioactive waste that is subject to the Convention. Through this mechanism, both the availability and the quality of data is likely to increase over time.

(c)        Data References: The primary source for data includes national or provincial/state level governmental organizations. A secondary source may be databases managed by international organizations such as the IAEA or the Nuclear Energy Agency of the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD/NEA).

5.         AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDICATOR

(a)        Lead Agency: The International Atomic Energy Agency. The contact point is:

Indicator of Sustainable Development for Radioactive Waste Contact Point

International Atomic Energy Agency

Department of Nuclear Energy

Division of Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Waste Technology

Waste Technology Section

Wagramer Strasse 5, P.O. Box 100

A-1400, Vienna, Austria

E-mail: ISD-RW@iaea.org

(b)        Other Contributing Organizations: Governments and inter‑governmental organizations, possibly the European Commission (EC), the OECD/NEA, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), non-governmental and other organizations, such as the International Union of Producers and Distributors of Electrical Energy (UNIPEDE) and the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI).

6.         REFERENCES:

[1]       The Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management, as adopted in September 1997 (IAEA Press Release PR 2001/05, 20 March 2001, http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Press/P_release/2001/prn0105.shtml).

[2]       IAEA's Safety Guides (Safety Series No. 111‑G‑1.1), 1994, Classification of Radioactive Waste.

[3]       IAEA's Safety Standards (Safety Series No. GS-R-1), 2000, Legal and Governmental Infrastructure for Nuclear, Radiation, Radioactive Waste and Transport Safety.

[4]       IAEA's Safety Fundamentals (Safety Series No. 111‑F), 1995. The Principles of Radioactive Waste Management.

[5]       IAEA's Safety Standards (Safety Series No. 115), 1996. International Basic Safety Standards for Protection against Ionizing Radiation and for the Safety of Radiation Sources.

[6]       ICRP Publication 46, 1996. Radiation Protection Principles for the Disposal of Solid Radioactive Waste, Pergamon Press, Oxford.

[7]       ICRP Publication 60, 1991. 1990 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. Annals of the ICRP 21 (1‑ 3), Pergamon Press, Oxford.

[8] WorldAtom Internet site: www.iaea.org/worldatom/

 

 

1.         INDICATOR  

(a)        Name:  Rate of Waste Recycling and Reuse.  

(b)        Brief Definition:  This is the volume of waste which is reused or recycled based on the volume actually generated at source on a per capita basis.  

(c)        Unit of Measurement:  %.  

(d)        Placement in the CSD Indicator Set:  Economic/Consumption and Production Patterns/ Waste Generation and Management.  

2.         POLICY RELEVANCE  

(a)        Purpose:  The purpose of this indicator is to measure the proportion of waste which is reused or recycled.  

(b)        Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development (theme/sub-theme): Solid waste recycling and reuse is an important component of a sustainable approach for solid waste management.  As communities expand, the available sinks for waste disposal will become limited and necessitate the transport of waste for greater distances.  The ecological footprint of urban areas will therefore be greatly increased.  The concept of the ecological footprint developed by Rees and Wackernagel (1994) is defined as the area of land required by a given group of people (household, city or country) to provide the goods and services it consumes, and to assimilate its waste products, wherever that land may be located.  By stimulating recycling and reuse, landfill capacity is conserved and operational costs for solid waste management reduced.  There is also the benefit of increased income generation for the urban poor through recycling schemes.  

This indicator has a different relevance for developed and developing countries.  In developed countries, it represents a willingness on the part of national and local governments to consider waste recycling as an environmentally sound policy option, whereas in developing countries, it represents the level of the informal sector waste recycling industry, which is usually promoted for its income‑generating potential.  

(c)        International Conventions and Agreements:  No international agreements apply.  

(d)        International Targets/Recommended Standards: Some developed countries have established voluntary targets for the proportion of waste recycled.  

(e)        Linkages to Other Indicators:  This indicator is intimately linked to other solid waste management indicators.  It is also associated with some of the indicators for human settlements and financial mechanisms, such as percent of population in urban areas, and environmental protection expenditures.  

3.         METHODOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION 

(a)        Underlying Definitions and Concepts:  The proportion of waste recycled requires accurate estimation of the proportion of waste generated, as much waste is recycled or pre‑sorted at the household level before it reaches the formal waste management system.  For this purpose, the measurement of the indicator is often completed by means of a specialised survey.  Generally, the proportion of wastes recycled is reported based on the type of recyclable components.  For example, metals, plastics, paper, glass, textiles, organic, etc.  It should be noted that due to pre‑separation of inorganic recyclables, organic waste often constitutes 50% of the total volume of the waste from developing countries.  

In addition to recycling at the industrial and household level in many cities, waste is recycled outside the producer's premises, either on the street, by formal waste management employees, or at the dumpsite.  The indicator must consider all sources of recycling and the additional methods combine to give a complex expression or the overall percentage of recycling.  The amount of recycling undertaken outside the producer's premises has to be estimated from detailed surveys of all the dealers in recycled material and requires an inventory of all small‑scale reprocessors who recycle wastes.  

(b)        Measurement Methods:  The volumes of waste produced and the percentage recycled at the industrial and household levels are measured by simple weighing.  At the municipal level, the volume recycled is best estimated by quantifying the output by the producers of recycled products and the volume of waste that is disposed of by the formal sector.  

(c)        Limitations of the Indicator:  The indicator should be expressed in terms of particular components to be useful in determining the actual recycling rate.  If all components are lumped together on a weight or volume basis, the indicator is not particularly useful.  Some recycling, for example, waste oils and solvents, is not captured by this solid waste indicator.  

(d)        Status of the Methodology:  Not Available.  

(e)                Alternative Definitions/Indicators:  Sometimes, it is worthwhile to express the % recycled based on the usage of a particular commodity, for example volume of aluminium recycled per volume produced. This enables a better estimation of the level of resource conservation, and for some industries, could be done on a national basis.    

    GUIDANCE FOR CALCULATING THE INDICATOR OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT   FOR RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT

4.                   ASSESSMENT OF DATA 

(a)        Data Needed to Compile the Indicator:  Weight of waste produced by component; weight of waste disposed or discarded, by component; weight of waste recycled by the formal and informal sectors, by component.  

(b)        National and International Data Availability and Sources:  Generally, there is little problem in obtaining the data from municipal or industrial records.  However, data can be scattered and time consuming to compile for indicator purposes.  Some informal sector industries are reluctant to declare their activities and data collection from them could be difficult.  At the international level, specialised research surveys have been conducted by the Settlement Infrastructure and Environment Programme of the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS or Habitat).  Within countries, data sources would include national and local agencies responsible for urban affairs and the environment.  

(c)        Data References:  Not Available.  

5.         AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDICATOR 

(a)        Lead Agency:  The lead agency is the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat).  The contact point is the Head, Urban Secretariat, UNCHS (Habitat): fax no. (254 2) 623080.  

(b)        Other Contributing Organizations:  The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the World Health Organization (WHO), and industry associations would be interested in the development of this indicator.  

6.         REFERENCES

(a)        Readings:  

Various publications from the Settlement Infrastructure and Environment Programme, Habitat.  

UNEP.  Environmental Data Report.  1993‑94.  

Rees W. and Wakernagel M., Ecological Footprints and Appropriated Carrying Capacity: Measuring the Natural Capital Requirements of the Human Economy, in Investing in Natural Capital: the Ecological Economics Approach to Sustainability, A.M Jannsson, M. Hammer, C. Folke and R. Constanza, eds. Washington Island Press, 1994.  

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Measuring Changes in Consumption and Production Patters: A Set of Indicators, (ST/ESA/264), 1998.  

(b)        Internet site:   

UNCHS (Habitat) home page: http://www.urbanobservatory.org/indicators/database