1. Indicator

(a) Name: Rate of change of school-age population.
(b) Brief Definition: The average annual rate of change of school-age population size during
a specified period.
(c) Unit of Measurement: Usually expressed as a percentage.

2. Placement in the Framework

(a) Agenda 21: Chapter 36: Promoting Education, Public Awareness and Training.
(b) Type of Indicator: Driving Force.

3. Significance (Policy Relevance)

(a) Purpose: This indicator measures how fast the school age population is changing.

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development: Education is a process by which human beings and societies reach their fullest potential. It is critical for promoting sustainable development and improving the capacity of people to participate in decision making to address their sustainable development concerns.

Knowledge of the rate of change in the school-age population assists in planning for educational facilities and services at the national and local levels. In most developing countries, growth in the school-age population represents a major component of the increase in educational services. For instance, in the least developed countries, between 1990 and 1995, the annual increase in numbers at the primary and secondary-school ages averaged around 2.5 per cent; the number of enrolled students must grow this rapidly merely to maintain enrolment ratios at their current levels. However, the school-age population is not increasing in all countries. Fluctuations in the school-age population may produce a need to adjust educational resources and infrastructure.

(c) Linkages to Other Indicators: This indicator has close linkages with other socioeconomic indicators such as the population growth rate, the fertility rate, and net migration. The size of the school age population provides the base (denominator) for calculation of school enrolment ratios. It could influence education response indicators, such as the share of Gross Domestic product devoted to education.

(d) Targets: International agreements do not establish specific national or global targets for this indicator.

(e) International Conventions and Agreements: Not applicable, see section 3d above.

4. Methodological Description and Underlying Definitions

The school-age population is generally defined in three age groups, ages 6-11, ages 12-17 and ages l8-23, which are used by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) for comparative purposes, since they correspond to the main educational levels of many countries. Other age groupings are used in some countries. The population figures should also be tabulated by sex, as a basis for calculating gender-specific enrolment ratios.

The rate of change of the school-age population for a country is generally based on an intercensal population growth rate calculated from two censuses, each adjusted for incompleteness and age mis-statement. For periods following the most recent census, the changing numbers at each school age can be estimated, first, by applying estimated survival rates to the adjusted numbers of persons enumerated at the census. For dates more than 5 or 6 years since the census, account must be taken of children of school age born since the census. Finally, it is necessary to estimate the amount of net migration, which tends to be an important factor for smaller areas, even if it is unimportant at the national level. The difficulty of estimating the components of population change make estimates of growth of the school-age population increasingly subject to doubt as the time since the last population enumeration increases.

5. Assessment of the Availability of Data from International and National Sources

As indicated in section 4 above, the rate of change of population of school age can be calculated for national and sub-national areas from census data. The United Nations recommends that countries take censuses every 10 years, and these data can be used to calculate an intercensal population growth rate. In recent decades most countries have carried out censuses; 204 countries or areas carried out a census during the 1990 census decade (1985 to 1994).

National and sub-national census data are available by sex and age for the large majority of countries from national sources (country publications) as well as from special country questionnaires sent to national statistical offices from the Statistical Division of the United Nations Department of Economics and Social Information and Policy Analysis (DESIPA). For all countries, national census data are evaluated and, if necessary, adjusted for incompleteness by the Population Division, DESIPA as part of its preparations of the official United Nations population estimates and projections. Past, current and projected school age populations are prepared for all countries by the Population Division, and appear in the United Nations publication, World Population Prospects: The 1994 Revision (see section 7 below).

6. Agencies Involved in the Development of the Indicator

The lead organization is the United Nations Department for Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis (DESIPA). The contact point is the Director, Population Division, DESIPA; fax no. (1 212) 963 2147.

7. Further Information

Population Division, DESIPA, MORTPAK-LITE - The United Nations Software Package for

Mortality Measurement (United Nations, New York, 1988).

Population Division, DESIPA, The Sex and Age Distribution of the World Populations - the 1994

Revision (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.95.XIII.2, 1994).

Population Division, DESIPA, World Population Prospects: The 1994 Revision (United Nations

publication Sales No. E.95.XIII.16, New York, 1995).

Statistical Division, DESIPA, 1993 Demographic Yearbook (United Nations Sales No.

E/F.95.XIII.1, 1995).

UNESCO, Trends and Projections of Enrolment by Level of Education, by Age and by Sex,

1960-2025 (as assessed in 1993), CSR-E-63.

 

PRIMARY SCHOOL ENROLMENT RATIO - GROSS
Social	Chapter 36	Driving Force

1. Indicator

(a) Name: Primary school enrolment ratio - gross.
(b) Brief Definition: Total enrolment in primary education as a proportion of the population of primary school-age according to national regulations.
(c) Unit of Measurement: %.

2. Placement in the Framework

(a) Agenda 21: Chapter 36: Promoting Education, Public Awareness and Training.
(b) Type of Indicator: Driving Force.

3. Significance (Policy Relevance)

(a) Purpose: The gross enrolment ratio is a general indicator of the level of participation in primary education. It provides at the same time a measure of the availability and utilization of school places to satisfy the educational needs of the eligible school-age population.

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development: Education is a process by which human beings and societies reach their fullest potential. Education is critical for promoting sustainable development and improving the capacity of people to address their sustainable development concerns. While basic education provides the underpinnings for any environmental and development education, the latter needs to be incorporated as an essential part of learning. It is also critical for achieving awareness, values, skills and behaviour consistent with sustainable development and for effective participation in decision making. It is during the primary educational stage when children become aware of the basic knowledge and values regarding sustainable development.

This indicator is used in monitoring the general status and trends of participation in primary education, and in assessing the relation between demand and supply of educational opportunities. Gross enrolment ratios of less than 100% identify situations in which there is a need for more school places to respond to unsatisfied educational needs, and/or for measures to encourage increase in enrolment. When the indicator has a value in excess of 100, it highlights the incidence of under-aged and/or over-aged enrolment. As regards over-aged students, their presence may be explained by late entrance or the incidence of repetition.

The relevance of this indicator in many developed countries is limited as primary school is compulsory with an enrolment ratio of usually 100%. If the enrolment is lower it usually indicates a data problem.

(c) Linkages to Other Indicators: Education is closely linked to other indicators reflecting basic needs, capacity building, information and science, and the role of the major groups. By including under-aged and over-aged students, gross enrolment ratio can only provide broad indications of the level of participation and school capacity utilization. For more precise assessments the net enrolment ratio should be used which is however conditioned by the availability of data on enrolment by age.

(d) Targets: The value of gross enrolment ratios can vary from less than 10% to more than 100%, reaching 130% in some countries when there are sizable under-aged and/or over-aged enrolment. For countries with low gross enrolment ratios, the target is to reach and cross the 100% threshold. For those posting 130 or 140% gross enrolment ratio, the target would be to lower it to 100%, by reducing in particular over-aged enrolment and grade repetition.

(e) International Conventions and Agreements: The International Covenants on Human Rights and Optional Protocol.

4. Methodological Description and Underlying Definitions

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: Gross enrolment ratio for primary education is the most frequently used education indicator. By relating actual total enrolment in primary education, irrespective of age, to the population who according to the prevailing national regulations should be enrolled, this indicator of participation in primary education is conceptually simple as well as easy to derive. The lower limit of the population age-group is the entrance age to primary education and the upper limit is obtained by adding as many single ages as there are grades.

(b) Measurement Methods: The ratio is calculated as follows:

        Total enrolment in primary education
         Population in age-group e x 100

where e is the age-group of the population eligible to participate in primary education according to national regulations. For sound measurement, the ratio must be supported by consistent data for gender and area (such as rural/urban zones).

(c) The Indicator in the DSR Framework: This indicator stresses the importance of education to the sustainable development process. It is recognized as a Driving Force indicator.

(d) Limitations of the Indicator: The gross enrolment ratio gives only broad indications of the availability of school places and the level of participation in primary education. It is important to point out that school age varies from country to country. The official entry age may not be adhered to by large sectors of the population in many developing countries because of lack of funding.

(e) Alternative Definitions: If data on enrolment in primary education by age are available, net enrolment ratio can be derived as a more precise alternative indicator of participation in education.

5. Assessment of the Availability of Data from National and International Sources

(a) Data Needed to Compile the Indicator: Total enrolment in primary education; and the corresponding school-age population according to national regulations, classified by sex. The number of school places available would provide additional meaning to this indicator.

(b) Data Availability: Data on total enrolment are normally available for most countries on an annual basis, collected through national school censuses. The corresponding data on primary school-age population are available only during national population censuses. Many national statistical offices produce inter-censal estimates as well as projections. United Nations population estimates and projections can also be obtained for most countries except for those with less than 150 000 inhabitants.

(c) Data Sources: Data on enrolment can be collected from the schools during school censuses organized by national ministries of education. Data on primary school-age population can be either derived from national population census results, or estimated and projected for the intervening years by national statistical offices or by the United Nations Population Division, Department of Economics and Social Information and Policy Analysis.

6. Agencies Involved in the Development of the Indicator

The lead agency for this indicator is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The contact point is the Director, Division of Statistics, UNESCO, fax (33-1) 45 66 48 44.

7. Further Information

(a) Further Readings:

UNESCO, Statistical Yearbook (annual editions); World Education Report, editions 1991, 1993, 1995. UNESCO, Paris.

(b) Other References:

UNESCO, Statistics of Education in Developing Countries - An Introduction to their Collection and Analysis. Book 3. Division of Statistics, UNESCO, Paris 1983.

(c) Status of the Methodology:

This indicator has the status of a recommendation since the basic data elements to derive it are included in the Revised Recommendation concerning the International Standardization of Education Statistics adopted by the UNESCO General Conference at its twentieth session, Paris, 1978.

 

PRIMARY SCHOOL ENROLMENT RATIO - NET
Social	Chapter 36	Driving Force

1. Indicator

(a) Name: Primary school enrolment ratio - net.
(b) Brief Definition: This is the proportion of the population of the official age for primary education according to national regulations who are enrolled in primary schools.
(c) Unit of Measurement: %.

2. Placement in the Framework

(a) Agenda 21: Chapter 36: Promoting Education, Public Awareness and Training.
(b) Type of Indicator: Driving Force.

3. Significance (Policy Relevance)

(a) Purpose: The net enrolment ratio provides a measure of the extent to which the population eligible to participate in primary education is actually enrolled. By deduction, it can be used in gauging the size of the non-enrolled primary school-age population.

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development: Education is a process by which human beings and societies reach their fullest potential. Education is critical for promoting sustainable development and improving the capacity of people to address their sustainable development concerns. While basic education provides the underpinnings for any environmental and development education, the latter needs to be incorporated as an essential part of learning. It is also critical for achieving awareness, values, skills and behaviour consistent with sustainable development and for effective participation in decision making. It is during the primary educational stage when children become aware of the basic knowledge and values regarding sustainable development.

This indicator is used in monitoring the level of participation in primary education and in identifying the non-enrolled school-age population. Net enrolment ratios approaching 100% indicate availability of adequate primary school capacities and active enrolment of school-age children. Low net enrolment ratios signal inadequacies in universalizing participation in primary education, due to either the lack of school places or other factors that prevent children from enrolling in school. This indicator when disaggregated by sex highlights the extent of gender disparities.

The relevance of this indicator in many developed countries is limited as primary school is compulsory with an enrolment ratio of usually 100%. If the enrolment is lower it usually indicates a data problem.

(c) Linkages to Other Indicators: Education is closely linked to other indicators reflecting basic needs, capacity building, information and science, and the role of the major groups. By including under-aged and over-aged students, gross enrolment ratio can only provide broad indications of the level of participation and school capacity utilization. For more precise assessments the net enrolment ratio should be used which is however conditioned by the availability of data on enrolment by age. Net enrolment ratio is more precise than gross enrolment ratio for assessing the level of participation in primary education. When combined in use with the latter, it provides an order of magnitude of the over-aged and under-aged enrolment. If data on enrolment and population by single years of age are available, the concept can be extended to derive age-specific enrolment ratios and school life expectancy.

(d) Targets: At both the international and national levels, the target of primary education programmes is to reach a 100% net enrolment ratio, or full participation in primary education of the school-age population.

(e) International Conventions and Agreements: The International Covenants on Human Rights and Optional Protocol; and the World Declaration on Education for All.

4. Methodological Description and Underlying Definitions

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: The basic for this indicator is well-known. The numerator for the net enrolment ratio only includes those students enrolled in primary education whose ages are within the nationally prescribed age-range for primary education. The denominator is the population of the same official primary school-age.

(b) Measurement Methods: The ratio is calculated as follows:

        Enrolment within the age-group e for primary education
        Population in age-group e x 100

where e is the age-group of the population eligible to participate in primary education according to national regulations. As children enrolled within the age-range e may be a subset of the population of the same age-range, the value of this ratio can only lie in the range from 0 to 100%.

(c) The Indicator in the DSR Framework: This indicator stresses the importance of education to the sustainable development process. It is recognized as a Driving Force indicator.

(d) Limitations of the Indicator: The net enrolment ratio, compared to gross enrolment, is more precise in measuring participation in education, but it also requires more basic data to derive the indicator, namely: enrolment by age. However, these data are not collected by all countries, or may be unreliable.

(e) Alternative Definitions: The net enrolment ratio can be further used to determine the size of the non-enrolled school-age population, and over-aged and under-aged enrolment. If data on enrolment in primary education by single years of age are available, age-specific enrolment ratios can also be derived, as well as school life expectancy.

5. Assessment of the Availability of Data from National and International Sources

(a) Data Needed to Compile the Indicator: Data on enrolment in primary education and population either by single years of age or corresponding to the official primary age-range, and classified by sex.

(b) Data Availability: Enrolment data are normally available for most countries on an annual basis, collected through national school censuses. Some countries do not collect data on enrolment in primary education by age, at least not on a regular basis. The corresponding data on primary school-age population are available only during national population censuses or from inter-censal estimates. United Nations estimates and projections can also be obtained for most countries except for those with less than 150,000 inhabitants.

(c) Data Sources: Data on enrolment by age can either be collected from the schools during school censuses organized by national ministries of education, or derived from data on school attendance by age collected during population censuses. Data on primary school-age population can be derived from national population census results, or estimated and projected for the intervening years either by the national statistics office or by the United Nations Population Division, Department of Economics and Social Information and Policy Analysis.

6. Agencies Involved in the Development of the Indicator

The lead agency for this indicator is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The contact point is the Director, Division of Statistics, UNESCO, fax (33-1) 45 66 48 44.

7. Further Information

(a) Further Readings:

UNESCO Statistical Yearbook (annual editions); World Education Report, editions 1991, 1993, 1995. UNESCO, Paris.

(b) Other References:

Statistics of Education in Developing Countries - An Introduction to their Collection and Analysis. Book 3. Division of Statistics, UNESCO, Paris 1983.

(c) Status of the Methodology:

This indicator has the status of a recommendation since the basic data elements to derive it are included in the Revised Recommendation concerning the International Standardization of Education Statistics adopted by the UNESCO General Conference at its twentieth session, Paris, 1978.

 

SECONDARY SCHOOL ENROLMENT RATIO - GROSS
Social	Chapter 36	Driving Force

1. Indicator

(a) Name: Secondary school enrolment ratio - gross.
(b) Brief Definition: Total enrolment in secondary education as a proportion of the population of secondary school-age according to national regulations.
(c) Unit of Measurement: %.

2. Placement in the Framework

(a) Agenda 21: Chapter 36: Promoting Education, Public Awareness and Training.
(b) Type of Indicator: Driving Force.

3. Significance (Policy Relevance)

(a) Purpose: The gross enrolment ratio is a general indicator of the level of participation in secondary education. It provides at the same time a measure of the availability and utilization of school places to satisfy the educational needs of the eligible school-age population.

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development: Education is a process by which human beings and societies reach their fullest potential. Education is critical for promoting sustainable development and improving the capacity of people to address their sustainable development concerns. While basic education provides the underpinnings for any environmental and development education, the latter needs to be incorporated as an essential part of learning. It is also critical for achieving awareness, values, skills and behaviour consistent with sustainable development, and for effective participation in decision making. It is during the secondary educational stage when more detailed knowledge regarding sustainable development is gained, and its multiple interactions with environment, society and the individual clarified.

This indicator is used in monitoring the general status and trends of participation in secondary education, and assesses the relation between demand and supply of educational opportunities. Gross enrolment ratios of less than 100% identify situations in which there is a need for more school places to respond to unsatisfied educational needs, and/or for measures to encourage increase in enrolment. When the indicator has a value in excess of 100, it highlights the incidence of under-aged and/or over-aged enrolment. As regards over-aged students, their presence may be explained by late entrance into secondary schools or the incidence of repetition.

The relevance of this indicator in many developed countries is limited as primary school is compulsory with an enrolment ratio of usually 100%. If the enrolment is lower it usually indicates a data problem.

(c) Linkages to Other Indicators: Education is closely linked to other indicators reflecting basic needs, capacity building, information and science, and the role of major groups. By including under-aged and over-aged students, gross enrolment ratio can only provide broad indications of the level of participation in secondary education and school capacity utilization. For more precise assessments, the net enrolment ratio should be used which is however conditioned by the availability of data on enrolment by age.

(d) Targets: The value of gross enrolment ratios can vary from less than 10% to more than 100%, reaching 110% in some countries when there are under-aged and/or over-aged enrolment. For countries with low gross enrolment ratios, the target is to reach and cross the 100% threshold. For those posting 110% gross enrolment ratio, the target would be to lower it to 100%, by reducing in particular over-aged enrolment and grade repetition.

(e) International Conventions and Agreements: Not available.

4. Methodological Description and Underlying Definitions

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: By relating actual total enrolment in secondary education, irrespective of age, to the population who according to the prevailing national regulations should be enrolled, this indicator of participation in secondary education is conceptually simple as well as easy to derive.

(b) Measurement Methods: The ratio is calculated as follows:

        Total enrolment in secondary education
        Population in age-group e   x    100

where e is the age-group of the population eligible to participate in secondary education according to national regulations. For sound measurement; the ratio must be supported by consistent data for gender and area (such as rural/urban zones).

(c) The Indicator in the DSR Framework: This indicator stresses the importance of education to the sustainable development process. It is recognized as a Driving Force indicator.

(d) Limitations of the Indicator: The gross enrolment ratio gives only broad indications of the level of participation in secondary education. There may be different stages and streams in secondary education giving different degrees of emphasis on environment and sustainable development. These important details that are not reflected in a general gross enrolment in secondary education. This indicator may not capture the secondary education changes taking place in many countries, particularly with respect to vocational education and second-chance programmes.

(e) Alternative Definitions: To meet the limitations expressed in 4d above, the use of participation rates in secondary and tertiary education could be used as an alternative indicator. In the majority of countries, secondary education is disaggregated into two stages. In many countries the end of the first stage coincides with the end of compulsory education. This gross enrolment ratio may thus be adapted and calculations derived to produce gross enrolment ratios by cycle for secondary education, when appropriate.

5. Assessment of the Availability of Data from International and National Sources

(a) Data Needed to Compile the Indicator: Total enrolment in secondary education; and the corresponding school-age population according to national regulations, classified by sex. The number of school places available would provide additional meaning to this indicator.

(b) Data Availability: Data on total enrolment are normally available for most countries on an annual basis, collected through national school censuses. The corresponding data on secondary school-age population are available only during national population censuses or from inter-censal estimates. United Nations population estimates and projections can be obtained for most countries except for those with less than 150 000 inhabitants. For sound measurement, the ratio must be supported by consistent data for gender and area (such as rural/urban zones).

(c) Data Sources: Data on enrolment can be collected from the schools during school censuses organized by national ministries of education. Data on secondary school-age population can be either derived from national population census results, or estimated and projected for the intervening years by national statistical offices or by the United Nations Population Division, Department of Economics and Social Information and Policy Analysis.

6. Agencies Involved in the Development of the Indicator

The lead agency for this indicator is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The contact point is the Director, Division of Statistics, UNESCO; fax (33-1) 45 66 48 44.

7. Further Information

(a) Further Readings:

UNESCO, Statistical Yearbook (annual editions); World Education Report, editions 1991, 1993, 1995. UNESCO, Paris.

(b) Other References:

Statistics of Education in Developing Countries: An Introduction to their Collection and Analysis. Book 3. Division of Statistics, UNESCO, Paris 1983.

(c) Status of the Methodology:

This indicator has the status of a recommendation since the basic data elements to derive it are included in the Revised Recommendation concerning the International Standardization of Education Statistics adopted by the UNESCO General Conference at its twentieth session, Paris, 1978.

 

SECONDARY SCHOOL ENROLMENT RATIO - NET
Social	Chapter 36	Driving Force

1. Indicator

(a) Name: Secondary school enrolment ratio - net.
(b) Brief Definition: This is the proportion of the population of the official age for secondary education according to national regulations who are actually enrolled in secondary schools.
(c) Unit of Measurement: %.

2. Placement in the Framework

(a) Agenda 21: Chapter 36: Promoting Education, Public Awareness and Training.
(b) Type of Indicator: Driving Force.

3. Significance (Policy Relevance)

(a) Purpose: The net enrolment ratio provides a measure of the extent to which the population eligible to participate in secondary education is actually enrolled. By deduction, it can be used in gauging the size of the non-enrolled secondary school-age population.

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development: Education is a process by which human beings and societies reach their fullest potential. Education is critical for promoting sustainable development and improving the capacity of people to address their sustainable development concerns. While basic education provides the underpinnings for any environmental and development education, the latter needs to be incorporated as an essential part of learning. It is also critical for achieving awareness, values, skills and behaviour consistent with sustainable development, and for effective participation in decision making. It is during the secondary educational stage when more detailed knowledge regarding sustainable development is gained, and its multiple interactions with environment, society and the individual clarified.

This indicator is used in monitoring the level of participation in secondary education and in identifying the non-enrolled school-age population. Net enrolment ratios approaching 100% indicate availability of adequate secondary school capacities and active enrolment of school-age youth. Low net enrolment ratios signal inadequacies in ensuring full participation of the school-age population in secondary education, either for the lack of school places or due to other factors that prevent young people from enrolling in secondary schools. This indicator when disaggregated by sex highlights the extent of gender disparities.

The relevance of this indicator in many developed countries is limited as primary school is compulsory with an enrolment ratio of usually 100%. If the enrolment is lower it usually indicates a data problem.

(c) Linkages to Other Indicators: Education is closely linked to other indicators reflecting basic needs, capacity building, information and science, and the role of major groups. Net enrolment ratio is more precise than gross enrolment ratio for assessing the level of participation in secondary education. When combined in use with the latter, it could provide indications on the magnitude of over-aged and under-aged enrolment. If data on enrolment and population by single years of age are available, the concept can be extended to derive age-specific enrolment ratios and school life expectancy.

(d) Targets: At both the international and national levels, the target is to reach a 100% net enrolment ratio, or full participation of the school-age population in secondary education.

(e) International Conventions and Agreements: Not available.

4. Methodological Description and Underlying Definitions

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: The basis for this indicator is well known. The numerator for the net enrolment ratio only includes those students enrolled in secondary education whose ages are within the nationally prescribed age-range for secondary education. The denominator is the population of the same official secondary school-age.

(b) Measurement Methods: The ratio is calculated as follows:

        Enrolment within the age-range e for secondary education
        Population in the age-group e   x    100

where e is the age-group of the population eligible to participate in secondary education according to national regulations. As young persons enrolled within the age-range e may be a subset of the population of the same age-range, the value of this ratio can only lie in the range of 0 to 100%.

(c) The Indicator in the DSR Framework: This indicator stresses the importance of education to the sustainable development process. It is recognized as a Driving Force indicator.

(d) Limitations of the Indicator: The net enrolment ratio, compared to gross enrolment, may be more precise for measuring participation in education, but it also requires more basic data to derive the indicator namely: enrolment by age. In some countries these data are either not collected, or collected but are not reliable.

(e) Alternative Definitions: In the majority of countries, secondary education is disaggregated into two stages. In many countries the end of the first stage coincides with the end of compulsory education. The net enrolment ratio may thus be adapted and calculations derived to produce net enrolment ratios by cycle for secondary education, when appropriate.

5. Assessment of the Availability of Data from International and National Sources

(a) Data Neededto Compile the Indicator: Data on enrolment in secondary education and population either by single years of age or corresponding to the official secondary age-range, and by classified sex.

(b) Data Availability: Enrolment data are normally available for most countries on an annual basis, collected through national school censuses. Some countries in the world do not collect data on enrolment in secondary education by age, at least not on a regular basis. The corresponding data on secondary school-age population are available only during national population censuses or from inter-censal estimates. United Nations estimates and projections can be obtained for most countries except for those with less than 150 000 inhabitants. For sound measurement, the ratio must be supported by consistent data for gender and area (such as rural/urban zones).

(c) Data Sources: Data on enrolment by age can either be collected during school censuses organized by national ministries of education, or derived from data on school attendance by age collected during population censuses. Data on secondary school-age population can be derived from national population census results, or estimated and projected for the intervening years either by the national statistics office or by the United Nations Population Division, Department of Economics and Social Information and Policy Analysis.

6. Agencies Involved in the Development of the Indicator

The lead agency for this indicator is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The contact point is the Director, Division of Statistics, UNESCO; fax (33-1) 45 66 48 44.

7. Further Information

(a) Further Readings:

UNESCO, Statistical Yearbook (annual editions); World Education Report, editions 1991, 1993, 1995. UNESCO, Paris.

(b) Other References:

Statistics of Education in Developing Countries: An Introduction to their Collection and Analysis. Book 3. Division of Statistics, UNESCO, Paris 1983.

(c) Status of the Methodology:

This indicator has the status of a recommendation since the basic data elements to derive it are included in the Revised Recommendation concerning the International Standardization of Education Statistics adopted by the UNESCO General Conference at its twentieth session, Paris, 1978.

ADULT LITERACY RATE
Social	Chapter 36	Driving Force

1. Indicator

(a) Name: Adult literacy rate.
(b) Brief Definition: The proportion of the adult population aged 15 years and over which is literate.
(c) Unit of Measurement: %.

2. Placement in the Framework

(a) Agenda 21: Chapter 36: Promoting Education, Public Awareness and Training.
(b) Type of Indicator: Driving Force.

3. Significance (Policy Relevance)

(a) Purpose: In determining this indicator it provides a measure of the stock of literate persons within the adult population. It reflects the accumulated accomplishment of education in spreading literacy. Any shortfall in literacy would provide indications of efforts required in the future to extend literacy to the remaining adult illiterate population.

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development: Literacy is critical for promoting and communicating sustainable development and improving the capacity of people to address environment and development issues. It facilitates the achievement of environmental and ethical awareness, values, and skills consistent with sustainable development and effective public participation in decision making.

(c) Linkages to Other Indicators: Literacy is closely linked to indicators reflecting basic needs such as education, capacity building, information and communication, and the role of major groups. The literacy rate indicates the status, or stock of iterates at a given point in time. It is often linked to school enrolment ratios and population reaching grade 5 of primary education, both of which influence the accumulation of the stock of iterates.

(d) Targets: The general target is full literacy, i.e. 100% adult literacy rate. This is the goal of most national efforts and international campaigns to eradicate illiteracy.

(e) International Conventions and Agreements: The World Declaration on Education for All to be achieved by the year 2000.

4. Methodological Description and Underlying Definitions

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: The Revised Recommendation concerning the International Standardization of Educational Statistics suggests the following definitions for statistical purposes:

i) A person is literate who can with understanding both read and write a short simple statement related to his/her everyday life.

ii) A person is functionally literate who can engage in all those activities in which literacy is required for effective functioning of his/her group and community and also for enabling him/her to continue to use reading, writing and calculation for his/her own and the community's development.

Persons who do not fulfill (i) or (ii) are termed illiterates or functional illiterates respectively. Adult literacy, in international practice, applies only to the population aged 15 years and over, classified by sex, by five-year age-groups, and by urban/rural zones.

(b) Measurement Methods: To calculate the adult literacy rate, the number of iterates aged 15 years and over is divided by the corresponding total population aged 15 years and over and multiplied by 100.

(c) The Indicator in the DSR Framework: Literacy is a reflection of the total education experience. It is an essential element for effective participation in sustainable development processes, and represents a Driving Force indicator within the DSR Framework.

(d) Limitations of the Indicator: As literacy is a relative concept, no single measure can separate the literate from the illiterate. A cut-off point is not totally appropriate because there are many different forms of literacy. A person might be literate in numeric terms, but have difficulty with comprehension. Literacy can be defined in terms of work, school, home, and social spheres. Each area of life requires different skills.

Therefore, literacy ideally should be determined by the measurement of reading, writing and numeracy abilities of each person within a social context. It may however be too time-consuming, costly and operationally complex to organize such measurements during national population censuses. Literacy status is therefore usually based on self-declaration or declaration of the head of household, which sometimes gives rise to concerns about data reliability and consequently comparability, especially for females in many developing countries.

(e) Alternative Definitions: To meet the limitations discussed in 4d above, the definition of functional literacy represents an alternative indicator. This is usually measured for four or five components of literacy such as "prose", "document", and "quantitative" domains. The aim is to measure the degree of functionality, rather than the dichotomy literate vs. illiterate.

5. Assessment of the Availability of Data from International and National Sources

(a) Data Needed to Compile the Indicator: Data on the number of iterates or illiterates and the population aged 15 years and over as collected during population censuses and household surveys.

(b) Data Availability: Data are usually collected during national population censuses, or from household surveys. Official statistics exist for most countries in the world but are often out-of-date due to late census data release. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) carries out periodical estimations and projections to fill data gaps. In principle literacy data are available at both the national and sub-national levels. For sound measurement, the ratio must be supported by consistent data for gender and area (such as rural/urban zones).

(c) Data Sources: The primary data sources are national population censuses and household surveys. International data sources include the Statistical Division of the United nations Department of Economics and Social Information and Policy Analysis (DESIPA); and UNESCO's Division of Statistics.

6. Agencies Involved in the Development of the Indicator

(a) Lead Agency: The lead agency for this indicator is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The contact point is the Director, Division of Statistics, UNESCO; fax (33-1) 45 66 48 44.

(b) Other Organizations: The Statistical Division of DESIPA also collects statistics on literacy from national population censuses and provide the data to UNESCO for processing and dissemination.

7. Further Information

UNESCO Statistical Yearbook (annual editions); Compendium of Statistics on Illiteracy: 1995 Edition. . UNESCO, Paris. 1995.

This indicator has the status of a recommendation since the basic data elements to derive it are included in the Revised Recommendation concerning the International Standardization of Education Statistics adopted by the UNESCO General Conference at its twentieth session, Paris, 1978.

 

CHILDREN REACHING GRADE 5 OF PRIMARY EDUCATION
Social	Chapter 36	State

1. Indicator

(a) Name: Children reaching grade 5 of primary education.
(b) Brief Definition: The estimated proportion of the population entering primary school who reach grade 5.
(c) Unit of Measurement: %.

2. Placement in the Framework

(a) Agenda 21: Chapter 36: Promoting Education, Public Awareness and Training.
(b) Type of Indicator: State.

3. Significance (Policy Relevance)

(a) Purpose: This indicator provides an estimate of the proportion of children entering primary school who reach grade 5 of primary education and thereby acquire basic literacy.

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development: Education is a process by which human beings and societies reach their fullest potential. Education is critical for promoting sustainable development and improving the capacity of people to address environment and development issues. It is also critical for achieving environmental and ethical awareness, values, and skills consistent with sustainable development and effective public participation in decision making.

Policy makers concerned with children's retention in schools and their eventual acquisition of basic literacy and numeracy skills would find this indicator particularly useful as it indicates the functioning, or internal efficiency, of the education system and its ability to turn out literates. Appropriate policies and measures could then be adopted to address problems of grade repetition and drop-out as well as bottlenecks with regard to retention in school. Indirectly, this indicator reflects the quality and performance of schools.

(c) Linkages to Other Indicators: Literacy is closely linked to indicators reflecting basic needs such as education, capacity building, information and communications, and the role of major groups. Besides assessing the functioning of the education system, this indicator is often used together with enrolment ratios to depict respectively the complementary aspects of participation and retention in education. It can be cross-referenced with adult literacy rate which reflects the cumulative output of the education system over the years.

(d) Targets: With values that can vary from 0 to 100%, the general target would be 100%. This implies complete retention of children in school to grade 5 (or zero drop-out).

(e) International Conventions and Agreements: Not available.

4. Methodological Description and Underlying Definitions

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: Efforts to extend literacy depend on the ability of the education system to ensure full participation of school-age children and their successful progression to reach at least grade 5, which is the stage when they are believed to have firmly acquired literacy and numeracy. By estimating the percentage survival to grade 5, this indicator measures the proportion of the population entering primary school who eventually reach grade 5.

(b) Measurement Methods: This indicator can be derived using the reconstructed cohort student flow method, which is analogous to that used in demography to determine survival rates from one age to the next. This method first derives the grade promotion, repetition and drop-out rates based on available data on enrolment and repeaters by grade for two consecutive years using Markov chain calculations. It then applies these rates to a cohort of 1,000 students in grade 1 to reconstruct their passage through the education system assuming that these student flow rates by grade remain unchanged throughout the life-time of the cohort. From the reconstructed cohort student flow, the percentage survival to grade 5 can be derived.

If p_i, r_i and d_i represent respectively promotion rate, repetition rate and drop-out rate at grade i of primary education, they can be derived but the following conditions on the flow rates have to be satisfied:

        p_i + r_i + d_i = 1
        0 < p_i, r_i, d_i < 1

When these conditions are not satisfied, the method used to derive survival is no longer valid since it is not possible to isolate the original cohort and any inferences made will be of a dubious nature.

A fundamental assumption is that the probability of the cohort entering primary school, irrespective of the age of the pupils not reaching grade 5 is the same as that of the entrance age population for this level of education. That is, the drop-out rate is the same for all pupils regardless of the age at which they enter school.

(c) The Indicator in the DSR Framework: As explained in section 3c above, this indicator highlights the functioning of the education system. As such it represents a State indicator within the DSR Framework.

(d) Limitations of the Indicator: The measurement method described in 4b above is rather a cumbersome one to administer. In addition, in some countries such as Germany and Austria the concept of grade 5 does not exist in primary education. Data on enrolment and repetition by grade may not be available for consecutive years for some countries and certain regions or schools within a country. The reconstructed cohort student flow method assumes that promotion rates, repetition rates and drop-out rates do not change from year to year. When applying this method to sub-national and school levels, the derived drop-out rates by grade may sometimes present a negative value due to transfers between schools. A suggested solution to this problem is to collect data on transferred students by grade, and to deduct them from the corresponding enrolment figures before applying the reconstructed cohort method.

(e) Alternative Definitions: In the absence of data on repeaters, the methodology outlined in section 4b above may be adjusted by assuming that the repetition rate is 0. However, this assumption, in addition to those described in 4 (b), presupposes that the repetition rates are quite low and that their magnitude does not vary much between grades.

An alternative indicator for education effectiveness would be school drop-out rates, grade by grade.

5. Assessment of the Availability of Data from International and National Sources

(a) Data Neededto Compile the Indicator: Basic data required to derive this indicator include: enrolment and repeaters by grade for at least two consecutive years.

(b) Data Availability: Data on enrolment and repeaters by grade in primary school are general available in most countries and also at sub-national and school levels. For sound measurement, this indicator must be supported by consistent data for gender and area (such as rural/urban zones).

(c) Data Sources: Data on enrolment and repeaters by grade and new entrants by age are generally those collected during school censuses conducted by national ministries of education.

6. Agencies Involved in the Development of the Indicator

The lead agency for this indicator is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The contact point is the Director, Division of Statistics, UNESCO, fax (33 1) 45 66 48 44.

7. Further Information

(a) Further Readings:

Not available.

(b) Other References:

Not available.

(c) Status of the Methodology:

This indicator has the status of a recommendation since the basic data elements to derive it are included in the Revised Recommendation Concerning the International Standardization of Education Statistics adopted by the UNESCO General Conference at its twentieth session, Paris, 1978.

 

SCHOOL LIFE EXPECTANCY
Social	Chapter 36	State

1. Indicator

(a) Name: School life expectancy.
(b) Brief Definition: Estimated average number of years a student will remain enrolled in an educational institution.
(c) Unit of Measurement: Number of years.

2. Placement in the Framework

(a) Agenda 21: Chapter 36: Promoting Education, Public Awareness and Training.
(b) Type of Indicator: State.

3. Significance (Policy Relevance)

(a) Purpose: The indicator provides an estimate of the expected number of years of education that a child can expect to receive if enrolled at school. This indicator can be used to gauge the overall level of development and performance of an education system, in terms of the average duration of participation in education of every child enrolled in school.

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development: Education is a process by which human beings and societies reach their fullest potential. Education is critical for promoting sustainable development and improving the capacity of people to address their sustainable development concerns. While basic education provides the underpinnings for any environmental and development education, the latter needs to be incorporated as an essential part of learning. It is also critical for achieving awareness, values, skills and behaviour consistent with sustainable development and for effective participation in decision making. It is during the primary educational stage when children become aware of the basic knowledge and values regarding sustainable development. It is believed that the longer a young person can remain in the education system, the more he/she is likely to learn about sustainable development and to form the right attitude conducive to its future implementation.

The relevance of this indicator in many developed countries is limited as primary school is compulsory with an enrolment ratio of usually 100%. If the enrolment is lower it usually indicates a data problem.

(c) Linkages to Other Indicators: Education is closely linked to other indicators reflecting basic needs, and capacity buildings, information and science, and the role of major groups. This indicator is closely related to the enrolment ratios by level of education.

(d) Targets: Higher school life expectancy generally implies more exposure to education. It is increasingly suggested that school life expectancy should be at least 10 to 12 years corresponding to the total duration of primary and secondary education. However, it should be underlined that this indicator does not measure the number of grades completed but the number of years a student is enrolled.

(e) International Conventions and Agreements: Not available.

4. Methodological Description and Underlying Definitions

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: The school life expectancy is defined as the total number of years of schooling which a child who is enrolled can expect to receive, assuming the probability of his or her being enrolled in school at any particular future age is equal to the current enrolment ratio for that age.

(b) Measurement Methods:

                                  n           E_a^t
                SLE  = S       ---
                                a=i            P_a^t

      where    E = enrolment
                     P = population
                     a = age; a = i, ...n; i = school starting age
                     t = the year for which the indicator is derived

(c) The Indicator in the DSR Framework: The indicator focuses on the importance of education to the sustainable development process. It represents a measure of the State of education within the DSR framework.

(d) Limitations of the Indicator: This indicator requires data on enrolment and population by single years of age, which certain countries have yet to collect on a systematic basis. The estimated number of years enrolled does not necessarily reflect the number of grades of the regular educational system completed. Besides, as it is based on cross-sectional data by level of education at a point in time rather than on longitudinal time-series, it does not take into consideration differences among successive school cohorts over time.

(e) Alternative Definitions: An alternative indicator for education effectiveness would be school drop-out rates, grade by grade.

5. Assessment of the Availability of Data from International and National Sources

(a) Data Needed to Compile the Indicator: Enrolment and population by single years of age corresponding to all levels of education.

(b) Data Availability: Data on enrolment and population by age are not available on a regular basis for certain countries. Based on data from the population censuses, the Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economics and Social Information and Policy Analysis (DESIPA) and certain national statistical offices carry out estimations and projections of population by age. For sound measurement, this indicator must be supported by consistent data for gender and area (such as rural/urban zones).

(c) Data Sources: Data on enrolment by age can be obtained from the national ministries of education. The source of the data on population by age can be either the national statistical offices or DESIPA. The latter updates their estimates and projections every two years for countries with a population of more than 150 000 in 1990.

6. Agencies Involved in the Development of the Indicator

The lead agency for this indicator is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The contact point is the Director, Division of Statistics, UNESCO; fax (33 1) 45 66 48 44.

7. Further Information

(a) Further Readings:

Not available.

(b) Other References:

Not available.

(c) Status of the Methodology:

This indicator has the status of a recommendation since the basic data elements to derive it are included in the Revised Recommendation Concerning the International Standardization of Education Statistics adopted by the UNESCO General Conference at its twentieth session, Paris, 1978.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE SCHOOL ENROLMENT RATIOS
Social	Chapter 36	State

1. Indicator

(a) Name: Difference between male and female school enrolment.
(b) Brief Definition: The arithmetical difference between male and female enrolment ratios.
(c) Unit of Measurement: %.

2. Placement in the Framework

(a) Agenda 21: Chapter 36: Promoting Education, Public Awareness and Training.
(b) Type of Indicator: State.

3. Significance (Policy Relevance)

(a) Purpose: This indicator indicates the extent of gender disparities with regard to the degree of participation in education between male and female.

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development: Education is a process by which human beings and societies reach their fullest potential. Education is critical for promoting sustainable development and improving the capacity of people to address their sustainable development concerns. While basic education provides the underpinnings for any environmental and development education, the latter needs to be incorporated as an essential part of learning. It is also critical for achieving awareness, values, skills and behaviour consistent with sustainable development, and for effective participation in decision making. Differences in educational participation between male and female draw attention to the likely existence of gender disparities.

The relevance of this indicator in many developed countries is limited as primary school is compulsory with an enrolment ratio of usually 100%. If the enrolment is lower it usually indicates a data problem.

(c) Linkages to Other Indicators: Education is closely linked to other indicators reflecting basic needs, a capacity building, information and science, and the role of major groups. Differences between male and female enrolment ratios can be calculated for primary and secondary education, and for gross and net ratios. Such differences may also be applied to adult literacy rates and other indicators which are derived by gender and expressed in terms of ratios or percentages. In practice, this indicator of gender differences is to be presented and interpreted together with the corresponding indicators of enrolment ratio by sex, so as to examine concurrently the overall level of participation in education for both sexes as well as the degree of disparity between them.

(d) Targets: The value of this indicator can vary from +35% to -20% in countries for primary school gross enrolment, with positive differences indicating higher educational participation for male than for female, and negative differences showing the reverse. The target is for a balance where both male and female have the same level of participation in education.

(e) International Conventions and Agreements: Not available.

4. Methodological Description and Underlying Definitions

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: Various concepts exist for indicators or indices of gender disparity (see section 4e below). The concept chosen here is based on the criteria of simplicity of computation and interpretation as well as the discriminatory power of the indicator derived.

(b) Measurement Methods: This indicator is calculated by subtracting the enrolment ratio for female from the corresponding enrolment ratio for male, i.e. ENRM - ENRF

(c) The Indicator in the DSR Framework: he indicator focuses on the importance of education to the sustainable development process. It represents a measure of the State of education within the DSR framework.

(d) Limitations of the Indicator: This indicator provides an idea of the magnitude of gender disparities in the level of participation in education, based on enrolment ratios. As mentioned in section 3c above, this indicator should be presented and interpreted together with the corresponding enrolment ratios so as to give a more comprehensive picture of the extent of gender disparities in the light of the overall level of educational participation.

(e) Alternative Definitions: Other indicators and indices of gender disparity include: (ENRM -ENRF)/ENRM; (ENRM - ENRF)/ENRF; (ENRM - ENRF)/ENRMF; Gini coefficient; and the index of gender disparity in the Human Development Report 1995 published by the United Nations Development Programme.

5. Assessment of the Availability of Data from International and National Sources

(a) Data Needed to Comple the Indicator: Enrolment by sex (and also by age in the case of net enrolment ratio) and by level of education; and the corresponding school-age population according to national regulations, classified by sex.

(b) Data Availability: Data on enrolment by sex, age and by level of education are normally available for most countries on an annual basis, collected through national school censuses. The corresponding data on primary school-age population are available only during national population censuses. Many national statistical offices produce inter-censal estimates as well as projections. United Nations population estimates and projections can also be obtained for most countries except for those with less than 150 000 inhabitants.

(c) Data Sources: Data on enrolment can be collected from schools during school censuses organized by national ministries of education. Data on primary school-age population can be either derived from national population census results, or estimated and projected for the intervening years by the national statistics office or by the Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economics and Social Information and Policy Analysis.

6. Agencies Involved in the Development of the Indicator

The lead agency for this indicator is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The contact point is the Director, Division of Statistics, UNESCO; fax (33 1) 45 66 48 44.

7. Further Information

(a) Further Readings:

UNESCO, Statistical Yearbook (annual editions); World Education Report, editions 1991, 1993, 1995. UNESCO, Paris.

(b) Other References:

UNESCO, Statistics of Education in Developing Countries - An Introduction to their Collection and Analysis. Book 3. Division of Statistics, UNESCO, Paris 1983.

(c) Status of the Methodology:

This indicator has the status of a recommendation since the basic data elements to derive it are included in the Revised Recommendation Concerning the International Standardization of Education Statistics adopted by the UNESCO General Conference at its twentieth session, Paris, 1978.

 

WOMEN PER 100 MEN IN THE LABOUR FORCE
Social	Chapter 36	State

1. Indicator

(a) Name: Women per 100 men in the labour force.
(b) Brief Definition: Women per hundred men in the labour force.
(c) Unit of Measurement: Number.

2. Placement in the Framework

(a) Agenda 21: Chapter 36: Promoting Education, Public Awareness and Training.
(b) Type of Indicator: State.

3. Significance (Policy Relevance)

(a) Purpose: The ratio measures men and women's respective shares in the labour force structure and should not be confused with the participation rate.

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development: A small women's share, assuming properly designed surveys, indicates non access to education and inequality of opportunity and treatment, from, for examples, national laws or general social practices. Such situations are usually accepted as unsustainable.

(c) Linkages to Other Indicators: This indicator is linked to others reflecting the role and participation of women as a major societal group. It would be better interpreted by age group and according to the number of children to be cared for; and paired with indicators on education and ratio of average female wage to average male wage.

(d) Targets: Not available.

(e) International Conventions and Agreements: Equality of opportunity and treatment is a basic international standard. International Labour Office (ILO) conventions No. 100, Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951; No. 111 Discrimination Employment and Occupation Convention 1958; No. 156 Workers with Family Responsibilities Convention, 1981 are relevant to this indicator.

4. Methodological Description and Underlying Definitions

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: The current economically active population or labour force has two components: the employed and the unemployed population. The international standard definition established by the Thirteenth International Conference of Labour Statisticians (ILO, 1982) is based on the following elements:

i) The survey population: This is defined as all usual residents (de jura population) or all persons present in the country at the time of the survey (de facto population). Some particular groups, such as the armed forces or other populations living in institutions, nomadic people, etc. may be excluded.

ii) An age limit: In countries where compulsory schooling and legislation on the minimum age for admission to employment have broad coverage and are widely respected, the age specified in these regulations may be used as a basis for determining an appropriate minimum age limit for measuring the economically active population. In other countries, the minimum age limit should be determined empirically on the basis of: (i) the extent and intensity of participation in economic activities by young people; and (ii) the feasibility and cost of measuring such participation with acceptable accuracy. Some countries use a maximum age limit as well, often linked to the most common age for pensions.

iii) The involvement in economic activities during the survey reference period: The concept of economic activity adopted by the Thirteenth International Conference of Labour Statisticians (1982) is defined in terms of contribution to the production of goods and services as set forth by the United Nations System of National Accounts, revised in 1993.

iv) A short reference period: For example, one week or one day.

(b) Measurement Methods: The labour force is distributed by gender. Gender is a basic descriptive variable in censuses or household/labour force sample surveys, questionnaires and administrative records. The total number of women in the labour force is then divided by the total number of men in the labour force and the result compared to 100.

(c) The Indicator in the DSR Framework: Equal participation of men and women in society is one of the principles tenets of sustainable development. The ratio women per hundred men in the labour force measures participation and is included as a State indicator within the DSR Framework; along with population reaching grade 5 of primary education, and mean years of schooling. The corresponding Driving Force indicators are the rate of growth of school age population; the primary school enrolment ratio; secondary school enrolment ratio; and adult literacy rate. The remaining indicator, GDP spent on education, is a Response indicator.

(d) Limitations of the Indicator: All the indicators in section 4c above relate to improving educational attainment, and strongly suggest a direct link between an increased women's share in the labour force and an higher educational level. This would make more sense for participation rates than for this ratio, though various factors can affect both indicators, which shows only the relative share of both genders in the labour force at a given moment. In addition, the indicator does not capture women's participation in the informal or domestic sectors.

Estimates according to the international standards can in practice be made most reliably on the basis of data collected through household surveys and population censuses. Some of the criteria specified in the international standards can only be implemented precisely from personal interviews - data which is expensive and time consuming to acquire. This is the only data source which, on a regular basis and with an appropriate survey design, can cover virtually the entire population of a country, all branches of economic activity, all sectors of the economy, all types of activity status and all categories of workers, and allows joint and mutually exclusive measurement of the employed, unemployed and inactive persons.

(e) Alternative Definitions: Not available.

5. Assessment of the Availability of Data from International and National Sources

(a) Data Needed to Compile the Indicator: Activity status, gender. The relevance of the indicator would be improved with the use of disaggregated area data, such as urban/rural zones.

(b) Data Availability: The availability of recent data is ascertained for 57 countries, 5 in Africa, 15 in America, 13 in Asia, 22 in Europe, and 2 in Oceania. The sources are labour force sample surveys for 40 countries, household sample surveys for 6 countries, censuses for six countries and official estimates for 5 countries.

(c) Data Sources: (i) population censuses and household sample surveys; (ii) establishment censuses and establishment sample surveys; and (iii) various types of administrative records.

6. Agencies Involved in the Development of the Indicator

The lead agency is The International Labour Office (ILO) of the United Nations, located in Geneva. The contact point is the Focal Point for Environment and Sustainable Development, ILO; fax no. (41 22) 798 8685.

7. Further Information

(a) Data:

Yearbook of Labour Statistics, ILO, Geneva.

Bulletin of Labour Statistics (quarterly) and its Supplement (January/February, April/May, July/August and October/November), ILO, Geneva.

Statistical yearbooks and other publications issued by the national statistical offices.

(b) Methodology:

Surveys of Economically Active Population, Employment, Unemployment and Underemployment - An ILO Manual on Concepts and Methods, ILO, Geneva, 1992.

Sources and Methods: Labour Statistics, Volumes 3 and 5, ILO, Geneva, 1991 and 1990, currently updated.

System of National Accounts 1993, Commission of the European Communities, International Monetary Fund, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, United Nations, World Bank, Brussels/Luxembourg, New York, Paris, Washington, D.C., 1993.

Current international recommendations on labour statistics, ILO, Geneva, 1988. See particularly the resolution concerning Statistics of the Economically Active Population, Employment, Unemployment and Underemployment adopted by the Thirteenth International Conference of Labour Statisticians, October 1982.

(c) International Conventions and Recommendations:

Labour Statistics Convention (No. 160) and Recommendation (No. 170), 1985.

Equal Remuneration Convention (No. 100) and Recommendation (No. 90), 1951.

Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention (No. 111) and Recommendation (No. 111), 1958.

Workers with Family Responsibilities Convention (No. 156) and Recommendation (No. 165), 1981.

(d) Other Studies on Gender Issues:

Women Workers: An Annotated Bibliography, 1983-1994, ILO, Geneva, 1995, XIII, 290 pages (International Labour Bibliography. No. 14). Produced from the LABORDOC database, lists 953 English-language publications, technical reports, working papers and other documents produced at ILO headquarters or in ILO field offices, or prepared in connection with ILO programmes.

 

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT SPENT ON EDUCATION
Social	Chapter 36	Response

1. Indicator

(a) Name: Gross Domestic Product (GDP) spent on education.
(b) Brief Definition: Education expenditure expressed as a proportion of GDP.
(c) Unit of Measurement: %.

2. Placement in the Framework

(a) Agenda 21: Chapter 36: Promoting Education, Public Awareness and Training.
(b) Type of Indicator: Response.

3. Significance (Policy Relevance)

(a) Purpose: This indicator provides a measure of financial resource input into education and its share of national revenue support. It enables better assessment of the adequacy and allocation of financial resource allocated to education within the national economy. It facilitates appropriate policy and decision-making, while taking into account investments in other public sectors.

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development: Education is a process by which human beings and societies reach their fullest potential. Education is critical for promoting sustainable development and improving the capacity of people to address their sustainable development concerns. While basic education provides the underpinnings for any environmental and development education, the latter needs to be incorporated as an essential part of learning. It is also critical for achieving awareness, values, skills and behaviour consistent with sustainable development, and for effective participation in decision making. Financial resources for education directly determines school capacity and quality, which in turn influences enrolment, retention and learning of children and youth in school. Relevance is increased if disaggregation to primary, secondary, and tertiary education is feasible.

(c) Linkages to Other Indicators: Education is closely linked to other indicators reflecting basic needs, capacity building, information and science, and the role of major groups. This measure is also closely linked to other GDP and expenditure indicators. The effect of expenditure on education can be verified by changes in enrolment ratios and literacy rates. These ratios and rates in turn indicate shortfalls and disparities which require modifications in the allocation of financial resource for education.

(d) Targets: There is no standard international target for GDP spent on education. A general target referenced, but not sanctioned by international conventions or agreements, suggests that countries should devote at least 5% of GDP to education.

(e) International Conventions and Agreements: See section 3d above.

4. Methodological Description and Underlying Definitions

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: GDP spent on education has been in common use to compare the level of financial resources for education among countries. The basic concept is to measure the share of financial resource devoted to education from total national revenue.

(b) Measurement Methods: This indicator can be calculated as follows:

      Total expenditure on education     x      100
                      GDP

Total expenditure comprises both public and private expenditure.

(c) The Indicator in the DSR Framework: Adequate fiscal support for education is essential for sustainable development. GDP spent on education represents a Response indicator within the DSR framework.

(d) Limitations of the Indicator: The indicator does not capture effectiveness and efficiency in the education system. It does not differentiate, for example, between education expenditure which is relevant for a country's development compared to that which is not. International comparability of the indicator is problematic: GDP spent on education can be affected by the availability and reliability of data covering both public and private expenditure on education, particularly from households, productive and service enterprises, local communities, NGOs, and individuals. Spending by non-government institutions on education, for example, will be elusive to capture.

The indicator also has the following advantages: (i) inflationary and deflationary trends do not affect the comparability of this ratio either over time or between countries since the data refer to the same year; (ii) currency fluctuation does not impinge on the comparability of this ratio.

(e) Alternative Definitions: Not available.

5. Assessment of the Availability of Data from International and National Sources

(a) Data Needed to Compile the Indicator: Capital and current expenditure on education in the national currency covering both the public and private sectors; and GDP in the national currency.

(b) Data Availability: Data or estimates on GDP are generally available for all countries on an annual basis, either from the national ministries of finance or the World Bank. Data on public expenditure on education are usually collected either by the ministries of education, or finance; and/or national statistical offices. Private education expenditures, particularly those made by households, enterprises, local communities, NGOs and individuals are more difficult to obtain and may be very often incomplete.

(c) Data Sources: See section 5b above.

6. Agencies Involved in the Development of the Indicator

The lead agency for this indicator is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The contact point is the Director, Division of Statistics, UNESCO; fax (33 1) 45 66 48 44.

7. Further Information

(a) Further Readings:

Not available.

(b) Other References:

Not available.

(c) Status of the Methodology:

This indicator has the status of a recommendation since the basic data elements to derive it are included in the Revised Recommendation Concerning the International Standardization of Education Statistics adopted by the UNESCO General Conference at its twentieth session, Paris, 1978.