1. Indicator

(a) Name: Potential scientists and engineers per million population.
(b) Brief Definition: This indicator is defined as the total number of holders of university degrees or equivalent expressed as a proportion of one million inhabitants.
(c) Unit of Measurement: Ratio.

2. Placement in the Framework

(a) Agenda 21: Chapter 35: Science for Sustainable Development.
(b) Type of Indicator: State.

3. Significance (Policy Relevance)

(a) Purpose: The ratio gives a measure of the relative numerical strength of highly qualified human resources available in a country.

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development: This indicator shows the level of supply of scientists and engineers vital for the generation, advancement, dissemination and application of scientific and technical knowledge needed to ensure sustainable development decision making. Scientists are improving their understanding on policy-relevant issues such as climate change, growth in resource consumption rates, demographic trends, and environmental degradation. Changes in these and other areas need to be taken into account in devising long term strategies for development. Scientific knowledge should be applied to assess current conditions and future prospects in relation to sustainable development.

(c) Linkages to Other Indicators: This measure is often linked with indicators relating to scientists and engineers engaged in research and development (R&D). It can also be linked with education indicators which contribute to the accumulation of stock of highly qualified scientists.

(d) Targets: No targets exist for this indicator.

(e) International Conventions and Agreements: No international conventions or agreements apply.

4. Methodological Description and Underlying Definitions

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: Potential scientists and engineers refer to persons present in the domestic territory at a given reference date, who possess the necessary qualifications (achieved either in the educational system or through professional experience) to work as scientists or engineers, regardless of their economic activity, age, sex, nationality or other characteristics. This concept corresponds to "stock of scientists and engineers" in the Recommendation Concerning the International Standardization of Statistics on Science and Technology (S&T Recommendation) which was adopted by the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 1978, and elaborated in the UNESCO Manual for Statistics on Scientific and Technological Activities.

(b) Measurement Methods: The indicator can be obtained by simply dividing the total number of potential scientists and engineers by the total population expressed in millions.

(c) The Indicator in the DSR Framework: The indicator depicts the State of a nation's potential in terms of the relative numerical strength of highly qualified manpower within the population who can participate in and contribute to scientific and technological activities related to sustainable development.

(d) Limitations of the Indicator: It may be difficult to obtain information on those scientists and engineers who have received training and acquired professional experience equivalent to formal education at the third level of education. The present method of estimating the number of potential scientists and engineers based only on the number of holders of university degrees or equivalent can, therefore, give under-estimations. In addition, these data are usually obtained through population censuses or manpower surveys. They are therefore not available on a yearly basis. The data do not show the proportion of scientists and engineers whose work relates to sustainable development.

(e) Alternative Definitions: In the S&T Recommendation cited in section 4a above, it was suggested that the national S&T human resources should be assessed according to the following criteria: total stock and number of economically active qualified manpower. If, for practical reasons, a problem of mutual exclusion arises in the collection of data, preference is given to the second criterion.

5. Assessment of the Availability of Data from International and National Sources

(a) Data Needed to Compile the Indicator: Total number of holders of university degrees or equivalent; and total population.

(b) Data Availability: Data are usually collected during population censuses and manpower surveys. The data required for deriving this indicator may not be readily available every year. At the international level, data on potential scientists and engineers (either stock or number of economically active) for 1990, or later year, are available for 30 countries only.

(c) Data Sources: To establish this indicator at the international level, the population data needed can be obtained from the United Nations, whilst those relating to potential scientists and engineers can be obtained through UNESCO's international survey on scientific research and experimental development. At the national level, data on potential scientists and engineers are normally collected through population censuses and/or manpower surveys.

6. Agencies Involved in the Development of the Indicator

The lead agency is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. The contact point is the Director, Division of Statistics, UNESCO; fax no. (33 1) 45 66 48 44.

7. Further Information

(a) Further Readings:

UNESCO. Recommendation concerning the International Standardization of Statistics on Science and Technology. Adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO in 1978.

UNESCO. Manual for Statistics on Scientific and Technological Activities. 1984.

UNESCO. Guide to the Collection of Statistics on Science and Technology. 1984.

OECD. Manual on the Measurement of Human Resources Devoted to S&T, "Canberra Manual". 1995.

(b) Other References and Contact Points:

UNESCO Division of Statistics.

(c) Status of the Methodology:

Concepts and the corresponding definitions as well as suggestions for the collection of data are set out in the Recommendation Concerning the International Standardization of Statistics on Science and Technology.

SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS ENGAGED IN RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PER MILLION POPULATION
Institutional	Chapter 35	Response

1. Indicator

(a) Name: Scientists and engineers engaged in research and experimental development (R&D) per million population.
(b) Brief Definition: Number of scientists and engineers engaged in R&D (expressed in full-time equivalent) per million inhabitants.
(c) Unit of Measurement: Ratio.

2. Placement in the Framework

(a) Agenda 21: Chapter 35: Science for Sustainable Development.
(b) Type of Indicator: Response.

3. Significance (Policy Relevance)

(a) Purpose: The ratio provides an indication of the human resources devoted to R&D and their relative numerical strength with respect to the total population of the country.

(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development: Scientists and engineers are the key performers of R&D aimed at increasing the stock of knowledge and devising new applications in order to ensure sustainable development. Scientists are improving their understanding on policy-relevant issues such as climate change, growth in resource consumption rates, demographic trends, and environmental degradation. Changes in these and other areas need to be taken into account in devising long term strategies for development. Scientific knowledge should be applied to assess current conditions and future prospects in relation to sustainable development.

(c) Linkages to Other Indicators: This indicator can be linked with potential scientists and engineers per million population for measuring the extent of utilization of highly qualified human resources for R&D purposes. It can also be linked with indicators of expenditure on R&D to study and compare the levels of human and financial inputs into R&D, and to derive the average amount of financial resources per researcher.

(d) Targets: For Africa, one researcher per 1,000 population (that is, 1,000 scientists and engineers engaged in R&D per million population) by the year 2000 (see section 3e below).

(e) International Conventions and Agreements: The above target is contained in Social Development: Africa's Priorities, Audience Africa; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 6-10 February 1995.

4. Methodological Description and Underlying Definitions

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: Scientists and engineers engaged in R&D activities comprise persons with scientific or technological training (usually completion of third level education) who are engaged in professional R&D work, as well as administrators and other high-level personnel who direct the execution of R&D activities.

(b) Measurement Methods: The indicator can be calculated by dividing the number of scientists and engineers engaged in R&D expressed in full-time equivalent by the total population in millions.

(c) The Indicator in the DSR Framework: The ratio indicates the density of scientists and engineers engaged in R&D with respect to the total population of a country and can serve as measure of the Response of scientific and technological development in contribution to sustainable development of a country.

(d) Limitations of the Indicator: The indicator does not show the proportion of the R&D scientists who are engaged in research which could contribute to sustainable development. Data on scientists and engineers engaged in R&D are usually obtained through special surveys. To date, only a few developing countries are able to regularly collect and provide internationally comparable data. In addition, some difficulties have been encountered in measuring the number of scientists and engineers in full-time equivalence. This has led to either under-estimation when those working part-time in R&D activities have not been taken into account, or over-estimation in the case where part-time personnel have been counted as full-time.

(e) Alternative Definitions: Not available.

5. Assessment of the Availability of Data from International and National Sources

(a) Data Needed to Compile the Indicator: Number of scientists and engineers engaged in R&D expressed in full-time equivalence (FTE); population.

(b) Data Availability: Data on scientists and engineers engaged in R&D for 1990, or later, are available for 49 countries only. At the national level, the availability of these data depends on the existence and frequency of S&T surveys.

(c) Data Sources: To derive this indicator at the international level, the population data needed can be obtained from the United Nations whilst those relating to R&D scientists and engineers can be obtained through UNESCO's international surveys on scientific research and experimental development. At the national level, data on scientists and engineers are normally collected through special R&D surveys conducted by the ministry/department/council of science and technology and/or the central statistical office and/or specialized institutions, whereas population data are obtained through population censuses and estimations.

6. Agencies Involved in the Development of the Indicator

The lead agency is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. The contact point is the Director, Division of Statistics, UNESCO; fax no. (33 1) 45 66 48 44.

7. Further Information

(a) Further Readings:

UNESCO. Recommendation concerning the International Standardization of Statistics on Science and Technology. Adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO in 1978.

UNESCO. Manual for Statistics on Scientific and Technological Activities. 1984.

UNESCO. Guide to the Collection of Statistics on Science and Technology. 1984.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Proposed Standard Practice for Surveys and Research and Experimental Development, "Fracati Manual". 1995.

(b) Other References and Contact Points:

UNESCO Division of Statistics.

(c) Status of the Methodology:

Concepts and the corresponding definitions as well as suggestions for the collection of data are set out in the Recommendation Concerning the International Standardization of Statistics on Science and Technology.

 

EXPENDITURE ON RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT AS A PERCENT OF GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT
Institutional	Chapter 35	Response

1. Indicator

(a) Name: Expenditure on R&D as a percentage of Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
(b) Brief Definition: Total domestic expenditure on scientific research and experimental development expressed as a percentage of Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
(c) Unit of Measurement: %.

2. Placement in the Framework

(a) Agenda 21: Chapter 35: Science for Sustainable Development.
(b) Type of Indicator: Response.

3. Significance (Policy Relevance)

(a) Purpose: This ratio provides an indication of the financial resources devoted to R&D in terms of their share of the GDP.

b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable Development: Scientists are improving their understanding on policy-relevant issues such as climate change, growth in resource consumption rates, demographic trends, and environmental degradation. Changes in these and other areas need to be taken into account in devising long term strategies for development. Scientific knowledge should be applied to assess current conditions and future prospects in relation to sustainable development. This indicator is required to assess the level and distribution of R&D expenditure in relation to GDP, at a given point of time, as well as its trends. Adequate R&D funding that is commensurate with economic growth and national income is necessary for ensuring sustainable development.

(c) Linkages to Other Indicators: This indicator can be most closely linked with the one relating to scientists and engineers engaged in R&D per million population, in providing complementary indications on both the human and financial resources devoted to R&D, and their mutual interactions.

(d) Targets: For Africa: (i) African countries should devote 1% of their GNP to R&D by 1995; (ii) each African country should consecrate at least 0.4 - 0.5% of its GDP to research by 2000 (see section 3e below).

(e) International Conventions and Agreements: The above targets are established in the Final Report, Second Conference of Ministers Responsible for the Application of Science and Technology to Development in Africa (CASTAFRICA II), 6-15 July 1987; and Social Development: Africa's Priorities, Audience Africa, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 6-10 February 1995 respectively.

4. Methodological Description and Underlying Definitions

(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: The Recommendation concerning the International Standardization of Statistics on Science and Technology defines total domestic expenditure on R&D activities as all expenditure made for this purpose in the course of a reference year in institutions and installations established in the national territory, as well as installations physically situated abroad; land or experimental facilities rented or owned abroad, and ships, vehicles, aircraft and satellites used by national institutions.

(b) Measurement Methods: The indicator is calculated by dividing total domestic expenditure on R&D by GDP and expressed as a percentage, that is

Total domestic expenditure on R&D x 100
GDP

Both data on R&D expenditure and GDP can be expressed in current values and in the national currency.

(c) The Indicator in the DSR Framework: The indicator measures the potential R&D Response to sustainable development.

(d) Limitations of the Indicator: The indicator does not show the proportion of expenditure on research which contributes to sustainable development. Data on R&D expenditure are usually obtained through special surveys. To date, most developed and a few developing countries are able to regularly collect and provide internationally comparable and timely data.

(e) Alternative Definitions: Gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) can be used as an alternative indicator. It is already in use in a significant number of countries. The difference between total domestic expenditure and GERD is that the former includes R&D expenditure on installations physically situated abroad but used by national institutions.

5. Assessment of the Availability of Data from International and National Sources

(a) Data Needed to Compile the Indicator: Total domestic expenditure on R&D; GDP.

(b) Data Availability: Data on R&D expenditure for 1990, or later years, are available for 46 countries only. At the national level, the availability of these data depends on the existence and frequency of surveys.

(c) Data Sources: To derive this indicator at the international level, the GDP data needed can be obtained from the World Bank whilst those relating to R&D expenditure can be obtained through UNESCO's international surveys on scientific research and experimental development. At the national level, data on R&D expenditure are collected normally through special R&D surveys conducted the ministry/department/council of science and technology and/or the central statistical office and/or specialized institutions, whereas those on GDP can be obtained from either the ministry of finance or the central statistical office.

6. Agencies Involved in the Development of the Indicator

The lead agency is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. The contact point is the Director, Division of Statistics, UNESCO; fax no. (33 1) 45 66 48 44.

7. Further Information

(a) Further Readings:

UNESCO. Recommendation concerning the International Standardization of Statistics on Science and Technology. Adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO in 1978.

UNESCO. Manual for Statistics on Scientific and Technological Activities. 1984.

UNESCO. Guide to the Collection of Statistics on Science and Technology. 1984.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Proposed Standard Practice for Surveys and Research and Experimental Development, "Fracati Manual". 1995.

(b) Other References and Contact Points:

UNESCO Division of Statistics.

(c) Status of the Methodology:

Concepts and the corresponding definitions as well as suggestions for the collection of data are set out in the Recommendation Concerning the International Standardization of Statistics on Science and Technology.