POTENTIAL
SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS PER MILLION POPULATION |
Institutional |
Chapter 35 |
State |
1. Indicator
(a) Name: Potential scientists and engineers
per million population.
(b) Brief Definition: This indicator is defined as the total number
of holders of university degrees or equivalent expressed as a proportion
of one million inhabitants.
(c) Unit of Measurement: Ratio.
2. Placement in the Framework
(a) Agenda 21: Chapter 35: Science for
Sustainable Development.
(b) Type of Indicator: State.
3. Significance (Policy Relevance)
(a) Purpose: The ratio gives a measure of
the relative numerical strength of highly qualified human resources
available in a country.
(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable
Development: This indicator shows the level of supply of scientists
and engineers vital for the generation, advancement, dissemination and
application of scientific and technical knowledge needed to ensure
sustainable development decision making. Scientists are improving their
understanding on policy-relevant issues such as climate change, growth in
resource consumption rates, demographic trends, and environmental
degradation. Changes in these and other areas need to be taken into
account in devising long term strategies for development. Scientific
knowledge should be applied to assess current conditions and future
prospects in relation to sustainable development.
(c) Linkages to Other Indicators: This
measure is often linked with indicators relating to scientists and
engineers engaged in research and development (R&D). It can also be
linked with education indicators which contribute to the accumulation of
stock of highly qualified scientists.
(d) Targets: No targets exist for this
indicator.
(e) International Conventions and Agreements:
No international conventions or agreements apply.
4. Methodological Description and Underlying
Definitions
(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts:
Potential scientists and engineers refer to persons present in the
domestic territory at a given reference date, who possess the necessary
qualifications (achieved either in the educational system or through
professional experience) to work as scientists or engineers, regardless of
their economic activity, age, sex, nationality or other characteristics.
This concept corresponds to "stock of scientists and engineers"
in the Recommendation Concerning the International Standardization of
Statistics on Science and Technology (S&T Recommendation) which was
adopted by the General Conference of the United Nations Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 1978, and elaborated in
the UNESCO Manual for Statistics on Scientific and Technological
Activities.
(b) Measurement Methods: The indicator can
be obtained by simply dividing the total number of potential scientists
and engineers by the total population expressed in millions.
(c) The Indicator in the DSR Framework: The
indicator depicts the State of a nation's potential in terms of the
relative numerical strength of highly qualified manpower within the
population who can participate in and contribute to scientific and
technological activities related to sustainable development.
(d) Limitations of the Indicator: It may be
difficult to obtain information on those scientists and engineers who have
received training and acquired professional experience equivalent to
formal education at the third level of education. The present method of
estimating the number of potential scientists and engineers based only on
the number of holders of university degrees or equivalent can, therefore,
give under-estimations. In addition, these data are usually obtained
through population censuses or manpower surveys. They are therefore not
available on a yearly basis. The data do not show the proportion of
scientists and engineers whose work relates to sustainable development.
(e) Alternative Definitions: In the S&T
Recommendation cited in section 4a above, it was suggested that the
national S&T human resources should be assessed according to the
following criteria: total stock and number of economically active
qualified manpower. If, for practical reasons, a problem of mutual
exclusion arises in the collection of data, preference is given to the
second criterion.
5. Assessment of the Availability of Data from
International and National Sources
(a) Data Needed to Compile the Indicator:
Total number of holders of university degrees or equivalent; and total
population.
(b) Data Availability: Data are usually
collected during population censuses and manpower surveys. The data
required for deriving this indicator may not be readily available every
year. At the international level, data on potential scientists and
engineers (either stock or number of economically active) for 1990, or
later year, are available for 30 countries only.
(c) Data Sources: To establish this
indicator at the international level, the population data needed can be
obtained from the United Nations, whilst those relating to potential
scientists and engineers can be obtained through UNESCO's international
survey on scientific research and experimental development. At the
national level, data on potential scientists and engineers are normally
collected through population censuses and/or manpower surveys.
6. Agencies Involved in the Development of the
Indicator
The lead agency is the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization. The contact point is the Director,
Division of Statistics, UNESCO; fax no. (33 1) 45 66 48 44.
7. Further Information
(a) Further Readings:
UNESCO. Recommendation concerning the International
Standardization of Statistics on Science and Technology. Adopted by the
General Conference of UNESCO in 1978.
UNESCO. Manual for Statistics on Scientific and
Technological Activities. 1984.
UNESCO. Guide to the Collection of Statistics on
Science and Technology. 1984.
OECD. Manual on the Measurement of Human Resources
Devoted to S&T, "Canberra Manual". 1995.
(b) Other References and Contact Points:
UNESCO Division of Statistics.
(c) Status of the Methodology:
Concepts and the corresponding definitions as
well as suggestions for the collection of data are set out in the
Recommendation Concerning the International Standardization of Statistics
on Science and Technology.
SCIENTISTS AND
ENGINEERS ENGAGED IN RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PER MILLION
POPULATION |
Institutional |
Chapter 35 |
Response |
1. Indicator
(a) Name: Scientists and engineers engaged
in research and experimental development (R&D) per million population.
(b) Brief Definition: Number of scientists and engineers engaged in
R&D (expressed in full-time equivalent) per million inhabitants.
(c) Unit of Measurement: Ratio.
2. Placement in the Framework
(a) Agenda 21: Chapter 35: Science for
Sustainable Development.
(b) Type of Indicator: Response.
3. Significance (Policy Relevance)
(a) Purpose: The ratio provides an
indication of the human resources devoted to R&D and their relative
numerical strength with respect to the total population of the country.
(b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable
Development: Scientists and engineers are the key performers of
R&D aimed at increasing the stock of knowledge and devising new
applications in order to ensure sustainable development. Scientists are
improving their understanding on policy-relevant issues such as climate
change, growth in resource consumption rates, demographic trends, and
environmental degradation. Changes in these and other areas need to be
taken into account in devising long term strategies for development.
Scientific knowledge should be applied to assess current conditions and
future prospects in relation to sustainable development.
(c) Linkages to Other Indicators: This
indicator can be linked with potential scientists and engineers per
million population for measuring the extent of utilization of highly
qualified human resources for R&D purposes. It can also be linked with
indicators of expenditure on R&D to study and compare the levels of
human and financial inputs into R&D, and to derive the average amount
of financial resources per researcher.
(d) Targets: For Africa, one researcher per
1,000 population (that is, 1,000 scientists and engineers engaged in
R&D per million population) by the year 2000 (see section 3e below).
(e) International Conventions and Agreements:
The above target is contained in Social Development: Africa's Priorities,
Audience Africa; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO), 6-10 February 1995.
4. Methodological Description and Underlying
Definitions
(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts:
Scientists and engineers engaged in R&D activities comprise persons
with scientific or technological training (usually completion of third
level education) who are engaged in professional R&D work, as well as
administrators and other high-level personnel who direct the execution of
R&D activities.
(b) Measurement Methods: The indicator can
be calculated by dividing the number of scientists and engineers engaged
in R&D expressed in full-time equivalent by the total population in
millions.
(c) The Indicator in the DSR Framework: The
ratio indicates the density of scientists and engineers engaged in R&D
with respect to the total population of a country and can serve as measure
of the Response of scientific and technological development in
contribution to sustainable development of a country.
(d) Limitations of the Indicator: The
indicator does not show the proportion of the R&D scientists who are
engaged in research which could contribute to sustainable development.
Data on scientists and engineers engaged in R&D are usually obtained
through special surveys. To date, only a few developing countries are able
to regularly collect and provide internationally comparable data. In
addition, some difficulties have been encountered in measuring the number
of scientists and engineers in full-time equivalence. This has led to
either under-estimation when those working part-time in R&D activities
have not been taken into account, or over-estimation in the case where
part-time personnel have been counted as full-time.
(e) Alternative Definitions: Not available.
5. Assessment of the Availability of Data from
International and National Sources
(a) Data Needed to Compile the Indicator:
Number of scientists and engineers engaged in R&D expressed in
full-time equivalence (FTE); population.
(b) Data Availability: Data on scientists
and engineers engaged in R&D for 1990, or later, are available for 49
countries only. At the national level, the availability of these data
depends on the existence and frequency of S&T surveys.
(c) Data Sources: To derive this indicator
at the international level, the population data needed can be obtained
from the United Nations whilst those relating to R&D scientists and
engineers can be obtained through UNESCO's international surveys on
scientific research and experimental development. At the national level,
data on scientists and engineers are normally collected through special
R&D surveys conducted by the ministry/department/council of science
and technology and/or the central statistical office and/or specialized
institutions, whereas population data are obtained through population
censuses and estimations.
6. Agencies Involved in the Development of the
Indicator
The lead agency is the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization. The contact point is the Director,
Division of Statistics, UNESCO; fax no. (33 1) 45 66 48 44.
7. Further Information
(a) Further Readings:
UNESCO. Recommendation concerning the International
Standardization of Statistics on Science and Technology. Adopted by the
General Conference of UNESCO in 1978.
UNESCO. Manual for Statistics on Scientific and
Technological Activities. 1984.
UNESCO. Guide to the Collection of Statistics on
Science and Technology. 1984.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development. Proposed Standard Practice for Surveys and Research and
Experimental Development, "Fracati Manual". 1995.
(b) Other References and Contact Points:
UNESCO Division of Statistics.
(c) Status of the Methodology:
Concepts and the corresponding definitions as
well as suggestions for the collection of data are set out in the
Recommendation Concerning the International Standardization of Statistics
on Science and Technology.
EXPENDITURE ON
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT AS A PERCENT OF GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT |
Institutional |
Chapter 35 |
Response |
1. Indicator
(a) Name: Expenditure on R&D as a
percentage of Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
(b) Brief Definition: Total domestic expenditure on scientific
research and experimental development expressed as a percentage of Gross
Domestic Product (GDP).
(c) Unit of Measurement: %.
2. Placement in the Framework
(a) Agenda 21: Chapter 35: Science for
Sustainable Development.
(b) Type of Indicator: Response.
3. Significance (Policy Relevance)
(a) Purpose: This ratio provides an
indication of the financial resources devoted to R&D in terms of their
share of the GDP.
b) Relevance to Sustainable/Unsustainable
Development: Scientists are improving their understanding on
policy-relevant issues such as climate change, growth in resource
consumption rates, demographic trends, and environmental degradation.
Changes in these and other areas need to be taken into account in devising
long term strategies for development. Scientific knowledge should be
applied to assess current conditions and future prospects in relation to
sustainable development. This indicator is required to assess the level
and distribution of R&D expenditure in relation to GDP, at a given
point of time, as well as its trends. Adequate R&D funding that is
commensurate with economic growth and national income is necessary for
ensuring sustainable development.
(c) Linkages to Other Indicators: This
indicator can be most closely linked with the one relating to scientists
and engineers engaged in R&D per million population, in providing
complementary indications on both the human and financial resources
devoted to R&D, and their mutual interactions.
(d) Targets: For Africa: (i) African
countries should devote 1% of their GNP to R&D by 1995; (ii) each
African country should consecrate at least 0.4 - 0.5% of its GDP to
research by 2000 (see section 3e below).
(e) International Conventions and Agreements:
The above targets are established in the Final Report, Second Conference
of Ministers Responsible for the Application of Science and Technology to
Development in Africa (CASTAFRICA II), 6-15 July 1987; and Social
Development: Africa's Priorities, Audience Africa, United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 6-10 February
1995 respectively.
4. Methodological Description and Underlying
Definitions
(a) Underlying Definitions and Concepts: The
Recommendation concerning the International Standardization of Statistics
on Science and Technology defines total domestic expenditure on R&D
activities as all expenditure made for this purpose in the course of a
reference year in institutions and installations established in the
national territory, as well as installations physically situated abroad;
land or experimental facilities rented or owned abroad, and ships,
vehicles, aircraft and satellites used by national institutions.
(b) Measurement Methods: The indicator is
calculated by dividing total domestic expenditure on R&D by GDP and
expressed as a percentage, that is
Total domestic expenditure on R&D x 100
GDP
Both data on R&D expenditure and GDP can be
expressed in current values and in the national currency.
(c) The Indicator in the DSR Framework: The
indicator measures the potential R&D Response to sustainable
development.
(d) Limitations of the Indicator: The
indicator does not show the proportion of expenditure on research which
contributes to sustainable development. Data on R&D expenditure are
usually obtained through special surveys. To date, most developed and a
few developing countries are able to regularly collect and provide
internationally comparable and timely data.
(e) Alternative Definitions: Gross domestic
expenditure on R&D (GERD) can be used as an alternative indicator. It
is already in use in a significant number of countries. The difference
between total domestic expenditure and GERD is that the former includes
R&D expenditure on installations physically situated abroad but used
by national institutions.
5. Assessment of the Availability of Data from
International and National Sources
(a) Data Needed to Compile the Indicator:
Total domestic expenditure on R&D; GDP.
(b) Data Availability: Data on R&D
expenditure for 1990, or later years, are available for 46 countries only.
At the national level, the availability of these data depends on the
existence and frequency of surveys.
(c) Data Sources: To derive this indicator
at the international level, the GDP data needed can be obtained from the
World Bank whilst those relating to R&D expenditure can be obtained
through UNESCO's international surveys on scientific research and
experimental development. At the national level, data on R&D
expenditure are collected normally through special R&D surveys
conducted the ministry/department/council of science and technology and/or
the central statistical office and/or specialized institutions, whereas
those on GDP can be obtained from either the ministry of finance or the
central statistical office.
6. Agencies Involved in the Development of the
Indicator
The lead agency is the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization. The contact point is the Director,
Division of Statistics, UNESCO; fax no. (33 1) 45 66 48 44.
7. Further Information
(a) Further Readings:
UNESCO. Recommendation concerning the International
Standardization of Statistics on Science and Technology. Adopted by the
General Conference of UNESCO in 1978.
UNESCO. Manual for Statistics on Scientific and
Technological Activities. 1984.
UNESCO. Guide to the Collection of Statistics on
Science and Technology. 1984.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development. Proposed Standard Practice for Surveys and Research and
Experimental Development, "Fracati Manual". 1995.
(b) Other References and Contact Points:
UNESCO Division of Statistics.
(c) Status of the Methodology:
Concepts and the corresponding definitions as
well as suggestions for the collection of data are set out in the
Recommendation Concerning the International Standardization of Statistics
on Science and Technology.
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