Agenda 21: Chapter 17
PROTECTION OF THE OCEANS, ALL KINDS OF SEAS, INCLUDING
ENCLOSED AND SEMI-ENCLOSED SEAS, AND COASTAL AREAS AND THE PROTECTION,
RATIONAL USE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THEIR LIVING RESOURCES
17.1. The marine environment - including the oceans and all seas and
adjacent coastal areas - forms an integrated whole that is an essential
component of the global life-support system and a positive asset that
presents opportunities for sustainable development. International law, as
reflected in the provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of
the Sea 1/, 2/ referred to in this chapter of Agenda 21, sets forth rights
and obligations of States and provides the international basis upon which
to pursue the protection and sustainable development of the marine and
coastal environment and its resources. This requires new approaches to
marine and coastal area management and development, at the national,
subregional, regional and global levels, approaches that are integrated in
content and are precautionary and anticipatory in ambit, as reflected in
the following programme areas: 3/
- Integrated management and sustainable development of coastal areas,
including exclusive economic zones;
- Marine environmental protection;
- Sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources of the
high seas;
- Sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources under
national jurisdiction;
- Addressing critical uncertainties for the management of the marine
environment and climate change;
- Strengthening international, including regional, cooperation and
coordination;
- Sustainable development of small islands.
17.2. The implementation by developing countries of the activities set
forth below shall be commensurate with their individual technological and
financial capacities and priorities in allocating resources for
development needs and ultimately depends on the technology transfer and
financial resources required and made available to them.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Integrated management and sustainable development
of coastal and marine areas, including exclusive economic zones
Basis for action
17.3. The coastal area contains diverse and productive habitats
important for human settlements, development and local subsistence. More
than half the world's population lives within 60 km of the shoreline, and
this could rise to three quarters by the year 2020. Many of the world's
poor are crowded in coastal areas. Coastal resources are vital for many
local communities and indigenous people. The exclusive economic zone (EEZ)
is also an important marine area where the States manage the development
and conservation of natural resources for the benefit of their people. For
small island States or countries, these are the areas most available for
development activities.
17.4. Despite national, subregional, regional and global efforts,
current approaches to the management of marine and coastal resources have
not always proved capable of achieving sustainable development, and
coastal resources and the coastal environment are being rapidly degraded
and eroded in many parts of the world.
Objectives
17.5. Coastal States commit themselves to integrated management and
sustainable development of coastal areas and the marine environment under
their national jurisdiction. To this end, it is necessary to, inter alia:
(a) Provide for an integrated policy and decision-making process,
including all involved sectors, to promote compatibility and a balance
of uses;
(b) Identify existing and projected uses of coastal areas and their
interactions;
(c) Concentrate on well-defined issues concerning coastal management;
(d) Apply preventive and precautionary approaches in project planning
and implementation, including prior assessment and systematic
observation of the impacts of major projects;
(e) Promote the development and application of methods, such as national
resource and environmental accounting, that reflect changes in value
resulting from uses of coastal and marine areas, including pollution,
marine erosion, loss of resources and habitat destruction;
(f) Provide access, as far as possible, for concerned individuals,
groups and organizations to relevant information and opportunities for
consultation and participation in planning and decision-making at
appropriate levels.
Activities
A) Management-related activities
17.6. Each coastal State should consider establishing, or where
necessary strengthening, appropriate coordinating mechanisms (such as a
high-level policy planning body) for integrated management and sustainable
development of coastal and marine areas and their resources, at both the
local and national levels. Such mechanisms should include consultation, as
appropriate, with the academic and private sectors, non-governmental
organizations, local communities, resource user groups, and indigenous
people. Such national coordinating mechanisms could provide, inter alia,
for:
(a) Preparation and implementation of land and water use and siting
policies;
(b) Implementation of integrated coastal and marine management and
sustainable development plans and programmes at appropriate levels;
(c) Preparation of coastal profiles identifying critical areas,
including eroded zones, physical processes, development patterns, user
conflicts and specific priorities for management;
(d) Prior environmental impact assessment, systematic observation and
follow-up of major projects, including the systematic incorporation of
results in decision-making;
(e) Contingency plans for human induced and natural disasters, including
likely effects of potential climate change and sealevel rise, as well
as contingency plans for degradation and pollution of anthropogenic
origin, including spills of oil and other materials;
(f) Improvement of coastal human settlements, especially in housing,
drinking water and treatment and disposal of sewage, solid wastes and
industrial effluents;
(g) Periodic assessment of the impacts of external factors and phenomena
to ensure that the objectives of integrated management and sustainable
development of coastal areas and the marine environment are met;
(h) Conservation and restoration of altered critical habitats;
(i) Integration of sectoral programmes on sustainable development for
settlements, agriculture, tourism, fishing, ports and industries
affecting the coastal area;
(j) Infrastructure adaptation and alternative employment;
(k) Human resource development and training;
(l) Public education, awareness and information programmes;
(m) Promoting environmentally sound technology and sustainable
practices;
(n) Development and simultaneous implementation of environmental quality
criteria.
17.7. Coastal States, with the support of international organizations,
upon request, should undertake measures to maintain biological diversity
and productivity of marine species and habitats under national
jurisdiction. Inter alia, these measures might include: surveys of marine
biodiversity, inventories of endangered species and critical coastal and
marine habitats; establishment and management of protected areas; and
support of scientific research and dissemination of its results.
B) Data and information
17.8. Coastal States, where necessary, should improve their capacity to
collect, analyse, assess and use information for sustainable use of
resources, including environmental impacts of activities affecting the
coastal and marine areas. Information for management purposes should
receive priority support in view of the intensity and magnitude of the
changes occurring in the coastal and marine areas. To this end, it is
necessary to, inter alia:
(a) Develop and maintain databases for assessment and management of
coastal areas and all seas and their resources;
(b) Develop socio-economic and environmental indicators;
(c) Conduct regular environmental assessment of the state of the
environment of coastal and marine areas;
(d) Prepare and maintain profiles of coastal area resources, activities,
uses, habitats and protected areas based on the criteria of
sustainable development;
(e) Exchange information and data.
17.9. Cooperation with developing countries, and, where applicable,
subregional and regional mechanisms, should be strengthened to improve
their capacities to achieve the above.
C) International and regional cooperation and coordination
17.10. The role of international cooperation and coordination on a
bilateral basis and, where applicable, within a subregional,
interregional, regional or global framework, is to support and supplement
national efforts of coastal States to promote integrated management and
sustainable development of coastal and marine areas.
17.11. States should cooperate, as appropriate, in the preparation of
national guidelines for integrated coastal zone management and
development, drawing on existing experience. A global conference to
exchange experience in the field could be held before 1994.
Means of implementation
A) Financing and cost evaluation
17.12. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme
to be about $6 billion including about $50 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
B) Scientific and technological means
17.13. States should cooperate in the development of necessary coastal
systematic observation, research and information management systems. They
should provide access to and transfer environmentally safe technologies
and methodologies for sustainable development of coastal and marine areas
to developing countries. They should also develop technologies and
endogenous scientific and technological capacities.
17.14. International organizations, whether subregional, regional or
global, as appropriate, should support coastal States, upon request, in
these efforts, as indicated above, devoting special attention to
developing countries.
C) Human resource development
17.15. Coastal States should promote and facilitate the organization of
education and training in integrated coastal and marine management and
sustainable development for scientists, technologists, managers (including
community-based managers) and users, leaders, indigenous peoples,
fisherfolk, women and youth, among others. Management and development, as
well as environmental protection concerns and local planning issues,
should be incorporated in educational curricula and public awareness
campaigns, with due regard to traditional ecological knowledge and
socio-cultural values.
17.16. International organizations, whether subregional, regional or
global, as appropriate, should support coastal States, upon request, in
the areas indicated above, devoting special attention to developing
countries.
D) Capacity-building
17.17. Full cooperation should be extended, upon request, to coastal
States in their capacity-building efforts and, where appropriate,
capacity-building should be included in bilateral and multilateral
development cooperation. Coastal States may consider, inter alia:
(a) Ensuring capacity-building at the local level;
(b) Consulting on coastal and marine issues with local administrations,
the business community, the academic sector, resource user groups and
the general public;
(c) Coordinating sectoral programmes while building capacity;
(d) Identifying existing and potential capabilities, facilities and
needs for human resources development and scientific and technological
infrastructure;
(e) Developing scientific and technological means and research;
(f) Promoting and facilitating human resource development and education;
(g) Supporting "centres of excellence" in integrated coastal
and marine resource management;
(h) Supporting pilot demonstration programmes and projects in integrated
coastal and marine management.
B. Marine environmental protection
Basis for action
17.18. Degradation of the marine environment can result from a wide
range of sources. Land-based sources contribute 70 per cent of marine
pollution, while maritime transport and dumping-at-sea activities
contribute 10 per cent each. The contaminants that pose the greatest
threat to the marine environment are, in variable order of importance and
depending on differing national or regional situations, sewage, nutrients,
synthetic organic compounds, sediments, litter and plastics, metals,
radionuclides, oil/hydrocarbons and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).
Many of the polluting substances originating from land-based sources are
of particular concern to the marine environment since they exhibit at the
same time toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulation in the food chain.
There is currently no global scheme to address marine pollution from
land-based sources.
17.19. Degradation of the marine environment can also result from a
wide range of activities on land. Human settlements, land use,
construction of coastal infrastructure, agriculture, forestry, urban
development, tourism and industry can affect the marine environment.
Coastal erosion and siltation are of particular concern.
17.20. Marine pollution is also caused by shipping and sea-based
activities. Approximately 600,000 tons of oil enter the oceans each year
as a result of normal shipping operations, accidents and illegal
discharges. With respect to offshore oil and gas activities, currently
machinery space discharges are regulated internationally and six regional
conventions to control platform discharges have been under consideration.
The nature and extent of environmental impacts from offshore oil
exploration and production activities generally account for a very small
proportion of marine pollution.
17.21. A precautionary and anticipatory rather than a reactive approach
is necessary to prevent the degradation of the marine environment. This
requires, inter alia, the adoption of precautionary measures,
environmental impact assessments, clean production techniques, recycling,
waste audits and minimization, construction and/or improvement of sewage
treatment facilities, quality management criteria for the proper handling
of hazardous substances, and a comprehensive approach to damaging impacts
from air, land and water. Any management framework must include the
improvement of coastal human settlements and the integrated management and
development of coastal areas.
Objectives
17.22. States, in accordance with the provisions of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea on protection and preservation of the
marine environment, commit themselves, in accordance with their policies,
priorities and resources, to prevent, reduce and control degradation of
the marine environment so as to maintain and improve its life-support and
productive capacities. To this end, it is necessary to:
(a) Apply preventive, precautionary and anticipatory approaches so as to
avoid degradation of the marine environment, as well as to reduce the
risk of long-term or irreversible adverse effects upon it;
(b) Ensure prior assessment of activities that may have significant
adverse impacts upon the marine environment;
(c) Integrate protection of the marine environment into relevant general
environmental, social and economic development policies;
(d) Develop economic incentives, where appropriate, to apply clean
technologies and other means consistent with the internalization of
environmental costs, such as the polluter pays principle, so as to
avoid degradation of the marine environment;
(e) Improve the living standards of coastal populations, particularly in
developing countries, so as to contribute to reducing the degradation
of the coastal and marine environment.
17.23. States agree that provision of additional financial resources,
through appropriate international mechanisms, as well as access to cleaner
technologies and relevant research, would be necessary to support action
by developing countries to implement this commitment.
Activities
A) Management-related activities
Prevention, reduction and control of degradation of the marine
environment from land-based activities
17.24. In carrying out their commitment to deal with degradation of the
marine environment from land-based activities, States should take action
at the national level and, where appropriate, at the regional and
subregional levels, in concert with action to implement programme area A,
and should take account of the Montreal Guidelines for the Protection of
the Marine Environment from Land-Based Sources.
17.25. To this end, States, with the support of the relevant
international environmental, scientific, technical and financial
organizations, should cooperate, inter alia, to:
(a) Consider updating, strengthening and extending the Montreal
Guidelines, as appropriate;
(b) Assess the effectiveness of existing regional agreements and action
plans, where appropriate, with a view to identifying means of
strengthening action, where necessary, to prevent, reduce and control
marine degradation caused by land-based activities;
(c) Initiate and promote the development of new regional agreements,
where appropriate;
(d) Develop means of providing guidance on technologies to deal with the
major types of pollution of the marine environment from land-based
sources, according to the best scientific evidence;
(e) Develop policy guidance for relevant global funding mechanisms;
(f) Identify additional steps requiring international cooperation.
17.26. The UNEP Governing Council is invited to convene, as soon as
practicable, an intergovernmental meeting on protection of the marine
environment from land-based activities.
17.27. As concerns sewage, priority actions to be considered by States
may include:
(a) Incorporating sewage concerns when formulating or reviewing coastal
development plans, including human settlement plans;
(b) Building and maintaining sewage treatment facilities in accordance
with national policies and capacities and international cooperation
available;
(c) Locating coastal outfalls so as to maintain an acceptable level of
environmental quality and to avoid exposing shell fisheries, water
intakes and bathing areas to pathogens;
(d) Promoting environmentally sound co-treatments of domestic and
compatible industrial effluents, with the introduction, where
practicable, of controls on the entry of effluents that are not
compatible with the system;
(e) Promoting primary treatment of municipal sewage discharged to
rivers, estuaries and the sea, or other solutions appropriate to
specific sites;
(f) Establishing and improving local, national, subregional and
regional, as necessary, regulatory and monitoring programmes to
control effluent discharge, using minimum sewage effluent guidelines
and water quality criteria and giving due consideration to the
characteristics of receiving bodies and the volume and type of
pollutants.
17.28. As concerns other sources of pollution, priority actions to be
considered by States may include:
(a) Establishing or improving, as necessary, regulatory and monitoring
programmes to control effluent discharges and emissions, including the
development and application of control and recycling technologies;
(b) Promoting risk and environmental impact assessments to help ensure
an acceptable level of environmental quality;
(c) Promoting assessment and cooperation at the regional level, where
appropriate, with respect to the input of point source pollutants from
new installations;
(d) Eliminating the emission or discharge of organohalogen compounds
that threaten to accumulate to dangerous levels in the marine
environment;
(e) Reducing the emission or discharge of other synthetic organic
compounds that threaten to accumulate to dangerous levels in the
marine environment;
(f) Promoting controls over anthropogenic inputs of nitrogen and
phosphorus that enter coastal waters where such problems as
eutrophication threaten the marine environment or its resources;
(g) Cooperating with developing countries, through financial and
technological support, to maximize the best practicable control and
reduction of substances and wastes that are toxic, persistent or
liable to bio-accumulate and to establish environmentally sound
land-based waste disposal alternatives to sea dumping;
(h) Cooperating in the development and implementation of environmentally
sound land-use techniques and practices to reduce run-off to
water-courses and estuaries which would cause pollution or degradation
of the marine environment;
(i) Promoting the use of environmentally less harmful pesticides and
fertilizers and alternative methods for pest control, and considering
the prohibition of those found to be environmentally unsound;
(j) Adopting new initiatives at national, subregional and regional
levels for controlling the input of non-point source pollutants, which
require broad changes in sewage and waste management, agricultural
practices, mining, construction and transportation.
17.29. As concerns physical destruction of coastal and marine areas
causing degradation of the marine environment, priority actions should
include control and prevention of coastal erosion and siltation due to
anthropogenic factors related to, inter alia, land-use and construction
techniques and practices. Watershed management practices should be
promoted so as to prevent, control and reduce degradation of the marine
environment.
Prevention, reduction and control of degradation of the
marine environment from sea-based activities
17.30. States, acting individually, bilaterally, regionally or
multilaterally and within the framework of IMO and other relevant
international organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, as
appropriate, should assess the need for additional measures to address
degradation of the marine environment:
(a) From shipping, by:
- Supporting wider ratification and implementation of relevant
shipping conventions and protocols;
- Facilitating the processes in (i), providing support to
individual States upon request to help them overcome the obstacles
identified by them;
- Cooperating in monitoring marine pollution from ships,
especially from illegal discharges (e.g., aerial surveillance),
and enforcing MARPOL discharge, provisions more rigorously;
- )Assessing the state of pollution caused by ships in
particularly sensitive areas identified by IMO and taking action
to implement applicable measures, where necessary, within such
areas to ensure compliance with generally accepted international
regulations;
- Taking action to ensure respect of areas designated by coastal
States, within their exclusive economic zones, consistent with
international law, in order to protect and preserve rare or
fragile ecosystems, such as coral reefs and mangroves;
- Considering the adoption of appropriate rules on ballast water
discharge to prevent the spread of non-indigenous organisms;
- Promoting navigational safety by adequate charting of coasts and
ship-routing, as appropriate;
- Assessing the need for stricter international regulations to
further reduce the risk of accidents and pollution from cargo
ships (including bulk carriers);
- Encouraging IMO and IAEA to work together to complete
consideration of a code on the carriage of irradiated nuclear fuel
in flasks on board ships;
- Revising and updating the IMO Code of Safety for Nuclear
Merchant Ships and considering how best to implement a revised
code;
- Supporting the ongoing activity within IMO regarding development
of appropriate measures for reducing air pollution from ships;
- Supporting the ongoing activity within IMO regarding the
development of an international regime governing the
transportation of hazardous and noxious substances carried by
ships and further considering whether the compensation funds
similar to the ones established under the Fund Convention would be
appropriate in respect of pollution damage caused by substances
other than oil;
(b) From dumping, by:
- Supporting wider ratification, implementation and participation
in relevant Conventions on dumping at sea, including early
conclusion of a future strategy for the London Dumping Convention;
- Encouraging the London Dumping Convention parties to take
appropriate steps to stop ocean dumping and incineration of
hazardous substances;
(c) From offshore oil and gas platforms, by assessing existing
regulatory measures to address discharges, emissions and safety and
assessing the need for additional measures;
(d) From ports, by facilitating establishment of port reception
facilities for the collection of oily and chemical residues and
garbage from ships, especially in MARPOL special areas, and promoting
the establishment of smaller scale facilities in marinas and fishing
harbours.
17.31. IMO and as appropriate, other competent United Nations
organizations, when requested by the States concerned, should assess,
where appropriate, the state of marine pollution in areas of congested
shipping, such as heavily used international straits, with a view to
ensuring compliance with generally accepted international regulations,
particularly those related to illegal discharges from ships, in accordance
with the provisions of Part III of the United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea.
17.32. States should take measures to reduce water pollution caused by
organotin compounds used in anti-fouling paints.
17.33. States should consider ratifying the Convention on Oil Pollution
Preparedness, Response and Cooperation, which addresses, inter alia, the
development of contingency plans on the national and international level,
as appropriate, including provision of oil-spill response material and
training of personnel, including its possible extension to chemical spill
response.
17.34. States should intensify international cooperation to strengthen
or establish, where necessary, regional oil/chemical-spill response
centres and/or, as appropriate, mechanisms in cooperation with relevant
subregional, regional or global intergovernmental organizations and, where
appropriate, industry-based organizations.
B) Data and information
17.35. States should, as appropriate, and in accordance with the means
at their disposal and with due regard for their technical and scientific
capacity and resources, make systematic observations on the state of the
marine environment. To this end, States should, as appropriate, consider:
(a) Establishing systematic observation systems to measure marine
environmental quality, including causes and effects of marine
degradation, as a basis for management;
(b) Regularly exchanging information on marine degradation caused by
land-based and sea-based activities and on actions to prevent, control
and reduce such degradation;
(c) Supporting and expanding international programmes for systematic
observations such as the mussel watch programme, building on existing
facilities with special attention to developing countries;
(d) Establishing a clearing-house on marine pollution control
information, including processes and technologies to address marine
pollution control and to support their transfer to developing
countries and other countries with demonstrated needs;
(e) Establishing a global profile and database providing information on
the sources, types, amounts and effects of pollutants reaching the
marine environment from land-based activities in coastal areas and
sea-based sources;
(f) Allocating adequate funding for capacity-building and training
programmes to ensure the full participation of developing countries,
in particular, in any international scheme under the organs and
organizations of the United Nations system for the collection,
analysis and use of data and information.
Means of implementation
A) Financing and cost evaluation
17.36. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme
to be about $200 million from the international community on grant or
concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates
only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial
terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter
alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
B) Scientific and technological means
17.37. National, subregional and regional action programmes will, where
appropriate, require technology transfer, in conformity with chapter 34,
and financial resources, particularly where developing countries are
concerned, including:
(a) Assistance to industries in identifying and adopting clean
production or cost-effective pollution control technologies;
(b) Planning development and application of low-cost and low-maintenance
sewage installation and treatment technologies for developing
countries;
(c) Equipment of laboratories to observe systematically human and other
impacts on the marine environment;
(d) Identification of appropriate oil- and chemical-spill control
materials, including low-cost locally available materials and
techniques, suitable for pollution emergencies in developing
countries;
(e) Study of the use of persistent organohalogens that are liable to
accumulate in the marine environment to identify those that cannot be
adequately controlled and to provide a basis for a decision on a time
schedule for phasing them out as soon as practicable;
(f) Establishment of a clearing-house for information on marine
pollution control, including processes and technologies to address
marine pollution control, and support for their transfer to developing
and other countries with demonstrated needs.
C) Human resource development
17.38. States individually or in cooperation with each other and with
the support of international organizations, whether subregional, regional
or global, as appropriate, should:
(a) Provide training for critical personnel required for the adequate
protection of the marine environment as identified by training needs'
surveys at the national, regional or subregional levels;
(b) Promote the introduction of marine environmental protection topics
into the curriculum of marine studies programmes;
(c) Establish training courses for oil- and chemical-spill response
personnel, in cooperation, where appropriate, with the oil and
chemical industries;
(d) Conduct workshops on environmental aspects of port operations and
development;
(e) Strengthen and provide secure financing for new and existing
specialized international centres of professional maritime education;
(f) States should, through bilateral and multilateral cooperation,
support and supplement the national efforts of developing countries as
regards human resource development in relation to prevention and
reduction of degradation of the marine environment.
D) Capacity-building
17.39. National planning and coordinating bodies should be given the
capacity and authority to review all land-based activities and sources of
pollution for their impacts on the marine environment and to propose
appropriate control measures.
17.40. Research facilities should be strengthened or, where
appropriate, developed in developing countries for systematic observation
of marine pollution, environmental impact assessment and development of
control recommendations and should be managed and staffed by local
experts.
17.41. Special arrangements will be needed to provide adequate
financial and technical resources to assist developing countries in
preventing and solving problems associated with activities that threaten
the marine environment.
17.42. An international funding mechanism should be created for the
application of appropriate sewage treatment technologies and building
sewage treatment facilities, including grants or concessional loans from
international agencies and appropriate regional funds, replenished at
least in part on a revolving basis by user fees.
17.43. In carrying out these programme activities, particular attention
needs to be given to the problems of developing countries that would bear
an unequal burden because of their lack of facilities, expertise or
technical capacities.
C. Sustainable use and conservation of marine living
resources of the high seas
Basis for action
17.44. Over the last decade, fisheries on the high seas have
considerably expanded and currently represent approximately 5 per cent of
total world landings. The provisions of the United Nations Convention on
the Law of the Sea on the marine living resources of the high seas sets
forth rights and obligations of States with respect to conservation and
utilization of those resources.
17.45. However, management of high seas fisheries, including the
adoption, monitoring and enforcement of effective conservation measures,
is inadequate in many areas and some resources are overutilized. There are
problems of unregulated fishing, overcapitalization, excessive fleet size,
vessel reflagging to escape controls, insufficiently selective gear,
unreliable databases and lack of sufficient cooperation between States.
Action by States whose nationals and vessels fish on the high seas, as
well as cooperation at the bilateral, subregional, regional and global
levels, is essential particularly for highly migratory species and
straddling stocks. Such action and cooperation should address inadequacies
in fishing practices, as well as in biological knowledge, fisheries
statistics and improvement of systems for handling data. Emphasis should
also be on multi-species management and other approaches that take into
account the relationships among species, especially in addressing depleted
species, but also in identifying the potential of underutilized or
unutilized populations.
Objectives
17.46. States commit themselves to the conservation and sustainable use
of marine living resources on the high seas. To this end, it is necessary
to:
(a) Develop and increase the potential of marine living resources to
meet human nutritional needs, as well as social, economic and
development goals;
(b) Maintain or restore populations of marine species at levels that can
produce the maximum sustainable yield as qualified by relevant
environmental and economic factors, taking into consideration
relationships among species;
(c) Promote the development and use of selective fishing gear and
practices that minimize waste in the catch of target species and
minimize by-catch of non-target species;
(d) Ensure effective monitoring and enforcement with respect to fishing
activities;
(e) Protect and restore endangered marine species;
(f) Preserve habitats and other ecologically sensitive areas;
(g) Promote scientific research with respect to the marine living
resources in the high seas.
17.47. Nothing in paragraph 17.46 above restricts the right of a State
or the competence of an international organization, as appropriate, to
prohibit, limit or regulate the exploitation of marine mammals on the high
seas more strictly than provided for in that paragraph. States shall
cooperate with a view to the conservation of marine mammals and, in the
case of cetaceans, shall in particular work through the appropriate
international organizations for their conservation, management and study.
17.48. The ability of developing countries to fulfil the above
objectives is dependent upon their capabilities, including the financial,
scientific and technological means at their disposal. Adequate financial,
scientific and technological cooperation should be provided to support
action by them to implement these objectives.
Activities
A) Management-related activities
17.49. States should take effective action, including bilateral and
multilateral cooperation, where appropriate at the subregional, regional
and global levels, to ensure that high seas fisheries are managed in
accordance with the provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law
of the Sea. In particular, they should:
(a) Give full effect to these provisions with regard to fisheries
populations whose ranges lie both within and beyond exclusive economic
zones (straddling stocks);
(b) Give full effect to these provisions with regard to highly migratory
species;
(c) Negotiate, where appropriate, international agreements for the
effective management and conservation of fishery stocks;
(d) Define and identify appropriate management units;
(e) States should convene, as soon as possible, an intergovernmental
conference under United Nations auspices, taking into account relevant
activities at the subregional, regional and global levels, with a view
to promoting effective implementation of the provisions of the United
Nations
(f) Convention on the Law of the Sea on straddling fish stocks and highly
migratory fish stocks. The conference, drawing, inter alia, on scientific
and technical studies by FAO, should identify and assess existing problems
related to the conservation and management of such fish stocks, and
consider means of improving cooperation on fisheries among States, and
formulate appropriate recommendations. The work and the results of the
conference should be fully consistent with the provisions of the United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, in particular the rights and
obligations of coastal States and States fishing on the high seas.
17.50. States should ensure that fishing activities by vessels flying
their flags on the high seas take place in a manner so as to minimize
incidental catch.
17.51. States should take effective action consistent with
international law to monitor and control fishing activities by vessels
flying their flags on the high seas to ensure compliance with applicable
conservation and management rules, including full, detailed, accurate and
timely reporting of catches and effort.
17.52. States should take effective action, consistent with
international law, to deter reflagging of vessels by their nationals as a
means of avoiding compliance with applicable conservation and management
rules for fishing activities on the high seas.
17.53. States should prohibit dynamiting, poisoning and other
comparable destructive fishing practices.
17.54. States should fully implement General Assembly resolution 46/215
on large-scale pelagic drift-net fishing.
17.55. States should take measures to increase the availability of
marine living resources as human food by reducing wastage, post-harvest
losses and discards, and improving techniques of processing, distribution
and transportation.
B) Data and information
17.56. States, with the support of international organizations, whether
subregional, regional or global, as appropriate, should cooperate to:
(a) Promote enhanced collection of data necessary for the conservation
and sustainable use of the marine living resources of the high seas;
(b) Exchange on a regular basis up-to-date data and information adequate
for fisheries assessment;
(c) Develop and share analytical and predictive tools, such as stock
assessment and bioeconomic models;
(d) Establish or expand appropriate monitoring and assessment programmes.
C) International and regional cooperation and coordination
17.57. States, through bilateral and multilateral cooperation and
within the framework of subregional and regional fisheries bodies, as
appropriate, and with the support of other international intergovernmental
agencies, should assess high seas resource potentials and develop profiles
of all stocks (target and non-target).
17.58. States should, where and as appropriate, ensure adequate
coordination and cooperation in enclosed and semi-enclosed seas and
between subregional, regional and global intergovernmental fisheries
bodies.
17.59. Effective cooperation within existing subregional, regional or
global fisheries bodies should be encouraged. Where such organizations do
not exist, States should, as appropriate, cooperate to establish such
organizations.
17.60. States with an interest in a high seas fishery regulated by an
existing subregional and/or regional high seas fisheries organization of
which they are not members should be encouraged to join that organization,
where appropriate.
17.61. States recognize:
(a) The responsibility of the International Whaling Commission for the
conservation and management of whale stocks and the regulation of
whaling pursuant to the 1946 International Convention for the
Regulation of Whaling;
(b) The work of the International Whaling Commission Scientific
Committee in carrying out studies of large whales in particular, as
well as of other cetaceans;
(c) The work of other organizations, such as the Inter-American Tropical
Tuna Commission and the Agreement on Small Cetaceans in the Baltic and
North Sea under the Bonn Convention, in the conservation, management
and study of cetaceans and other marine mammals.
17.62. States should cooperate for the conservation, management and
study of cetaceans.
Means of implementation
A) Financing and cost evaluation
17.63. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme
to be about $12 million from the international community on grant or
concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates
only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial
terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter
alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
B) Scientific and technological means
17.64. States, with the support of relevant international
organizations, where necessary, should develop collaborative technical and
research programmes to improve understanding of the life cycles and
migrations of species found on the high seas, including identifying
critical areas and life stages.
17.65. States, with the support of relevant international
organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, as appropriate,
should:
(a) Develop databases on the high seas marine living resources and
fisheries;
(b) Collect and correlate marine environmental data with high seas
marine living resources data, including the impacts of regional and
global changes brought about by natural causes and by human
activities;
(c) Cooperate in coordinating research programmes to provide the
knowledge necessary to manage high seas resources.
C) Human resource development
17.66. Human resource development at the national level should be
targeted at both development and management of high seas resources,
including training in high seas fishing techniques and in high seas
resource assessment, strengthening cadres of personnel to deal with high
seas resource management and conservation and related environmental
issues, and training observers and inspectors to be placed on fishing
vessels.
D) Capacity-building
17.67. States, with the support, where appropriate, of relevant
international organizations, whether subregional, regional or global,
should cooperate to develop or upgrade systems and institutional
structures for monitoring, control and surveillance, as well as the
research capacity for assessment of marine living resource populations.
17.68. Special support, including cooperation among States, will be
needed to enhance the capacities of developing countries in the areas of
data and information, scientific and technological means, and human
resource development in order to participate effectively in the
conservation and sustainable utilization of high seas marine living
resources.
D. Sustainable use and conservation of marine living
resources under national jurisdiction
Basis for action
17.69. Marine fisheries yield 80 to 90 million tons of fish and
shellfish per year, 95 per cent of which is taken from waters under
national jurisdiction. Yields have increased nearly fivefold over the past
four decades. The provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law
of the Sea on marine living resources of the exclusive economic zone and
other areas under national jurisdiction set forth rights and obligations
of States with respect to conservation and utilization of those resources.
17.70. Marine living resources provide an important source of protein
in many countries and their use is often of major importance to local
communities and indigenous people. Such resources provide food and
livelihoods to millions of people and, if sustainably utilized, offer
increased potential to meet nutritional and social needs, particularly in
developing countries. To realize this potential requires improved
knowledge and identification of marine living resource stocks,
particularly of underutilized and unutilized stocks and species, use of
new technologies, better handling and processing facilities to avoid
wastage, and improved quality and training of skilled personnel to manage
and conserve effectively the marine living resources of the exclusive
economic zone and other areas under national jurisdiction. Emphasis should
also be on multi-species management and other approaches that take into
account the relationships among species.
17.71. Fisheries in many areas under national jurisdiction face
mounting problems, including local overfishing, unauthorized incursions by
foreign fleets, ecosystem degradation, overcapitalization and excessive
fleet sizes, underevaluation of catch, insufficiently selective gear,
unreliable databases, and increasing competition between artisanal and
large-scale fishing, and between fishing and other types of activities.
17.72. Problems extend beyond fisheries. Coral reefs and other marine
and coastal habitats, such as mangroves and estuaries, are among the most
highly diverse, integrated and productive of the Earth's ecosystems. They
often serve important ecological functions, provide coastal protection,
and are critical resources for food, energy, tourism and economic
development. In many parts of the world, such marine and coastal systems
are under stress or are threatened from a variety of sources, both human
and natural.
Objectives
17.73. Coastal States, particularly developing countries and States
whose economies are overwhelmingly dependent on the exploitation of the
marine living resources of their exclusive economic zones, should obtain
the full social and economic benefits from sustainable utilization of
marine living resources within their exclusive economic zones and other
areas under national jurisdiction.
17.74. States commit themselves to the conservation and sustainable use
of marine living resources under national jurisdiction. To this end, it is
necessary to:
(a) Develop and increase the potential of marine living resources to
meet human nutritional needs, as well as social, economic and
development goals;
(b) Take into account traditional knowledge and interests of local
communities, small-scale artisanal fisheries and indigenous people in
development and management programmes;
(c) Maintain or restore populations of marine species at levels that can
produce the maximum sustainable yield as qualified by relevant
environmental and economic factors, taking into consideration
relationships among species;
(d) romote the development and use of selective fishing gear and
practices that minimize waste in the catch of target species and
minimize by-catch of non-target species;
(e) Protect and restore endangered marine species;
(f) Preserve rare or fragile ecosystems, as well as habitats and other
ecologically sensitive areas.
17.75. Nothing in paragraph 17.74 above restricts the right of a
coastal State or the competence of an international organization, as
appropriate, to prohibit, limit or regulate the exploitation of marine
mammals more strictly than provided for in that paragraph. States shall
cooperate with a view to the conservation of marine mammals and in the
case of cetaceans shall in particular work through the appropriate
international organizations for their conservation, management and study.
17.76. The ability of developing countries to fulfil the above
objectives is dependent upon their capabilities, including the financial,
scientific and technological means at their disposal. Adequate financial,
scientific and technological cooperation should be provided to support
action by them to implement these objectives.
Activities
A) Management-related activities
17.77. States should ensure that marine living resources of the
exclusive economic zone and other areas under national jurisdiction are
conserved and managed in accordance with the provisions of the United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.
17.78. States, in implementing the provisions of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea, should address the issues of straddling
stocks and highly migratory species, and, taking fully into account the
objective set out in paragraph 17.73, access to the surplus of allowable
catches.
17.79. Coastal States, individually or through bilateral and/or
multilateral cooperation and with the support, as appropriate of
international organizations, whether subregional, regional or global,
should inter alia:
(a) Assess the potential of marine living resources, including
underutilized or unutilized stocks and species, by developing
inventories, where necessary, for their conservation and sustainable
use;
(b) Implement strategies for the sustainable use of marine living
resources, taking into account the special needs and interests of
small-scale artisanal fisheries, local communities and indigenous
people to meet human nutritional and other development needs;
(c) Implement, in particular in developing countries, mechanisms to
develop mariculture, aquaculture and small-scale, deep-sea and oceanic
fisheries within areas under national jurisdiction where assessments
show that marine living resources are potentially available;
(d) Strengthen their legal and regulatory frameworks, where appropriate,
including management, enforcement and surveillance capabilities, to
regulate activities related to the above strategies;
(e) Take measures to increase the availability of marine living
resources as human food by reducing wastage, post-harvest losses and
discards, and improving techniques of processing, distribution and
transportation;
(f) Develop and promote the use of environmentally sound technology
under criteria compatible with the sustainable use of marine living
resources, including assessment of the environmental impact of major
new fishery practices;
(g) Enhance the productivity and utilization of their marine living
resources for food and income.
17.80. Coastal States should explore the scope for expanding
recreational and tourist activities based on marine living resources,
including those for providing alternative sources of income. Such
activities should be compatible with conservation and sustainable
development policies and plans.
17.81. Coastal States should support the sustainability of small-scale
artisanal fisheries. To this end, they should, as appropriate:
(a) Integrate small-scale artisanal fisheries development in marine and
coastal planning, taking into account the interests and, where
appropriate, encouraging representation of fishermen, small-scale
fisherworkers, women, local communities and indigenous people;
(b) Recognize the rights of small-scale fishworkers and the special
situation of indigenous people and local communities, including their
rights to utilization and protection of their habitats on a
sustainable basis;
(b) Develop systems for the acquisition and recording of traditional
knowledge concerning marine living resources and environment and
promote the incorporation of such knowledge into management systems.
17.82. Coastal States should ensure that, in the negotiation and
implementation of international agreements on the development or
conservation of marine living resources, the interests of local
communities and indigenous people are taken into account, in particular
their right to subsistence.
17.83. Coastal States, with the support, as appropriate, of
international organizations should conduct analyses of the potential for
aquaculture in marine and coastal areas under national jurisdiction and
apply appropriate safeguards as to the introduction of new species. 17.84.
States should prohibit dynamiting, poisoning and other comparable
destructive fishing practices.
17.85. States should identify marine ecosystems exhibiting high levels
of biodiversity and productivity and other critical habitat areas and
should provide necessary limitations on use in these areas, through, inter
alia, designation of protected areas. Priority should be accorded, as
appropriate, to:
(a) Coral reef ecosystems;
(b) Estuaries;
(c) Temperate and tropical wetlands, including mangroves;
(d) Seagrass beds;
(e) Other spawning and nursery areas.
B) Data and information
17.86. States, individually or through bilateral and multilateral
cooperation and with the support, as appropriate, of international
organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, should:
(a) Promote enhanced collection and exchange of data necessary for the
conservation and sustainable use of the marine living resources under
national jurisdiction;
(b) Exchange on a regular basis up-to-date data and information
necessary for fisheries assessment;
(c) Develop and share analytical and predictive tools, such as stock
assessment and bioeconomic models;
(d) Establish or expand appropriate monitoring and assessment programmes;
(e) Complete or update marine biodiversity, marine living resource and
critical habitat profiles of exclusive economic zones and other areas
under national jurisdiction, taking account of changes in the
environment brought about by natural causes and human activities.
C) International and regional cooperation and coordination
17.87. States, through bilateral and multilateral cooperation, and with
the support of relevant United Nations and other international
organizations, should cooperate to:
(a) Develop financial and technical cooperation to enhance the
capacities of developing countries in small-scale and oceanic
fisheries, as well as in coastal aquaculture and mariculture;
(b) Promote the contribution of marine living resources to eliminate
malnutrition and to achieve food self-sufficiency in developing
countries, inter alia, by minimizing post-harvest losses and managing
stocks for guaranteed sustainable yields;
(c) Develop agreed criteria for the use of selective fishing gear and
practices to minimize waste in the catch of target species and
minimize by-catch of non-target species;
(d) Promote seafood quality, including through national quality
assurance systems for seafood, in order to promote access to markets,
improve consumer confidence and maximize economic returns.
17.88. States should, where and as appropriate, ensure adequate
coordination and cooperation in enclosed and semi-enclosed seas and
between subregional, regional and global intergovernmental fisheries
bodies.
17.89. States recognize:
(a) The responsibility of the International Whaling Commission for the
conservation and management of whale stocks and the regulation of
whaling pursuant to the 1946 International Convention for the
Regulation of Whaling;
(b) The work of the International Whaling Commission Scientific
Committee in carrying out studies of large whales in particular, as
well as of other cetaceans;
(c) The work of other organizations, such as the Inter-American Tropical
Tuna Commission and the Agreement on Small Cetaceans in the Baltic and
North Sea under the Bonn Convention, in the conservation, management
and study of cetaceans and other marine mammals.
17.90. States should cooperate for the conservation, management and
study of cetaceans.
Means of implementation
A) Financing and cost evaluation
17.91. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme
to be about $6 billion, including about $60 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs will depend upon, inter alia, the specific
strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
B) Scientific and technological means
17.92. States, with the support of relevant intergovernmental
organizations, as appropriate, should:
(a) Provide for the transfer of environmentally sound technologies to
develop fisheries, aquaculture and mariculture, particularly to
developing countries;
(b) Accord special attention to mechanisms for transferring resource
information and improved fishing and aquaculture technologies to
fishing communities at the local level;
(c) Promote the study, scientific assessment and use of appropriate
traditional management systems;
(d) Consider observing, as appropriate, the FAO/ICES Code of Practice
for Consideration of Transfer and Introduction of Marine and
Freshwater Organisms;
(e) Promote scientific research on marine areas of particular importance
for marine living resources, such as areas of high diversity, endemism
and productivity and migratory stopover points.
C) Human resource development
17.93. States individually, or through bilateral and multilateral
cooperation and with the support of relevant international organizations,
whether subregional, regional or global, as appropriate, should encourage
and provide support for developing countries, inter alia, to:
(a) Expand multidisciplinary education, training and research on marine
living resources, particularly in the social and economic sciences;
(b) Create training opportunities at national and regional levels to
support artisanal (including subsistence) fisheries, to develop
small-scale use of marine living resources and to encourage equitable
participation of local communities, small-scale fish workers, women
and indigenous people;
(c) Introduce topics relating to the importance of marine living
resources in educational curricula at all levels.
D) Capacity-building
17.94. Coastal States, with the support of relevant subregional,
regional and global agencies, where appropriate, should:
(a) Develop research capacities for assessment of marine living resource
populations and monitoring;
(b) Provide support to local fishing communities, in particular those
that rely on fishing for subsistence, indigenous people and women,
including, as appropriate, the technical and financial assistance to
organize, maintain, exchange and improve traditional knowledge of
marine living resources and fishing techniques, and upgrade knowledge
on marine ecosystems;
(c) Establish sustainable aquaculture development strategies, including
environmental management in support of rural fish-farming communities;
(d) evelop and strengthen, where the need may arise, institutions
capable of implementing the objectives and activities related to the
conservation and management of marine living resources.
17.95. Special support, including cooperation among States, will be
needed to enhance the capacities of developing countries in the areas of
data and information, scientific and technological means and human
resource development in order to enable them to participate effectively in
the conservation and sustainable use of marine living resources under
national jurisdiction.
E. Addressing critical uncertainties for the
management of the marine environment and climate change
Basis for action
17.96. The marine environment is vulnerable and sensitive to climate
and atmospheric changes. Rational use and development of coastal areas,
all seas and marine resources, as well as conservation of the marine
environment, requires the ability to determine the present state of these
systems and to predict future conditions. The high degree of uncertainty
in present information inhibits effective management and limits the
ability to make predictions and assess environmental change. Systematic
collection of data on marine environmental parameters will be needed to
apply integrated management approaches and to predict effects of global
climate change and of atmospheric phenomena, such as ozone depletion, on
living marine resources and the marine environment. In order to determine
the role of the oceans and all seas in driving global systems and to
predict natural and human-induced changes in marine and coastal
environments, the mechanisms to collect, synthesize and disseminate
information from research and systematic observation activities need to be
restructured and reinforced considerably.
17.97. There are many uncertainties about climate change and
particularly about sealevel rise. Small increases in sealevel have the
potential of causing significant damage to small islands and low-lying
coasts. Response strategies should be based on sound data. A long-term
cooperative research commitment is needed to provide the data required for
global climate models and to reduce uncertainty. Meanwhile, precautionary
measures should be undertaken to diminish the risks and effects,
particularly on small islands and on low-lying and coastal areas of the
world.
17.98. Increased ultraviolet radiation derived from ozone depletion has
been reported in some areas of the world. An assessment of its effects in
the marine environment is needed to reduce uncertainty and to provide a
basis for action.
Objectives
17.99. States, in accordance with provisions of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea on marine scientific research, commit
themselves to improve the understanding of the marine environment and its
role on global processes. To this end, it is necessary to:
(a) Promote scientific research on and systematic observation of the
marine environment within the limits of national jurisdiction and high
seas, including interactions with atmospheric phenomena, such as ozone
depletion;
(b) Promote exchange of data and information resulting from scientific
research and systematic observation and from traditional ecological
knowledge and ensure its availability to policy makers and the public
at the national level;
(c) Cooperate with a view to the development of standard
inter-calibrated procedures, measuring techniques, data storage and
management capabilities for scientific research on and systematic
observation of the marine environment.
Activities
A) Management-related activities
17.100. States should consider, inter alia:
(a) Coordinating national and regional observation programmes for
coastal and near-shore phenomena related to climate change and for
research parameters essential for marine and coastal management in all
regions;
(b) Providing improved forecasts of marine conditions for the safety of
inhabitants of coastal areas and for the efficiency of maritime
operations;
(c) Cooperating with a view to adopting special measures to cope with
and adapt to potential climate change and sealevel rise, including the
development of globally accepted methodologies for coastal
vulnerability assessment, modelling and response strategies
particularly for priority areas, such as small islands and low-lying
and critical coastal areas;
(d) Identifying ongoing and planned programmes of systematic observation
of the marine environment, with a view to integrating activities and
establishing priorities to address critical uncertainties for oceans
and all seas;
(e) Initiating a programme of research to determine the marine
biological effects of increased levels of ultraviolet rays due to the
depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer and to evaluate the
possible effects.
17.101. Recognizing the important role that oceans and all seas play in
attenuating potential climate change, IOC and other relevant competent
United Nations bodies, with the support of countries having the resources
and expertise, should carry out analysis, assessments and systematic
observation of the role of oceans as a carbon sink.
B) Data and information
17.102. States should consider, inter alia:
(a) Increasing international cooperation particularly with a view to
strengthening national scientific and technological capabilities for
analysing, assessing and predicting global climate and environmental
change;
(b) Supporting the role of the IOC in cooperation with WMO, UNEP and
other international organizations in the collection, analysis and
distribution of data and information from the oceans and all seas,
including as appropriate, through the Global Ocean Observing System,
giving special attention to the need for IOC to develop fully the
strategy for providing training and technical assistance for
developing countries through its Training, Education and Mutual
Assistance (TEMA) programme;
(c) Creating national multisectoral information bases, covering the
results of research and systematic observation programmes;
(d) Linking these databases to existing data and information services
and mechanisms, such as World Weather Watch and Earthwatch;
(e) Cooperating with a view to the exchange of data and information and
its storage and archiving through the world and regional data centres;
(f) Cooperating to ensure full participation of developing countries, in
particular, in any international scheme under the organs and
organizations of the United Nations system for the collection,
analysis and use of data and information.
C) International and regional cooperation and coordination
17.103. States should consider bilaterally and multilaterally and in
cooperation with international organizations, whether subregional,
regional, interregional or global, where appropriate:
(a) Providing technical cooperation in developing the capacity of
coastal and island States for marine research and systematic
observation and for using its results;
(b) Strengthening existing national institutions and creating, where
necessary, international analysis and prediction mechanisms in order
to prepare and exchange regional and global oceanographic analyses and
forecasts and to provide facilities for international research and
training at national, subregional and regional levels, where
applicable.
17.104. In recognition of the value of Antarctica as an area for the
conduct of scientific research, in particular research essential to
understanding the global environment, States carrying out such research
activities in Antarctica should, as provided for in Article III of the
Antarctic Treaty, continue to:
(a) Ensure that data and information resulting from such research are
freely available to the international community;
(b) Enhance access of the international scientific community and
specialized agencies of the United Nations to such data and
information, including the encouragement of periodic seminars and
symposia.
17.105. States should strengthen high-level inter-agency, subregional,
regional and global coordination, as appropriate, and review mechanisms to
develop and integrate systematic observation networks. This would include:
(a) Review of existing regional and global databases;
(b) Mechanisms to develop comparable and compatible techniques, validate
methodologies and measurements, organize regular scientific reviews,
develop options for corrective measures, agree on formats for
presentation and storage, and communicate the information gathered to
potential users;
(c) Systematic observation of coastal habitats and sealevel changes,
inventories of marine pollution sources and reviews of fisheries
statistics;
(d) Organization of periodic assessments of ocean and all seas and
coastal area status and trends.
17.106. International cooperation, through relevant organizations
within the United Nations system, should support countries to develop and
integrate regional systematic long-term observation programmes, when
applicable, into the Regional Seas Programmes in a coordinated fashion to
implement, where appropriate, subregional, regional and global observing
systems based on the principle of exchange of data. One aim should be the
predicting of the effects of climate-related emergencies on existing
coastal physical and socio-economic infrastructure.
17.107. Based on the results of research on the effects of the
additional ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface, in the
fields of human health, agriculture and marine environment, States and
international organizations should consider taking appropriate remedial
measures.
Means of implementation
A) Financing and cost evaluation
17.108. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme
to be about $750 million, including about $480 million from the
international community on grant or concessional terms. These are
indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any
that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific
strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
17.109. Developed countries should provide the financing for the
further development and implementation of the Global Ocean Observing
System.
B) Scientific and technological means
17.110. To address critical uncertainties through systematic coastal
and marine observations and research, coastal States should cooperate in
the development of procedures that allow for comparable analysis and
soundness of data. They should also cooperate on a subregional and
regional basis, through existing programmes where applicable, share
infrastructure and expensive and sophisticated equipment, develop quality
assurance procedures and develop human resources jointly. Special
attention should be given to transfer of scientific and technological
knowledge and means to support States, particularly developing countries,
in the development of endogenous capabilities.
17.111. International organizations should support, when requested,
coastal countries in implementing research projects on the effects of
additional ultraviolet radiation.
C) Human resource development
17.112. States, individually or through bilateral and multilateral
cooperation and with the support, as appropriate, of international
organizations whether subregional, regional or global, should develop and
implement comprehensive programmes, particularly in developing countries,
for a broad and coherent approach to meeting their core human resource
needs in the marine sciences.
(d) Capacity-building
17.113. States should strengthen or establish as necessary, national
scientific and technological oceanographic commissions or equivalent
bodies to develop, support and coordinate marine science activities and
work closely with international organizations.
17.114. States should use existing subregional and regional mechanisms,
where applicable, to develop knowledge of the marine environment, exchange
information, organize systematic observations and assessments, and make
the most effective use of scientists, facilities and equipment. They
should also cooperate in the promotion of endogenous research capabilities
in developing countries.
F. Strengthening international, including regional,
cooperation and coordination
Basis for action
17.115. It is recognized that the role of international cooperation is
to support and supplement national efforts. Implementation of strategies
and activities under the programme areas relative to marine and coastal
areas and seas requires effective institutional arrangements at national,
subregional, regional and global levels, as appropriate. There are
numerous national and international, including regional, institutions,
both within and outside the United Nations system, with competence in
marine issues, and there is a need to improve coordination and strengthen
links among them. It is also important to ensure that an integrated and
multisectoral approach to marine issues is pursued at all levels.
Objectives
17.116. States commit themselves, in accordance with their policies,
priorities and resources, to promote institutional arrangements necessary
to support the implementation of the programme areas in this chapter. To
this end, it is necessary, as appropriate, to:
(a) Integrate relevant sectoral activities addressing environment and
development in marine and coastal areas at national, subregional,
regional and global levels, as appropriate;
(b) Promote effective information exchange and, where appropriate,
institutional linkages between bilateral and multilateral national,
regional, subregional and interregional institutions dealing with
environment and development in marine and coastal areas;
(c) Promote within the United Nations system, regular intergovernmental
review and consideration of environment and development issues with
respect to marine and coastal areas;
(d) Promote the effective operation of coordinating mechanisms for the
components of the United Nations system dealing with issues of
environment and development in marine and coastal areas, as well as
links with relevant international development bodies.
Activities
A) Management-related activities
Global
17.117. The General Assembly should provide for regular consideration,
within the United Nations system, at the intergovernmental level of
general marine and coastal issues, including environment and development
matters, and should request the Secretary-General and executive heads of
United Nations agencies and organizations to:
(a) Strengthen coordination and develop improved arrangements among the
relevant United Nations organizations with major marine and coastal
responsibilities, including their subregional and regional components;
(b) Strengthen coordination between those organizations and other United
Nations organizations, institutions and specialized agencies dealing
with development, trade and other related economic issues, as
appropriate;
(c) Improve representation of United Nations agencies dealing with the
marine environment in United Nations system-wide coordination efforts;
(d) Promote, where necessary, greater collaboration between the United
Nations agencies and subregional and regional coastal and marine
programmes;
(e) Develop a centralized system to provide for information on
legislation and advice on implementation of legal agreements on marine
environmental and development issues.
17.118. States recognize that environmental policies should deal with
the root causes of environmental degradation, thus preventing
environmental measures from resulting in unnecessary restrictions to
trade. Trade policy measures for environmental purposes should not
constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination or a
disguised restriction on international trade. Unilateral actions to deal
with environmental challenges outside the jurisdiction of the importing
country should be avoided. Environmental measures addressing international
environmental problems should, as far as possible, be based on an
international consensus. Domestic measures targeted to achieve certain
environmental objectives may need trade measures to render them effective.
Should trade policy measures be found necessary for the enforcement of
environmental policies, certain principles and rules should apply. These
could include, inter alia, the principle of non-discrimination; the
principle that the trade measure chosen should be the least
trade-restrictive necessary to achieve the objectives; an obligation to
ensure transparency in the use of trade measures related to the
environment and to provide adequate notification of national regulations;
and the need to give consideration to the special conditions and
development requirements of developing countries as they move towards
internationally agreed environmental objectives.
Subregional and regional
17.119. States should consider, as appropriate:
Strengthening, and extending where necessary, intergovernmental
regional cooperation, the Regional Seas Programmes of UNEP, regional
and subregional fisheries organizations and regional commissions;
Introduce, where necessary, coordination among relevant United
Nations and other multilateral organizations at the subregional and
regional levels, including consideration of co-location of their
staff;
Arrange for periodic intraregional consultations;
Facilitate access to and use of expertise and technology through
relevant national bodies to subregional and regional centres and
networks, such as the Regional Centres for Marine Technology.
B) Data and information
17.120. States should, where appropriate:
(a) Promote exchange of information on marine and coastal issues;
(b) Strengthen the capacity of international organizations to handle
information and support the development of national, subregional and
regional data and information systems, where appropriate. This could
also include networks linking countries with comparable environmental
problems;
(c) Further develop existing international mechanisms such as Earthwatch
and GESAMP.
Means of implementation
A) Financing and cost evaluation
17.121. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme
to be about $50 million from the international community on grant or
concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates
only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial
terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter
alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
B) Scientific and technological means, human resource development and
capacity-building
17.122. The means of implementation outlined in the other programme
areas on marine and coastal issues, under the sections on Scientific and
technological means, human resource development and capacity-building are
entirely relevant for this programme area as well. Additionally, States
should, through international cooperation, develop a comprehensive
programme for meeting the core human resource needs in marine sciences at
all levels.
G. Sustainable development of small islands
Basis for action
17.123. Small island developing States, and islands supporting small
communities are a special case both for environment and development. They
are ecologically fragile and vulnerable. Their small size, limited
resources, geographic dispersion and isolation from markets, place them at
a disadvantage economically and prevent economies of scale. For small
island developing States the ocean and coastal environment is of strategic
importance and constitutes a valuable development resource.
17.124. Their geographic isolation has resulted in their habitation of
a comparatively large number of unique species of flora and fauna, giving
them a very high share of global biodiversity. They also have rich and
diverse cultures with special adaptations to island environments and
knowledge of the sound management of island resources.
17.125. Small island developing States have all the environmental
problems and challenges of the coastal zone concentrated in a limited land
area. They are considered extremely vulnerable to global warming and
sealevel rise, with certain small low-lying islands facing the increasing
threat of the loss of their entire national territories. Most tropical
islands are also now experiencing the more immediate impacts of increasing
frequency of cyclones, storms and hurricanes associated with climate
change. These are causing major set-backs to their socio-economic
development.
17.126. Because small island development options are limited, there are
special challenges to planning for and implementing sustainable
development. Small island developing States will be constrained in meeting
these challenges without the cooperation and assistance of the
international community.
Objectives
17.127. States commit themselves to addressing the problems of
sustainable development of small island developing States. To this end, it
is necessary:
(a) To adopt and implement plans and programmes to support the
sustainable development and utilization of their marine and coastal
resources, including meeting essential human needs, maintaining
biodiversity and improving the quality of life for island people;
(b) To adopt measures which will enable small island developing States
to cope effectively, creatively and sustainably with environmental
change and to mitigate impacts and reduce the threats posed to marine
and coastal resources.
Activities
A) Management-related activities
17.128. Small island developing States, with the assistance as
appropriate of the international community and on the basis of existing
work of national and international organizations, should:
(a) Study the special environmental and developmental characteristics of
small islands, producing an environmental profile and inventory of
their natural resources, critical marine habitats and biodiversity;
(b) Develop techniques for determining and monitoring the carrying
capacity of small islands under different development assumptions and
resource constraints;
(c) Prepare medium- and long-term plans for sustainable development that
emphasize multiple use of resources, integrate environmental
considerations with economic and sectoral planning and policies,
define measures for maintaining cultural and biological diversity and
conserve endangered species and critical marine habitats;
(d) Adapt coastal area management techniques, such as planning, siting
and environmental impact assessments, using Geographical Information
Systems (GIS), suitable to the special characteristics of small
islands, taking into account the traditional and cultural values of
indigenous people of island countries;
(e) Review the existing institutional arrangements and identify and
undertake appropriate institutional reforms essential to the effective
implementation of sustainable development plans, including
intersectoral coordination and community participation in the planning
process;
(f) Implement sustainable development plans, including the review and
modification of existing unsustainable policies and practices;
(g) Based on precautionary and anticipatory approaches, design and
implement rational response strategies to address the environmental,
social and economic impacts of climate change and sealevel rise, and
prepare appropriate contingency plans;
(h) Promote environmentally sound technology for sustainable development
within small island developing States and identify technologies that
should be excluded because of their threats to essential island
ecosystems.
B) Data and information
17.129. Additional information on the geographic, environmental,
cultural and socio-economic characteristics of islands should be compiled
and assessed to assist in the planning process. Existing island databases
should be expanded and geographic information systems developed and
adapted to suit the special characteristics of islands.
C) International and regional cooperation and coordination
17.130. Small island developing States, with the support, as
appropriate, of international organizations, whether subregional, regional
or global, should develop and strengthen inter-island, regional and
interregional cooperation and information exchange, including periodic
regional and global meetings on sustainable development of small island
developing States with the first global conference on the sustainable
development of small island developing States, to be held in 1993.
17.131. International organizations, whether subregional, regional or
global, must recognize the special development requirements of small
island developing States and give adequate priority in the provision of
assistance, particularly with respect to the development and
implementation of sustainable development plans.
Means of implementation
A) Financing and cost evaluation
17.132. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme
to be about $130 million, including about $50 million from the
international community on grant or concessional terms. These are
indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any
that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific
strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
B) Scientific and technical means
17.133. Centres for the development and diffusion of scientific
information and advice on technical means and technologies appropriate to
small island developing States, especially with reference to the
management of the coastal zone, the exclusive economic zone and marine
resources, should be established or strengthened, as appropriate, on a
regional basis.
C) Human resource development
17.134. Since populations of small island developing States cannot
maintain all necessary specializations, training for integrated coastal
management and development should aim to produce cadres of managers or
scientists, engineers and coastal planners able to integrate the many
factors that need to be considered in integrated coastal management.
Resource users should be prepared to execute both management and
protection functions and to apply the polluter pays principle and support
the training of their personnel. Educational systems should be modified to
meet these needs and special training programmes developed in integrated
island management and development. Local planning should be integrated in
educational curricula of all levels and public awareness campaigns
developed with the assistance of non-governmental organizations and
indigenous coastal populations.
D) Capacity-building
17.135. The total capacity of small island developing States will
always be limited. Existing capacity must therefore be restructured to
meet efficiently the immediate needs for sustainable development and
integrated management. At the same time, adequate and appropriate
assistance from the international community must be directed at
strengthening the full range of human resources needed on a continuous
basis to implement sustainable development plans.
17.136. New technologies that can increase the output and range of
capability of the limited human resources should be employed to increase
the capacity of very small populations to meet their needs. The
development and application of traditional knowledge to improve the
capacity of countries to implement sustainable development should be
fostered.
__________
Notes
1/ References to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea in
this chapter of Agenda 21 do not prejudice the position of any State with
respect to signature, ratification of or accession to the Convention.
2/ References to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea in
this chapter of Agenda 21 do not prejudice the position of States which
view the Convention as having a unified character.
3/ Nothing in the programme areas of this chapter should be interpreted
as prejudicing the rights of the States involved in a dispute of
sovereignty or in the delimitation of the maritime areas concerned.
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