National policy objectives/focus

New Zealand's electricity generation is dominated by renewable resources with hydro power producing around 70-75% of annual electricity needs, depending on rainfall. Geothermal power contributes another 7%. This balance is made up by fossil fuel generation.

From 1991 to 1996 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) rose by 16.9% while energy use (i.e. total consumer energy (TCE)) increased by only 11.5% - despite a 9% increase in population. Thus, for a 1% increase in GDP, TCE used increased by only 0.68%.

Establishment of the Governments Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority (EECA) in October 1992 provides for the introduction of energy efficiency programmes covering all sectors of society. The focus of activities has been the development and implementation of a ten point national Energy Efficiency Strategy since 1994. Energy efficiency measures are also an integral part of the Government's strategy to reduce the production of CO2.

A "Government Energy Efficiency Leadership Programme" was established in 1993. It encourages improvements in energy efficiency within public sector agencies and institutions (e.g. through loan funding), demonstrating the Government's commitments to effective energy management and lowering emissions of carbon dioxide.

An "Energy-Wise Companies Campaign" was launched in August 1994 and now has membership of over 600 of the largest companies in New Zealand. It promotes commitment to energy efficiency at the top management level of companies, and to establish effective partnership between the Government and the private sector to direct management attention to implementation of cost effective energy efficient practices and technologies. The main features of the campaign are: a public commitment to energy management by company chief executives through endorsement of a common charter of key principles; support from and participation of energy suppliers; endorsement of the campaign by the Ministers of Energy, Commerce and Environment; support from major business, consumer and environmental organisations; practical information, advisory and secretariat support from EECA and annual awards to companies making the most significant improvements in energy efficiency.

In December 1992, a Waste Analysis Protocol (WAP) was released. This facilitates the gathering of data on three parts of the New Zealand waste stream - business waste, domestic waste, and waste measurement at disposal facilities. The most appropriate methodologies are used for each part. The WAP provides local authorities with the means to acquire consistent waste stream data on which to base their own resource management and services for waste management. These data will form the basis for developing national waste reduction targets.

The Ministry of the Environment is negotiating waste reduction targets with business sectors whose activities result in significant waste production, and is encouraging voluntary initiatives in waste reduction and resource recovery to achieve the targets. The Ministry for the Environment is also investigating regulatory and economic mechanisms to back up the voluntary initiatives in case they fail to produce adequate internalisation of the cost of waste.

The Government has signed an Accord with the packaged goods industry, and has assisted the oil industry to put in place a national Used Oil Recovery Programme.

The public sector is a significant purchaser of a broad range of goods and services. The sector, therefore, has an opportunity to influence production and consumption patterns. In recognition of this influence and to provide opportunities for local industry, the government has established a purchasing policy for publicly funded purchasers.

National targets

1. Decision-Making Structure: The Ministry for the Environment is the lead agency for waste management policy at the central government level and coordinates waste management policies produced by other Government agencies.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: New Zealand's Department of Statistics collects broad statistics on household consumption, but there is no single institution that focuses on the issue of changing consumption patterns. This issue impinges on the mandates and responsibilities of many central government agencies as well as regional authorities and private sector groups.

The Ministry for the Environment promotes waste policy through publications and through working with local government. Waste management is affected by policies developed in both local and regional plans.

3. Major Groups: No information

4. Finance: The Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority (EECA) was, in 1994, allocated an additional NZ$8.45 million over 3 years for specific measures targeted at improving energy efficiency across all sectors of the economy. Future funding for energy efficiency measures will be reviewed towards the latter half of 1997, within the context of evolving climate change policies. EECA also manages the Energy Saver Fund, established in 1994-95, which provides NZ$18 million over 5 years to promote increased uptake of energy efficiency in the residential sector.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information

The New Zealand First Party, a partner in New Zealands recently formed coalition Government, has proposed the development of a population policy for New Zealand

A variety of public information activities contribute to raising awareness of the linkages among population, environment, and sustainable development issues. These include workshops for local government on Agenda 21 follow up, public meetings held during the development of Government's Environment 2010 Strategy, and a variety of local government meetings.

New Zealand Official Development Assistance (NZODA) has taken particular care to ensure that women are involved in decision making at all levels of population and sustainable development strategies, policies, projects, and programs.

1. Decision-Making Structure: Several government ministries and departments are concerned with demographic issues. These include: Statistics New Zealand; Department of Social Welfare; Ministry of Housing; Department of Internal Affairs; Ministry of Transport; Ministry of Health; Te Puni Kokiri - Ministry of Maori Development; and Ministry of Women's Affairs. Other agencies such as the Department of Conservation, the Ministry of Education, and the Ministry for the Environment are also indirectly involved in demographic issues.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: Please refer to activities of local authorities and women under "status" above.

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Within NZODA, support for population activities has been channelled mainly through multilateral agencies and international NGOs. The main contribution was NZ$1 million to the work of the UN Population Fund (UNFPA) and NZ$750,000 to the International Planned Parenthood Federation.

In the South Pacific, New Zealand has supported population and development activities on a small scale. In 1995, NZODA provided some support for reproductive health research and for reprinting the publication, Pacific Islands Populations, originally produced by the South Pacific Commission for the Cairo Conference on Population and Development. In addition, NZODA provided financial assistance for the South Pacific Alliance for Family Health, a regional NGO.

The Public Health Commission (PHC - now in the Ministry of Health) published a report on the health status of the New Zealand population in December 1993. The Report noted that despite the "high standard of health" that the country enjoys, "infant mortality has improved only slowly over the last few decades, although more recently, New Zealand saw a dramatic drop in sudden infant death syndrome of 33 percent among Maori and 53 percent among non-Maori between 1989 and 1992." The report demonstrated that New Zealand has high rates of injury and death from road traffic crashes, poisonings and accidents in the home. The incidence of heart disease, melanoma, and cancers of the large bowel and lung is also high. Recent statistics show that New Zealand has one of the highest rates of asthma related deaths in the world. It also has one of the highest levels of youth suicide in the world, particularly among young males (in the 15-24 year age group). The Ministry of Youth Affairs, with support form the Ministry of Health and TPK, is currently developing a National Youth Suicide Prevention Strategy The health status of Maori and other Polynesians, for a variety of reasons, is poorer than that of non-Maori and Polynesians.

Significant changes in road safety policy have been recently implemented to reduce the road death toll. They include the introduction of compulsory breath testing of drivers, the introduction of speed camera-radar systems for enforcement of the speed limit, and compulsory use of helmets by cyclists. Maximum blood alcohol levels have been reviewed, but not changed. A large education programme is currently underway on drink-driving and speeding, and work is being done on penalties for offences. Other changes under consideration include revised speed limits and more stringent vehicle safety standards.

The incidence of HIV/AIDS in New Zealand is comparatively low, 9.8 per 100,000. A total of 413 cases of AIDS were reported by September 1993. New diagnoses reached a peak in 1989 and have levelled off since then. The cumulative incidence of AIDS up to the end of September 1996 was 16.8 per 100,000. Strategies to combat the spread of HIV/AIDS include the promotion of safe sex, education programmes targeted at high risk groups, and a needle and syringe exchange programme for intravenous drug users. These programmes are wholly or partly funded by the Government through the Ministry of Health, and implemented by Government agencies and non-government organisations such as the NZ AIDS Foundation and the New Zealand Family Planning Association.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The Public Health Commission (PHC), set up in 1993 as part of the reorganization of the health sector in New Zealand, is responsible for improving and protecting public health. The PHC was recently merged with the Ministry of Health.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: The Ministry of Health, purchasers of health and disability support services (four regional health authorities), and public health service providers, all maintain and encourage consultation with key groups and sectors.

Two nationally coordinated programmes for Maori include a sudden infant death syndrome prevention programme and a smokefree programme. Territorial authorities are required to consider their statutory responsibilities under the Health Act 1956 to improve, promote and protect public health in their districts. Functions with public health implications include the provision of sanitary works such as waterworks and the collection and safe disposal of sewage; and in other areas such as liquor licensing; food hygiene; building legislation compliance; dangerous goods; civil defence; and bylaws for public health. Regional council functions that also influence public health include the management of the adverse effects of discharges of contaminants into the environment, and regional transport policies encompassing access, safety, energy, and environmental issues. Some regional public health service providers (i.e. functions relating to public health medicine and regulation, health protection, health promotion and health education, public health nurses etc.) participate in Local Agenda 21 programmes operated by local government. Collaborative working relationships are encouraged to improve, promote and protect public health at the national and local levels, for example between central government agencies, public health service providers, local government and different sectors, such as environment, education and transport.

4. Finance: Community services and high user health cards continue to be the main means in the health sector for ensuring access to health services. For example, for holders of these cards there are no charges for secondary and tertiary medical services. There are also limits in charging for items and consumables, although a range of subsidies are provided for assistance. There are no charges for hospital inpatient services and many day patient and outpatient services.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information

Problems of inadequate or insufficient housing are infrequent and isolated, although it is accepted that some groups, particularly those on low incomes, are disadvantaged in finding affordable housing of a suitable standard. Funding to assist the provision of housing for those with special needs is provided through the Community Funding Agency of the Department of Social Welfare.

As of 1 July 1993, previous housing policies, which relied on subsidised loans and rental housing, were replaced by an Accommodation Supplement which aims to improve housing choices for lower income households by creating a transferable subsidy that is expected to enhance the efficient use of existing housing stock.

Recent legislative changes have addressed issues of infrastructure and planning that relate to housing. The Resource Management Act put in place a new planning system, with decision making guided by criteria emphasising impacts on the immediate environment. The Act allows the adoption of a more flexible, integrated and less centralised planning approach. Local authorities are obliged to consult with local communities in preparing their District Plans; these plans play a key role in resource utilisation decisions.

The Building Act 1991, established a single National Building Code, replacing a number of Acts and regulations and a multitude of individual codes create by local authorities. This helps to reduce building and compliance costs and hence the cost of housing. Guidance on ensuring that buildings are safe, durable, accessible and energy efficient is provided by 23 documents released in August 1992, which are to be updated on a rolling 5 year review cycle.

1. Decision-Making Structure: No information

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: A number of local authorities in New Zealand have adopted the principles of Agenda 21 in their strategic planning processes, and at least three local authorities (Waitakere, Hamilton and Wellington) have joined the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI). Hamilton City is one of 21 cities worldwide in ICLEIs Agenda 21 Model Communities Programme. Most local authorities, in preparing the various strategic planning documents required of them under legislation such as the Resource Management Act and Local Government Act, are giving effect to many of the matters set out in Agenda 21. In many ways their annual, strategic, and district plans can be considered "local Agenda 21s". In addition, several local authorities within New Zealand have been active participants in the "Healthy Cities-Healthy Communities" programme of WHO since 1988. There is considerable potential for the Healthy Cities programme, with its intersectoral and collaborative approach, to complement and enhance the development and success of Local Agenda 21s. Some local authorities, for example Hamilton and Christchurch, are actively promoting sustainable transport systems and have programmes to develop cycle ways and to encourage cycling.

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information

"Environment 2010 Strategy", published by the Ministry for the Environment, provides a coherent framework for setting priorities and developing environmental policy. Its preparation involved many policies, programmes, and goals and incorporated input from public submissions and expert opinion. The Strategy establishes a vision for New Zealand's environment to the year 2010 and provides four key conditions needed to underpin achieving this vision: a competitive economy, effective laws and policies, information, and social participation.

Integrated and coordinated approaches to Government decision-making are reflected in policies such as the directive for all government departments to take into account "the collective interest of the Crown" (including specifically its environmental goals) in policy making.

Quality decision making practice obliges Government to consult widely when making decisions affecting the environment and, more particularly, the Principles of the Treaty of Waitangi require that iwi (Maori tribes) are consulted. The Resource Management Act provides for public participation in establishing national policy statements, regional policy statements, and regional and district plans

The Resource Management Act focuses on enabling people and communities to provide for the social, economic, and cultural well being and their health and safety while sustaining the potential of natural and physical resources and avoiding, remedying, or mitigating any adverse effects of their activities on the environment. This is a major change from some of the previous laws which prescribed what activities could go where, for example, agriculture or forestry, residential or commercial development. The Act requires a clear definition of environmental outcomes, including sustainable development limits, but provides freedom of economic and social choice within those limits.

Environmental Impact Assessment is integrated into statutory requirements under the Resource Management Act 1991. Local authorities, when preparing policy statements and plans, must state the anticipated environmental results. Every application for a resource consent must provide an assessment of environmental effects (AEE) as part of the application. The public is able to comment on the adequacy of the AEE through a submission process.

The Montreal Protocol and its Amendments

Montreal Protocol (1987) ratified. 21/7/88

London Amendment (1990) ratified. 1/10/90

Copenhagen Amendment (1992) ratified. 4/6/93

The latest report(s) to the Montreal Protocol Secretariat were prepared in 1996.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

UNFCCC was ratified on 16/9/93

The latest report to the UNFCCC Secretariat was submitted in 1996.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter New Zealand is making progress towards the stabilisation of net CO2 emissions at 1990 levels by the year 2000. This will be mainly achieved by planting new forests and through energy efficiency measures (see chapter 4).

The Resource Management Act focuses on the effects of industrial pollution activities. Activities themselves are not prescribed in the Act, except to the extent that adverse environmental effects must be avoided, remedied, or mitigated according to set receiving environmental conditions. All causes of environmental effects are required to be addressed, regardless of the sector origin.

Studies on lead and benzene in air are ongoing. The New Zealand Refinery no longer refines leaded petrol, but in order to allow existing stocks of leaded petrol to be exhausted, it was sold up until September 1996. There have been studies and reports prepared on odour control from industrial processes such as composting for mushroom culture, fish processing and pulp and paper.

A major study of the possible effects of climate change and ozone depletion included consideration of potential health effects as well, including changes in the distribution of the frequency of tropical diseases, in melanoma and cataracts in Climatic Change: Impacts on New Zealand - Implications for the Environment, Economy and Society.

The Land Transport Pricing Study being done by the Ministry of Transport, in bringing together existing material on environmental externalities of land transport (such as those associated with air quality, noise emissions and greenhouse gases), also includes consideration of the health effects of land transport. Government is also developing a light vehicle fleet model based on New Zealand light vehicle fleet composition in 1992. Once completed this model will be used to predict the likely vehicle emissions out to 2025 and used to develop policy options to manage emissions from the light vehicle fleet.. The Ministry for the Environment is developing a set of indicators for air quality.

The Government is developing a computer-based framework for integrated assessment of climate and sectoral impact information to determine the sensitivity of both natural and managed environment to climate variability and change (CLIMPACTS). The Government strongly supports the conservation and enhancement of sinks and reservoirs of greenhouses gases.

Because of New Zealand's geographic isolation in the southwest Pacific Ocean, it is virtually free of any major influence of transboundary air pollution resulting from industrial accidents and natural disasters.

New Zealand achieved the national goal of phasing out consumption of all but essential use applications of ozone depleting substances by 1 January 1996. New Zealand is also targeting the phase-out of HCFCs by 2015.

No phase-out schedule has yet been established for methyl bromide, but consumption has been capped at 1991 levels awaiting the international phase-out schedules which were produced in December 1995. Consultations have begun regarding the implementation of the Vienna Schedule.

1. Decision-Making Structure: There are several agencies and institutions with responsibilities relevant to the protection of the atmosphere. These include the Ministry for the Environment, the Ministry of Commerce, the Ministry of Transport, the Ministry of Forestry, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Research Science and Technology, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, the Treasury, and the Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority (EECA).

Crown Research Institutes such as the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA) play a significant role in work on protection of the atmosphere. The National Science Strategy Committee for Climate Change comprises representatives from CRIs and policy agencies and also has a role in coordinating New Zealand's climate change science.

Issues associated with the use of safe technologies in industry, transport, and energy fall within the responsibilities of several government agencies including the department of Labour, Occupational Safety and Health, the Ministry of Transport.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: The Ministry for the Environment produced a set of Cleaner Production Guidelines for local authorities to use in setting up and assisting businesses in their areas to implement cleaner production processes. The country has a good capacity to observe transboundary air pollution, to carry out research, and to exchange information in the area.

3. Major Groups: Local authorities with identified air pollution problems (e.g. Canterbury and Auckland Regional Councils) have carried out studies on the effects of air pollution in their regions.

4. Finance: New Zealand received no multilateral or bilateral funding towards the implementation of ozone protection legislation.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information

Regional Councils are working to develop policies and plans to address sustainable land use issues identified through the Regional Policy Statements that they are required to produce under the Resource Management Act 1991. The development of Regional Policy Statements has provided the opportunity to take stock of sustainable land use issues that are currently of concern throughout New Zealand. All regional councils and unitary authorities have raised sustainable land management issues in their policy statements. While priority issues vary to reflect regional concerns, accelerated soil erosion and degradation of elite soils are the two most frequently raised issues.

Several councils have rate-payer funded programmes in place to assist with farm soil conservation and sustainable land management activities. District Councils are also considering how they may best include land use issues in their District Plans. The Waitakere City Council is actively considering urban sustainable land use issues through its Eco-City Project. All councils are considering the best means to implement resource monitoring responsibilities.

The Department of Conservation currently allows over 600 tourism concessionaires to operate in New Zealand's protected areas. A recently adopted Concessions Policy covers all tourism business operating or applying to operate in New Zealand's national parks, reserves and conservation areas. The policy requires all tourism concession applicants to prepare an environmental impact assessment. Tourism concessions will only be granted if they are consistent with the protection of natural resources. A comprehensive public consultation process ensures that concessions are environmentally and socially acceptable and conditions in concession leases and licenses ensure the businesses will be environmentally sustainable.

The New Zealand Government has accorded control of pests (animal pests, weeds, diseases etc.) a high priority through the introduction of the Biosecurity Act in 1993. This Act seeks to decentralise the control of pest species, make pest control agencies accountable for their actions, and to make the funding of pest control transparent. The Act enables regional and central government agencies to develop Pest Management Strategies for the control of any harmful species to levels consistent with regional or national goals.

Although many of the elements and activities necessary to achieve integrated sustainable land management are in place or being worked on, the Government recognises that a more strategic approach would deliver the desired outcomes more quickly and efficiently. Such an approach is envisaged in the proposed New Zealand land management strategy, Caring for our Land. The proposal to develop this strategy is a direct response to both the national significance and the complex nature of current sustainable land use issues, and the need for coordination of the wide range of individuals, groups, and agencies that are involved. Caring for our Land will develop a common framework within which priorities for action can be identified, responsibilities and accountabilities accepted, and collaborative work programmes developed. The development and implementation of Caring for our Land were identified as priority tasks in the Government's Environment 2010 Strategy. The statutory framework for this is the Resource Management Act 1991 and the Biosecurity Act 1993. The Government's Sustainable Agriculture Strategy, "Quality Products from a Quality Environment" is an important component.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The central government agencies primarily responsible for New Zealand's integrated approach to planning and management of land resources are the Ministry of Agriculture (MAF); the Ministry for the Environment (MFE); the Department of Conservation (DOC); Land Information New Zealand (LINZ) (formerly part of the Department of Survey and Land Information (DOSLI); the Ministry of Maori Development - Te Puni Kokiri (TPK); and the Ministry of Research, Science and Technology (MORST). Most of these agencies are members of the UNCED Implementation Officials Group.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: A number of government-lead initiatives on sustainable land management are currently underway. MORST's Strategic Consultative Group on Sustainable Land Management Research is working to establish priorities for research and science that will contribute to the achievement of sustainable land management. (Key national priorities for sustainable land management research, have been identified in Science for Sustainable Land Management - Towards a New Agenda, see Chapter 35). The Public Good Science Fund will continue to make a significant investment in sustainable land management research. Both the East Coast Forestry Initiative and the Sustainable Agriculture Programme (MAF) are providing support to initiatives directed towards sustainable agriculture throughout the country.

3. Major Groups: A significant part of the responsibility for land management lies with local authorities and community groups. For example, fifty-five Landcare, community-based groups have been established throughout the country to collaboratively address local problems; Federated Farmers of New Zealand is involved in several projects directed towards establishing farm based indicators of sustainable land management; Womens' Division of Federated Farmers is preparing a resource kit aimed at assisting the establishment of community based groups; and the Rural Futures Trust is promoting the adoption of Decision Support Systems and sponsoring the development of ecologically based condition assessment models as tools for better farm management decisions.

4. Finance: The Minister for the Environment's Sustainable Management Fund is providing project support for a broad range of resource management activity, including farmer-based sustainable land management initiatives.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information

The State owns 4.9 million hectares of the countrys natural forest. Most of this is managed for conservation values. Only 164,000 hectares of it is managed for wood production. Under the Forest Amendment Act 1993, areas of natural forest that are used for production must be managed in way that maintains the ability of the forest to continue to provide a full range of products and amenities in perpetuity while retaining the forests natural values

Voluntary measures that enhance the protection and sustainable management of New Zealands forest resources include the New Zealand Forest Code of Practice and the New Zealand Forest Accord. The Forest Heritage Trust Fund and Nga Whenua Rahui were established by Government to help achieve the objectives of the Governments Indigenous Forest Policy.

The ownership of New Zealands planted forests has undergone considerable change since 1990, with the sale of timber and management rights to much of the States forest resource. (The State did not sell the land.) Before 1990, the State owned about half the planted forest. From 1 April 1993, the State owned, or had a commitment to manage, about 20% of the resource: 75% is owned by seven major corporates, with considerable offshore investment, while about 23% is owned by small companies, local government bodies, partnerships, joint ventures, and farmers.

The area of planted forest is currently increasing at about 80,000 hectares per annum, and this rate may be maintained for the next 20 to 30 years. If this happens, New Zealands planted forests would account for more than 4 million hectares by 2020.

New Zealand is actively involved in the Montreal Process to develop indicators of sustainable forest management. Domestically, forests are included in New Zealands National Environmental Indicators Programme being coordinated by the Ministry for the Environment.

International Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Drought and/or Desertification

Particularly in Africa

Each party shall file reports on implementation with the Conference of Parties, as often and in the form to be determined. Parties are to report on development of national action programmes. The Conference shall assist affected developing countries to make reports.

Convention has not been signed.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter New Zealand does not have any specific legislation related to desertification and drought.

Prolonged droughts are relatively uncommon in New Zealand. Climate is influenced by the country's latitude, shape, geographical isolation, and topography, resulting in mild temperatures and year-round wind and rainfall in most areas. Two areas of New Zealand, the east coast of the North Island and the South Island high country, however, are prone to drought. The dry tussock grasslands of the South island high country, characterised by high rugged mountains, extensive basins and river flats, have a "continental", highly variable climate, with extremes of heat and cold, and some parts are in danger of becoming a desert. This is due to a combination of factors including climate, the invasion of hawkweeds, high rabbit populations, and the inappropriate use of some land. This area is classified as semi-arid.

Consistent with the government's economic policies, individual landholders accept that they must manage climatic risks. Support is available when an adverse event such as drought is beyond the ability of the local community to deal with, but is provided in a manner that does not reduce individual responsibility for managing risk.

In 1989, the Rabbit and Land Management Programme (RLMP) was established to address the complex bio-physical, economic, social, legal, and institutional issues surrounding the sustainable use of lands in highly rabbit-prone areas. The Rabbit and Land Management Programme addressed serious land degradation on approximately 400,000 hectares of dry tussock grasslands in the South Island high country, about one-eighth of the pastorally occupied high country of the South Island. The RLMP is now completed, but research in this area continues.

New Zealand is currently focusing on: developing land user, community, research, and agency partnerships to define, achieve and reach consensus on resource protection objectives; development of long-term community-based resource monitoring systems that can meet the needs of land users and regulatory agencies; research at the ecosystem/ land use system level and processes and mechanism for information exchange both within land user communities and between research, education and agency interests.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The main government agency responsible for mitigating the effects of drought is the Ministry of Agriculture.

Other Government departments involved in the South Island high country and the east coast of the North Island, but not directly involved in combating desertification are; the Department of Conservation in respect to crown-owned land; Terra link New Zealand Limited ( formerly part of the Department of Land and Survey Information) in respect of land mapping and use monitoring; and the New Zealand Meteorological Service for meteorological and hydrological monitoring. In addition, the Ministry of Forestry administers forestry initiatives in the east coast of the North Island.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: An important outcome of RLMP has been the involvement of high country farmers in monitoring their land and their recognition of the need to know more about long-term trends in the health of their soils and plants, the performance of their stock and the damage done by pests and weeds.

4. Finance: Government expenditure on disaster relief, which includes flooding, drought and hail/snow storms has declined from NZ$72 million in 1988/89 to NZ$5.6 million in 1992/93.

Central government funding for the RLMP averaged NZ$3.5 million per year for the 5-year programme. This provided approximately 50 % of funding, with roughly 25% each coming from regional councils and participating landholders. The programme ended in June 1995.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information

1. Decision-Making Structure: No information

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: No information

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information

Actions required for managing land resources include - to encourage land management practices that reduce soil loss, and maintain or enhance the quality of waterways, groundwater, and coastal waters and protect them from suspended sediments, nutrients, harmful microorganisms and other contaminants; to avoid, mitigate, and remedy the impacts of land-related hazards, including flooding, subsidence, and erosion; and to develop land management skills and land use systems that will enable people and communities to provide for their social and economic wellbeing.

Several joint initiatives between MAF and other key departments address these actions. The initiatives include the New Zealand Sustainable Land Management Strategy, and the development of a National Science Strategy (NSS) for Sustainable Land Management (SLM). Within MAFs Sustainable Agriculture Facilitation Programme current work, and the strategy through to the year 2000, is focused on the following key themes: achieving consistent implementation of local government policies and plans developed under the Resource Management Act and the Biosecurity Act, including attention to participation processes; facilitating the brokerage of information and decision support tools and technologies for sustainable agriculture; encouraging the inclusion of sustainable agriculture principles in mainstream education; and providing well targeted and appropriate operational research - particularly on understanding the factors contributing to sustainable agriculture systems; the development of management planning and decision support systems; and collaborative, participatory community research to support the uptake of sustainable technology and management practices.

The National Science Strategy for Sustainable Land Management, established by Government this year, is an integral part of the overall Sustainable Land Management Strategy announced by Government, and coordinated by the Ministry for the Environment.

The NSS is developed and implemented by a central and three regional committees. A task of the committees will be to improve the still poor understanding of many New Zealanders land resources and how human activities affect them, and the long term monitoring and assessment of environmental trends, through coordinated science. The committees will also have the key roles of monitoring, coordinating, and advocating science which enhances sustainable land management. They will seek to strengthen the links between science, policy, and land management, enhancing the transfer of the findings of land management research to land users and policy makers.

The central committee is funded by central government. The agencies involved are MORST, MAF, MOF, DOC, FRST, Regional councils, and other key stakeholders including commercial land users, NGOs, and the science community.

1. Decision-Making Structure: No information

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: No information

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information

Convention on Biological Diversity

Parties are to develop national strategies, plans and programmes for sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity and integrate them into general development plans.

Parties shall identify, monitor and maintain data on components of biodiversity.

Parties shall introduce appropriate procedures requiring EIAs for projects likely to have significant adverse effects on biological diversity.

Parties shall submit reports on measures which it has taken for the implementation of the Convention, at intervals to be determined.

The Convention was signed in 1992; ratified on 16 September 1993.

No report has been submitted..

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

Parties to take appropriate measures to enforce regulatory provisions and prohibit trade in specimens in violation thereof. Convention also governs treatment of animals in shipment.

Each party to prepare periodic reports on its implementation of the convention and to prepare: (a) an annual report listing export permits issued and species involved, and (b) a biennial report on legislative, regulatory and administrative measures taken.

Convention ratified on 8 August 1989

No report has been submitted.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter

The Government of New Zealand undertook a careful analysis of its legislation and policies before ratifying the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in September 1993. In doing so, it considered the status and management of its forests and related dependent ecosystems and species. The protected forested areas provide a significant contribution to in situ conservation of New Zealand's biodiversity. The measures that are available under a variety of other legislation (e.g. the Resource Management Act) and agreements (e.g. the Forest Accord) ensure that any use of those forest resources not currently protected, is sustainable and does not contribute to the loss of biodiversity, or result in land degradation.

Key issues under action in relation to the Convention include the development of a national biodiversity strategy; investigating the possible establishment of a National Science Strategy for biodiversity; enhancing public and industry awareness of the Convention and of New Zealand's indigenous and endemic biodiversity; measures to address the impacts of harmful alien species; and approaches to ensuring access to genetic resources are based on mutually agreed terms.

1. Decision-Making Structure: No information

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: No information

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information

Until recently there was no legislation in New Zealand that specifically covered GMOs.

The lack of specific legislation for the management of modern biotechnology was instrumental in prompting the reform and drafting of new legislation covering both hazardous substance and new organisms. The control and use of biotechnology has been an integral part of this law reform.

The Hazardous Substances and New Organisms (HSNO) Bill introduced to Parliament in November 1994 was enacted on 10 June 1996. The HSNO Act provides for a coherent overall system for the management of hazardous substances and new organisms so as to provide for the health and safety of people and the environment.

It is the result of long and careful consultation with many sectors of the community.

Among matters of importance spelt out in the Act are: - avoiding or mitigating any harmful effects of new organisms on the environment; and in particular on all native and valued introduced flora and fauna; protecting the health and safety of people and communities and their capacity to provide for their social, economic and cultural well being; the relationship of Maori and their customs and traditions with their ancestral lands, water, waahi tapu (sacred sites), valued flora and fauna, and other taonga (treasure); kaitiakitanga (the exercise of guardianship; and in relation to a resource, includes the ethic of stewardship based on the nature of the resource itself); and the taking into account of the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi (Te Tiriti o Waitangi).

To administer the legislation, the HSNO Act establishes a new agency, the Environmental Risk Management Authority (ERMA). The ERMA is responsible for assessing hazardous substances and new organisms, including GMOs, before they are manufactured, developed, imported or released into the New Zealand environment.

Until the ERMA is fully operational, the Ministry for the Environment will continue its responsibilities for administration of two advisory committees: - the Advisory Committee on Novel Genetic Techniques (ACNGT), which is responsible for contained laboratory and glasshouse manipulation work; and the Interim Assessment Group (IAG) for the field testing or release of genetically modified organisms (GMOs)

In summary, New Zealand has responded to the advent of biotechnology by establishing mechanisms, comparable to similar developments overseas, to safeguard the environmental and public health concerns against possible consequences of an undesirable GMO release into the environment, but at the same time allowing research and development to proceed.

1. Decision-Making Structure: No information

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5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information

The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea: Ratified on 18 August 1996.

New Zealand is an island nation and the majority of its population live on or very close to the coast. The coast has been the traditional place of settlement for New Zealanders. It is a source of food, a major transport link, an economic resource, and a place of relaxation.

The Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act 1977 establishes New Zealands jurisdiction over the 12 nautical mile territorial sea and 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ) around New Zealand. It provides for the exploration, exploitation, conservation, and management of resources within the EEZ. New Zealand is currently in the process of delineating its continental margins.

The Resource Management Act 1991 restates and reforms the law relating to the use of land, air, and water. The purpose of the Act is to promote the sustainable management of natural and physical resources. It identifies coastal management as being of particular importance and simultaneously defines a new regime for the coastal marine area which extends to the outer edge of the territorial sea. The focus is on controlling adverse effects of activities on the environment and managing conflict between competing uses of the coastal space.

The other major statutes covering the coastal marine area are the Marine Reserves Act 1971, the Maritime Transport Act 1994, the Wildlife Act 1953, the Marine Mammals Protection Act 1978, and the Fisheries Act 1983/ Fisheries Act 1996.

The Fisheries Act 1996 provides for the utilisation of fisheries resources while ensuring sustainability and recognises New Zealands international obligations relating to fishing. The major features of the new Act are: - the adoption of an ecosystem-based approach to fisheries management; a clear annunciation of the precautionary approach; greater stakeholder involvement in decision-making through open consultation processes; interfaces with other statutes controlling the incidental deaths of protected species such as sea birds and marine mammals; consolidation of the quota management system as the primary means of controlling fishing; and giving effect to indigenous fishing rights as provided for in the Treaty of Waitangi (Fisheries Claims) Settlement Act 1992.

Future policy initiatives will focus on mechanisms to promote self-management by stakeholders and better providing for fisheries enhancement in the quota management system.

The major policy mechanism for commercial fishing is the Quota Management System. Each year, a Total Allowable Catch, based on sustainable harvesting limits, is set for each fish stock in the system. Management plans have been developed for some fisheries under the Quota Management System and there are some voluntary codes of practices.

New Zealand's initial oil spill response strategy was prepared in 1992 and is currently being reviewed by the Maritime Safety Authority (MSA) to reflect the Maritime Transport Act 1994, which provides the legislative structure to implement such a strategy. In addition a National Oil Spill Contingency Plan is being developed. A stock of oil spill response equipment is being purchased and distributed to the regions. New Zealand is currently working through the process of setting a domestic framework in place to allow ratification of MARPOL.

The Government is developing a National Ballast Water Strategy to reduce the risk of introductions of unwanted organisms into New Zealand waters

[Please see below for details on the London Convention.]

Priority areas in the protection of freshwater include: establishing guidelines which maintain the biophysical "bottom line" needs of water quality and quantity; promoting integrated land and water management, because catchment management influences water quality and quantity; developing and implementing management techniques that give users clear incentives to conserve the quality and quantity of water; encouraging land owners to adopt sustainable land management practices which limit effects on aquatic systems; encouraging agriculture and industry to adopt techniques such as the recycling of waste water, so that they use water more efficiently and produce less waste.

1. Decision-Making Structure: No information

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

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4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information

Under the new legislation, all hazardous substances and new organisms will be assessed prior to their introduction, development or manufacture in New Zealand, using a public assessment process. The purpose of the legislation is to manage the risks from hazardous substances and new organisms, and to protect the environment and people's health, safety and economic, social, and cultural well-being.

An Environmental Risk Management Authority (ERMA) has been established as part of the legislation. ERMA is a regulatory authority which will approve, decline or attach conditions to the importation or manufacture of any new substances or new organisms; approve or endorse codes of practice; design procedures for the control of hazardous substances; and promote information about standards, compliance, and the maintenance and monitoring of these standards. It will operate independently, subject to Ministerial policy direction.

A risk based approach, for the assessment and management of contaminated sites has been done, based on

the Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC) guidelines. For example, draft guidelines have been prepared in consultation with regional councils and the timber industry for selected timber chemicals. These guidelines provide the maximum acceptable levels of timber treatment chemicals that can remain in soil and water and set the necessary targets for clean-up. Investigations are underway into treatment and disposal options for organochlorin wastes. Specific disposal agreements with other OECD countries are in place for the disposal of certain hazardous wastes. A "Green Package", announced as part of the 1996 Budget, also included funding to address hazardous waste management through the development of hazardous waste acceptance criteria for landfills.

In August 1996 the Local Government Amendment Act No 4 was passed. This legislation incorporates the hierarchy of waste management actions (reduction, reuse, recycling, recovery, treatment, and disposal); requires the development of waste management plans by district and city councils, allows the regulation of collection of waste, and provides the ability to levy fees and disposal charges for waste management.

The Ministry for the Environment supports seven demonstration projects on cleaner production techniques, in cooperation with industry and local governments. A "Cleaner Production" booklet which outlines a range of industry case studies has been published. The Ministry also promotes the establishment of further cleaner production projects by local governments and sector groups, and provides advice to councils involved in cleaner production programmes. A manual for industry and councils is being developed.

1. Decision-Making Structure: No information

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: A study by the Ministry for the Environment has identified a range of sites which, based on past uses, could be contaminated with hazardous substances that may pose a risk to the health of people and ecosystems. These sites cover a wide range of activities, including uses such as service stations.

3. Major Groups Industry takes a leading role in dealing with chemicals and hazardous wastes. For example, the Chemical Industry Council has a Responsible Care programme for the management of hazardous wastes and chemicals. The oil industry, in conjunction with the relevant government agencies, has produced a guide to the installation of underground storage tanks. This work will be extended to address the removal of old tanks, site remediation, and sampling standards.

Regional councils, assisted by subsidies from central government, are currently following up this study by carrying out extensive surveys of potentially contaminated sites in their regions. These surveys will help identify specific sites, evaluate risks and develop appropriate containment, remediation and "clean-up" responses.

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: New Zealand is Party to the London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and other Matter (1972). New Zealand has not yet adopted a position on the November 1996 Protocol to the London Convention.

New Zealand attaches importance to the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, which it ratified on 20 December 1994..

New Zealand ratified the Copenhagen Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on 4 June 1993

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal

Parties shall cooperate to disseminate information on transboundary movement of hazardous wastes. Parties shall cooperate to promote environmentally sound low-waste technologies, to transfer technology and cooperate in developing codes of practice. Parties to assist developing countries.

Parties shall immediately inform affected parties as to accidents. Prior to the end of each calendar year, parties shall provide the following information on the preceding calendar year: (a) the authorities handling Convention matters; (b) information regarding the transboundary movement of hazardous wastes; (c) measures adopted to implement convention; (d) available statistics on human health and environmental effects of generation, transport and disposal of hazardous wastes; (e) information on agreements entered into; (f) information on accidents; (g) information on disposal options; and (h) information on development of waste-reduction technologies;

Basel Convention: ratified on 20 December 1994

No information has yet been provided to the Basel Convention Secretariat.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter

Please refer to Chapter 19 for information on this chapter.

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Information on the precise nature of the waste stream in New Zealand is poor and a Waste Analysis Protocol has been developed to provide a standard measurement system. This has been promoted to local authorities at a series of seminars around the country. A software package has also been developed to make the Protocol easier to use and make national data available. Information on solid waste is being collated for the first national data report due out next year. The further development of a more comprehensive database will be considered as part of the development of national environmental indicators for waste. Additional funding has been provided through the "Green Package", announced as part of the 1996 Budget, for guidelines on landfills; guidance has also been provided on charging methodologies for landfills.

At the individual level, the aim of New Zealand's waste management strategy is to minimise waste, reuse resources, and adopt alternative means of disposal (eg making compost). At the industry level, the objective is to "ensure that, wherever practicable, waste generators meet the costs of waste management."

In 1996 the Local Government Act No 4 was passed. This legislation incorporates the hierarchy of waste management (reduction, reuse, recycling, recovery, treatment, disposal), requires the development of waste management plans by district and city councils; allows the regulation of collection of waste, and provides the ability to levy fees and disposal charges for waste management.

The Government has signed an accord with the packaged goods industry, and assisted the oil industry to put in place a national Used Oil Recovery Programme. Regulatory and economic mechanisms will be pursued to back up voluntary initiatives

The Sustainable Management Fund (SMF), administered by the Ministry for the Environment, has supported several cleaner production projects to encourage innovation and adoption of cleaner production methods and technologies by industries and sectors such as pipfruit, fishing, and hospitals.

MFE is developing regulations for the disposal of sewage from ships within New Zealands territorial waters.

1. Decision-Making Structure: No information

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information

3. Major Groups: The Resource Management Act provides part of the framework for dealing with waste issues. Many regional and local councils are developing policies and plans for waste management with advice from the Ministry for the Environment. The Ministry has produced a "Landfill Guideline" for use by local governments and industry. This provides advice on landfill siting, design, operation, and aftercare. It also discusses evaluation and assessment of environmental impacts for existing and closed landfills.

The Department of Internal Affairs and the Ministry for the Environment promoted an amendment to the Local Government Act 1974 to clarify the powers of territorial authorities to promote and implement waste minimisation.

4. Finance: No information

5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information

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The New Zealand Government recognises the urgent need for international cooperation to achieve sustainable social and economic development. At UNCED, New Zealand agreed to commit new and additional resources for sustainable development projects of global environmental benefit and has since taken a decision to contribute financially to the Global Environmental Facility (GEF), including an amount of NZ$10.4 million to the 1994-96 replenishment. About half of this is supplementary to the assessed share.

At UNCED, New Zealand joined other developed countries in reaffirming its commitment to reach the accepted UN target of 0.7 % of GNP for ODA. It noted, however, that the availability of additional ODA resources would have to be considered by the Government in the context of domestic economic circumstances. In 1995/96, the total ODA allocation of New Zealand was approximately 0.23% of the country's GNP. The major part of this (over 80%) is an allocation of NZ$164.670 million for the bilateral and multilateral programmes, administered by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade.

The small island states of the South Pacific are the major focus of New Zealand's ODA program. Some 47% of the total ODA figure, that is about NZ$77 million, goes towards bilateral and multilateral programs in the South Pacific.

The main part of this allocation consists of NZ$64.9 million for bilateral country programs in the Pacific. This assistance goes mainly to the Polynesian and Melanesian countries with which New Zealand has traditional links, mainly as members of the Commonwealth. Some NZ$2.3 million goes towards regional programs which includes sectoral programmes in education, health, women-in-development, agriculture, good governance, economic development and trade, as well as programs in private sector development. In addition, NZODA contributes some NZ$9.5 million to the work of regional agencies in the South Pacific. The regional agencies receiving NZODA support include: The Forum Secretariat, the South Pacific Commission, the South Pacific Regional Environment Program, the Forum Fisheries Agency, the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission, the University of the South Pacific, and the South Pacific Board for Educational Assessment.

In the past, the Government has played a significant role in providing relief to farmers affected by climatic disasters such as drought. It is now recognised that disaster relief programmes can contribute to environmental degradation by distorting risk perceptions of land users and thereby encouraging unsustainable use of land and other resources. Where support is provided, it is in a manner that does not reduce individual responsibility for managing risk.

CHANGES IN NATIONAL BUDGET TO ADDRESS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: No information

NEW ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS: No information

ELIMINATION OF ENVIRONMENTALLY UNFRIENDLY SUBSIDIES: No information

No information

With regard to energy efficiency, the Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority (EECA) is the main information source. The EECA holds information about energy efficient technologies to support government activities and provides information and support services of high quality and easy accessibility to clients. The needs of clients, are continuously being reviewed and updated to ensure that the information systems are relevant.

Various agricultural industry organisations such as the Meat Research and Development Council (MRDC) and the New Zealand Dairy Board provide information on environmentally sound technologies at the national level. The MRDC runs monitor farms which test technologies and management methods. The results of these practical trials are then published widely so farmers can use the information in running their farm.

The New Zealand economy has undergone significant reform during the past decade to make it more robust and responsive to both domestic and international demands including the demand for environmentally sound technology. To achieve this, inter alia, a floating exchanging rate was introduced, assistance to industry declined with the removal of subsidies and the decline in tariffs, and the market has been substantially deregulated. This has lead to an open trading economy and a reliance on market mechanisms, making it accessible to importers and, with the improving economic performance, more attractive to investors.

New Zealand has a sophisticated library and communications system which allows ready access to most publicly available sources of information on environmentally sound technology, both in New Zealand and overseas.

The Ministry of Agriculture (MAF), under its Sustainable Agriculture Facilitation program, commissions research and distributes information on environmentally sound technology through a publication series. An example of this is a recent report on Treatment of Dairy Shed Effluent which examines each disposal method and the outcomes of using each method. The Ministry of Agriculture has also commissioned research into identifying farm level constraints and designing strategies to facilitate adoption of new sustainable technologies and farm management practices that are environmentally and economically sustainable. Although there have been similar studies done in the past, this study will concentrate on farmers identifying the constraints to technology uptake and both farmers and researchers providing solutions.

There is no centralised process for evaluating the range of technologies being developed overseas. Such evaluation is done on an ad hoc basis, and further work would be required to assess any gaps and deficiencies in the quality and accessibility of information on environmentally sound technologies.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION: There is no overall government mechanism for identifying and promoting environmentally sound technologies. Government policy has avoided intervention in terms of evaluation and promotion of particular technologies. It has been decided that the market provides the most effective mechanism for achieving this, because individual firms are in the best position to assess their needs and to influence market outcomes. Government policy has been against the establishment of cumbersome and bureaucratic mechanisms such as might be required to attempt centralised efforts to identify and promote environmentally sound technologies. The Government believes that historical deficiencies have arisen when institutions have been supply (rather than demand) driven. When government has intervened, it has been on specific issues, such as energy efficiency, and has involved promoting objectives rather than specific technologies.

No direct attempt has been made to assess New Zealands national scientific knowledge in the area of sustainable development.

Several Government documents, strategic statements and National Science Strategies have identified research needs and priorities in numerous areas contributing to sustainable development. These include Path to 2010 (1992); The Next Three Years, Towards 2010 (1994); the Environment 2010 Strategy; Science for Sustainable Land Management - Towards a New Agenda; Public Investment in Science and Technology - a Review of Directions through to the year 2001; and Research, Science, and Technology: 2010.

National Science Strategies (NSS) are currently in place to coordinate and advise on research priorities for sustainable land management and climate change, and the appropriateness of a NSS for biodiversity is also being investigated. Several aspects of sustainable development are included within the priorities of the PGSF, the government fund for strategic research, but there is no overarching mechanism for prioritising national research for sustainable development. The PGSFs cross-output themes give priority to research related to sustainable development in the following areas - development of a body of knowledge on society and on addressing social issues; development of a body of knowledge on the natural and modified environment and on addressing environmental issues; global climate change (information and implications); and sustainable land management.

There is significant science effort in New Zealand to understand the physical aspects of sustainable land management (SLM). This area receives 81% of current funding for SLM research, with 4% dedicated to cultural and social aspects and 15% to understanding economic and financial objectives. Although it is recognised that the impact of human behaviour poses the biggest threat to SLM, there is currently little social science input to the management of the land.

The key national priorities for sustainable land management research, as identified in Science for Sustainable Land Management - Towards a New Agenda, are water quality; biodiversity; soil quality; weeds, pests, and diseases; climate and atmosphere; physical hazards; and chemical residues and hazardous substances. Theme areas where further research is needed include: - monitoring and indicators appropriate for New Zealand; social science contribution to environmental understanding, integration of human and physical sciences; limits, reversibility, resilience and best land management practices; risk assessment in land management decision making; Maori sustainable land management science needs; predictive models and decision support systems for outcomes of various land uses, including ground proofing; environmental technologies that support and enhance sustainable land management; and environmental accounting at a national regional and enterprise level.

The Government has taken a strategic approach to promoting the long-term contribution of RS&T to its social, economic, and environmental objectives, many aspects of which relate to sustainable development. This approach is described in Research Science & Technology: 2010, which sets three high level goals namely: fostering societal values and attitudes that recognise science and technology as critical to future prosperity; ensuring an adequate level of investment in science as a component in national life which has a cultural value in its own right; and maximising the direct contribution of science and technology to diverse social, economic and environmental goals.

At a lower level, the Government is able to enhance scientific understanding and improve long-term scientific assessment, capacity, and capability in specific areas through its priority-setting process for the PGSF, which funds about 50% of all government- funded research in New Zealand. This process involves dividing the allocated funding between 17 socio-economic outputs areas. The most recent priority-setting exercise resulted in significant funding increases for outputs relating to primary production industries, energy research, society and culture, natural resources, land and freshwater ecosystems and marine environments, climate and atmosphere, (outputs 1-6, 11, 13-16). Within each of the remaining outputs, there is provision for research concerned with the sustainable utilisation/development of resources of the industry in question.

Specific steps taken to enhance scientific understanding which may, directly or indirectly, underpin sustainable development include:- NSSs (a mechanism for coordinating research and advising on priorities). A NSS has recently been established for sustainable land management; Marsden Fund which aims to broaden and deepen the research skill base by supporting excellent science; Technology for Business Growth scheme, to promote technology uptake for business growth by encouraging private investment in RS&T; Technology Uptake and Innovation programme - to encourage technology uptake and innovation through exposure to experts in S&T and the promotion of technological capabilities acquisition.

New Zealand does not collect R&D statistics specifically related to sustainable development. However, the latest R&D statistics, for 1993/94, provide the following break-down of expenditure by key area of activity.

In 1993/94 the total R&D undertaken in New Zealand was NZ$824.8 million, up just over 9% from NZ$754.5 in 1992/93.

The real growth rate of New Zealands total expenditure on R&D since 1989 has now risen to the same level as that of reference countries (Sweden, Norway, Finland, Denmark, Austria, and Ireland), and exceeds the rate of growth in the OECD.

Through the RS&T: 2010 strategy statement, the Government has committed itself to increasing expenditure from the current 0.57% of GDP to 0.8% by 2010. As part of achieving this goal, the Government is increasing funding for the PGSF from NZ$256 million to NZ$330 million over the next 5 years.

The estimated funding of R&D by the business sector has increased substantially from NZ$245.4 million to NZ$293 million in 1993/94, or from 0.29% of GDP to 0.35% of GDP.

a) Reorientation of education towards sustainable development

New Zealand is in the process of developing an environmental education strategy to establish an integrated national approach to environmental education across all sectors of the community. It will be linked to the government's long-term environmental and educational strategies. The strategy is being developed through a two-year process of consultation with relevant sectors and interested people in the community. A discussion document was published in late 1996 and submissions have been requested.

A guideline to assist teachers in integrating environmental education into curriculum subjects has been developed by the Ministry of Education. The guideline is scheduled for publication in 1996.

A joint NGO and central/local government initiative, the Greenbox, has been in place for some years and delivers environmental information and resource materials to all schools twice a year.

The Ministry of Agriculture has a Sustainable Agriculture Program which aims to raise the awareness of the farming community of sustainable agriculture and related issues. MAF also produces school education kits on sustainable agriculture which seek to educate young people about New Zealand's agriculture and to survey changes in land management and planning.

b) Increasing public awareness

Local networks of teachers, NGOs, and central and local government officials are being developed in a number of regions. The primary purpose of these networks, which serve as branches of the New Zealand Association for Environmental Education, is information exchange, especially about local environmental issues and resources.

c) Promoting training

No information

ROLE OF MAJOR GROUPS: The primary role of the Ministry of Women's Affairs is provision of gender-specific advice to the Government on public policy issues. It has identified a number of key areas for women's progress toward equality. These include work on a greater sharing and valuing of unpaid work and increased employment opportunities; and work in education and training, effective compulsory education for Maori, and effective post-compulsory training, including business skills and industry training.

Many local authorities are developing policies and strategies for environmental education, which include business and community education as well as activities with schools.

FINANCING AND COST EVALUATION OF THE LABOUR ACTIVITIES: No information

New Zealand's bilateral assistance on forestry is provided in accordance with New Zealand's capacity and in response to specific requests from partner governments on the basis of their national and regional plans and priorities. Bilateral assistance is directed primarily to the Pacific with major projects in several countries. New Zealand participates in projects by contributing technical assistance, cash grants, material supplies, and training. Currently, New Zealand is associated with overseas development assistance in seven Pacific Island Developing Countries.

New Zealand plays an active role in a number of regional organisations in the South Pacific and provides financial and technical support for these organisations. As most of the Pacific Island countries are small, these regional organisations play an important part in sustainable development activities. Some of the regional programs that New Zealand is involved in include : the South Pacific Form Secretariat which promotes regional cooperation, especially in trade and economics matters, services the Forum meeting of Heads of Forum countries, and has an important policy coordination role; the South Pacific Commission promotes economic and social cooperation and development in the region; the Forum Fisheries Agency provides assistance to member countries in the economic and sustainable management of their fisheries, particularly tuna; the University of the South Pacific which endeavours to meet the educational and tertiary learning needs of the 12 member countries in the region; and the South Pacific Regional Environment Program which promotes sustainable development in the South Pacific.