Management of land resources has been deemed critical from the point of view of sustainable agricultural production. Improved agricultural output is the only way towards economic growth and poverty alleviation.

Soil fertility is a crucial element in determining the productivity of the land. It has been noted that soil fertility is declining in many parts of Nepal, having a negative impact on the yield of the key crops. Changes in farming practices are needed to reverse this trend, and institutional improvements are imperative for agricultural research and extension.

Agricultural policies must be flexible in order to conform to the features of different agro-ecological zones and thus taking the maximum advantage of the diversity of natural resources. As Nepal adjusts to these essential requirements, the production of food grains, fruit farming and livestock farming will be gradually expanded. In addition, district level planning will have a significant role. Therefore, a mapping system for districts will be developed taking into account different agro-ecological zones.

1. Decision-Making Structure: In order to make land-use and environmental information effective, an appropriate institutional system will be developed under the National Planning Commission by means of integrating scattered units into a single unit.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information.

3. Major Groups: No information.

4. Finance: No information.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information.

Examples:

I. The objective of the Hills Leasehold Forestry and Forage Development Project

A. To raise the income of families living mostly below the poverty level in the hills.

B. To improve ecological conditions by minimizing deforestation in the fragile hills of Nepal.

Approach: A participatory approach is the basis for the implementation of the project. The project is specifically designed for the marginal and landless families to supplement the efforts of the Government's Community Forestry Programme. Main activities include the distribution of forest land to the poor; plantation of trees; establishing veterinary services for livestock; creation of income generating environment through training and increased facilitation of loan flows.

Current status (Progress up till July 1996.):

Number of Leasehold Forest Groups established: 335

Area of forests leased: 1,758 ha.

Number of households benefited: 2,345.

Number of seedlings planted: 2,4 million.

Amount of grass seed distributed: 5,000 kg.

Number of farmers trained: 70.

Number of animals provided with veterinary services: 150,000.

Number of districts covered at present (October 1996): 9.

Number of districts to be covered by August 1998: 12.

II. The Hill Community Forestry Development Project:

The objective of the project: To develop and manage forest resources through active participation of the local people to meet their basic needs of forest products.

Strategy: By gradually handing over all accessible hill forests to the communities (user groups) to the extent that they are able and willing to manage the forests.

Current status (from 1989/90 to 1995/96):

Number of user groups formed: 4,119.

Area of forests handed over: 256,051 ha

Number of households involved: 414,610.

The data were collected from 51 districts. In order to strengthen the capacity to implement the programme, several training programmes have been organized in the districts on various aspects such as community forest management and nursery management. In addition, workshops on user group networking and field trips have been organized for user groups and progressive farmers. Because of training, the user groups are more capable of managing the forests handed over to them. People are also more aware of the programme objectives, and take more interest in the community forest management and in informing user groups. The district forest offices receive more and more requests from the communities to participate in the project.

1. Decision-Making Structure: Local communities (user groups); District Forest Offices; Department of Forests; The Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation; The National Planning Commission.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: Academic and technical training is provided to the concerned staff. The local communities are also provided with various kinds of training. Technology is provided for forest management, plantation and nursery techniques.

3. Major Groups: NGOs and local communities participate in the different activities under this chapter.

4. Finance:

The Hills Leasehold Forestry and Forage Development Project:

IFAD: US$ 12.79 million;

Government of the Netherlands: US$ 3.36 million;

HMG/N: US$ 2.71 million;

Local communities: US$ 3.15 million.

Hill Community Forestry Development Project:

World Bank: US$ 15.5 million;

HMG/N: US$ 4.4 million;

DANIDA: US$ 6.9 million;

Local communities: US$ 3.15 million.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: World Bank; FAO; ITTO; IFAD; USAID; Government of the Netherlands; DANIDA (Denmark), SNV; Government of Australia; GTZ (Germany); etc.

Nepal signed the International Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Drought and/or Desertification Particularly in Africa in 1994, and ratified it in 1996.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter

Nepal took active part in the UN Conference on Desertification (1977), and in the formulation of the UN Plan of Action to Combat Desertification. Human efforts to enhance productivity and to manage natural resources began during the dawn of human civilization. Nepal being a mountainous country, combating desertification is a matter of great concern both in developmental activities as well as in regional cooperation.

Active participation of local people is important in land-use planning, forest management, and watershed development. Ecological rehabilitation and specific measures on land and resources have been the appropriate base for sustainable development. Experiences to date show that planning, decision-making and implementation efficiency is to grow from the grassroots level. Policies for resource management, ecological balance and industrial growth prevail in a broader sphere of human undertakings. Updating policy formulations need to be in terms of achieving the objectives through ensured implementation and of strengthening regional cooperation in specific issues of concern. National and regional activities need to be directed simultaneously and towards providing capacity for resource management.

Regional networks of cooperative undertakings are vital for Nepal. The Department of Soil Conservation is planning, implementing and monitoring the Soil Conservation and Watershed Management (SCWM) Programme through its District Soil Conservation Offices in 45 districts out of 75 districts in total. The SCWM Programme includes land-use development and improvement, land productivity conservation, erosion hazard prevention, infrastructural protection, and community soil conservation and income generation activities.

Migration from the hills and mountains to the Terai is likely to continue as new infrastructure increasingly opens up in the south, and as the disparity between incomes in upland and lowland regions continues to grow.

The hills and mountains need to be developed in an ecologically sustainable way with the development of watersheds and by providing hydropower to industrial establishments. Growing urbanization, markets and employment accelerate the economy in the hinterlands. This is still a matter of operational research and cautious practices. The ecologically and economically strained hills and mountains have to develop their unique but intrinsic potential to support the population growth. More research is needed in order to improve the productivity in terms of crop yield in the hills to serve the needs of the people living in the inner remote terrain.

Some policies:

- Sprinkler irrigation will be encouraged in the hilly regions when feasible. For example, lift irrigation schemes will be operated with electricity produced by small hydroelectric plants.

- Appropriate programmes relating to mountaineering and other associated arrangements under the Development of Mountain Tourism Programme will be undertaken with the objective of protecting the environment and increasing local employment.

Support will be provided to activities of the Water Induced Hazard Control Programme by organizing training and by feeding the available data in the continued scientific observations and analysis.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The Ministry of Population and Environment; sectoral ministries.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information.

3. Major Groups: No information.

4. Finance: No information.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information.

Nepal has to integrate a developmental dimension into land productivity within the Rural Development Programme as well as open up off-farm economic opportunities for industrial development based on the resources available in the mountain terrain. Recent studies indicate that the pre- and post-harvest losses in food crops caused by pests and diseases range from 20 to 35%. In 1996, a severe outbreak of rice hopper affecting an area of about 2,000 ha was recorded in the main rice growing belt of the south amounting to a loss of estimated NRs 50 million.

Nepal may be among the few countries in the world where farmers use traditional botanical pesticides with considerable success in crop protection. Exploiting the skills and traditional technology of crop protection, HMG/N has launched an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Programme in the Kingdom. IPM has now been endorsed as the national policy. In fact, one of the major goals of the ongoing Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-1997) is sustainable development.

After restoring a multi-party democracy, Nepal has been trying to practice decentralization through participatory decision-making. It is considered important in order to assist the people to exercise their power of choice, action, leadership and accountability.

1. Decision-Making Structure: HMG/N is in the process of establishing a National Steering Committee for the effective launching of the IPM Programme. The Ministry of Agriculture in collaboration with other line agencies such as the Ministry of Local Development, the Ministry of Water Resources and the Ministry of Forests are responsible for sustainable agriculture and rural development. The National Planning Commission (NPC) is the apex body formulating and monitoring the national plans on sustainable development.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: HMG/N has established Regional Plant Protection Laboratories in five different development regions. There is still a lack of human resources, equipments and infrastructural support.

3. Major Groups: People - including farmers for agricultural programme, NGOs, and the private sector are involved in this field.

4. Finance: A project proposal called "IPM for the Reduction of Crop Losses" has been prepared and submitted to the GTZ (Germany). A similar project proposal viz. "IPM in Rice" has also been prepared and submitted to the FAO.

5. Regional/International Cooperation:

- Nepal is trying to become a member of the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC), the Asian Plant Protection Convention (APPC) and similar international/regional agencies.

- Nepal is going to become a member of the WTO for which the Ministry of Agriculture has consituted a core group. Efforts are taken to follow the London Guidelines on Safe use of Pesticides.

- FAO and GTZ have given a positive response for the launching of the above mentioned IPM Programme.

Nepal signed the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1992, and ratified it in 1993.

Parties are to develop national strategies, plans and programmes for sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity and integrate them into general development plans.

Parties shall identify, monitor and maintain data on components of biodiversity.

Parties shall introduce appropriate procedures requiring EIAs for projects likely to have significant adverse effects on biological diversity.

Parties shall submit reports on measures which it has taken for the implementation of the Convention, at intervals to be determined.

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora was signed by Nepal in 1975, and the latest report was submitted in 1995.

Parties to take appropriate measures to enforce regulatory provisions and prohibit trade in specimens in violation thereof. Convention also governs treatment of animals in shipment.

Each party to prepare periodic reports on its implementation of the convention and to prepare: (a) an annual report listing export permits issued and species involved, and (b) a biennial report on legislative, regulatory and administrative measures taken.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter

- Amendment of the National Park and Wildlife Conservation Acts (1973) in order to strengthen the implementation of the CITES.

- Formation of Antipoaching Units to combat poaching and illegal trafficing of Fauna and Flora.

- Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) organized a training workshop on CITES in Kathmandu in May 1995, in order to coordinate the actions of various organizations involved in the implementation of the Convention.

- Publication of 16 reports on biodiversity in order to identify gaps.

- The formulation of a Biodiversity Action Plan has just begun.

- Implementation of the Bufferzone Programme around the NP/WR in order to involve local people in the conservation of biological diversity.

- Three wetland sites have been proposed as Ramsar sites to conserve the biodiversity in wetlands.

- The areas of Manaslu, Kanchanjangha, and Ghatal are planned to become protected areas.

The basic primary health services in Nepal include preliminary treatment of common diseases, immunization against infectious diseases, maternity and child health care services, family planning services, and management of essential medicines. In addition, the Government provides health education, information about food, nutrition, clean drinking water, and about sanitation and environmental practices which have been singled out as the major factors contributing to the poor state of health in Nepal.

Following are the main policies on environmentally sound management of biotechnology:

- Research will concentrate on the main problem areas, and special attention will be given to adaptive research for the improvement of cereal crops, horticulture, licestock as well as rural industries.

- Appropriate technologies from various developed and developing countires will be needed. Therefore, efforts will be made to have access to such technologies through governmental, non-governmental and private sectors.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The Ministry of Science and Technology was established in 1996 with the aim of conducting various programmes in the field of science and technology in an organized way, linking them with the national development process.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information.

3. Major Groups: Not applicable.

4. Finance: No information.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: In the process of being decided.

The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea has been signed but not yet ratified by Nepal.

Since Nepal is a land-locked country, this chapter is not applicable.

1. Decision-Making Structure: Not applicable.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: Not applicable.

3. Major Groups: Not applicable.

4. Finance: Not applicable.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Not applicable.

It is estimated that Nepal has a theoretical hydropower potential of 83,000 MW, of which 42,000 MW can be generated according to the economic feasibility studies. The installed hydropower generation capacity in the country is around 233 MW. This is less than 0.3% of the total theoretical potential.

With regard to drinking water, the national coverage at the end of the fiscal year 1993/94 was as follows:

Urban areas:

Population: 2,133,000

Coverage: 1,327,000

% coverage: 64.3%

Rural areas:

Population: 17,916,000

Coverage: 10,702,000

% coverage: 59.7%

Total:

Population: 20,049,000

Coverage: 12.074,000

% coverage: 60.2%

The coverages were made by the Department of Water Supply and Sanitation (DWSS), Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC), INGO's and national NGO's. UNICEF quotes a ratification coverage of 16% by 1995, whereas a sample survey conducted in 1991 established a coverage of 20%.

1. Decision-Making Structure:

- The Ministry of Water Resources

- The Department of Water Supply and Sewerage

- The Nepal Water Supply Corporation follows the government corporation decision-making procedures.

- The projects run by the Users' Committee follow the decision-making procedures of NGOs.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues:

- Few training programmes available.

- The Government of Nepal tries to clean its role in direct service delivery and to improve capacity for policy making and other coordination, monitoring and evaluation, research and development, and human resources development.

3. Major Groups: The Nepal Water Supply Corporation, INGO's and NGO's.

4. Finance: Nepal's water supply and sanitation authorities have not mobilized enough financial resources to enable them to operate and maintain their systems properly, much less contribute to investments.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: The Asian Development Bank has been involved in rural water and sanitation management in Nepal. The World Bank has been involved in water and sanitation management in urban settlements. Different countries have also been involved in water and sanitation management.

Chemical manufacturing industries are now required to obtain a permit. The proponents need to submit IEE or EIA reports depending upon the annual production capacity. Importation of toxic chemicals also requires a permit from the Ministry of Home Affairs.

In the agriculture sector,

- Nepal has already prohibited some toxic chemicals like DINOSEB and dinoseb salts, fluoroacetamide, chlordane, chlordimeform, cyhexatine, edb (1,2- dibromoethane), heptachlor, and mercury compounds.

- HCH (Mixed isomers), DDT, dielfrin and aldrin are under an interim import decision to limit their use.

- HMG/N has just started to implement the Pesticide Act (1991) and the Pesticide Regulation (1993). By these laws, almost all the extremely hazardous pesticides will be banned from agricultural use for health and environmental reasons. - As of 1997, HMG/N will strictly follow the report and recommendations of the pesticides disposal expert of ANZEDEC Limited (ADB funded consultants). It is in line with the PIC procedures established on the basis of the London Guidelines as well as circulars of UNEP and IRPTC.

- The very dilapidated old stocks of pesticides were dumped from the beginning in secured stores in Amlekhganj. This is a severe problem at present, and Nepal seeks international asssitance to find and support a solution.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The Ministry of Health controls the use of toxic chemicals.

HMG/N adopted the Pesticides Act in 1991, and the Pesticides Regulation in 1993. In accordance with these laws, Nepal has established the Nepal Pesticide Board which will assist the Government to formulate pesticides policies and to adopt regulatory measures for the safe use of pesticides.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: Lack of sound human resoures, R&D and infrastructural support.

3. Major Groups: There are about 10 major importers of pesticides in the country and nearly 100 domestic retail outlets. The predominant users of toxic chemicals, especially pesticides, are farmers representing over 90% of the Nepalese population. Due to the lack of appropriate IPM technologies, farmers have been largely dependent on using these chemicals for pest control to obtain the expected yield. This has, in isolated cases, begun to cause health and environmental hazards.

4. Finance: FAO's assistance is being sought in order to strengthen plant quarantine and to implement the IPM programme.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: As a member country, Nepal takes active part in the work of RENPAP (Regional Network on Pesticides for Asia and the Pacific) of the United Nations, and tries to establish links with other agencies such as FINNIDA (Finland), GTZ (Germany) and so on.

Nepal ratified the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal in 1996.

Parties shall cooperate to disseminate information on transboundary movement of hazardous wastes. Parties shall cooperate to promote environmentally sound low-waste technologies, to transfer technology and cooperate in developing codes of practice. Parties to assist developing countries.

Parties shall immediately inform affected parties as to accidents. Prior to the end of each calendar year, parties shall provide the following information on the preceding calendar year: (a) the authorities handling Convention matters; (b) information regarding the transboundary movement of hazardous wastes; (c) measures adopted to implement convention; (d) available statistics on human health and environmental effects of generation, transport and disposal of hazardous wastes; (e) information on agreements entered into; (f) information on accidents; (g) information on disposal options; and (h) information on development of waste-reduction technologies;

Additional comments relevant to this chapter

At present, Nepal does not perceive itself to have a hazardous waste problem. In the future, activities will be regulated in accordance with the Basel Convention.

In November 1996, the Ministry of Population and Environment organized a one-day workshop on the Basel Convention and management of solid wastes in Kathmandu Valley. In the workshop, environmental experts and concerned officials from different governmental and non-governmental organizations discussed national policies and programmes for the control of transboundary movement of hazardous wastes and their disposal. In the conclusions of the workshop it was stressed that national policies need to be revised in accordance with the convention, and that the nature of toxic wastes should be identified so as to minimize their potential risks. Wastes from hospitals, laboratories, pathological clinics, and leather industry cause massive harm to human health. In addition, the experts stressed that it is important to see the issue of hazardous waste in a global context as well as a domestic context and to integrate this issue into overall sustainable decision-making.

The role of local governments needs to be strengthened as self-contained and active agencies in waste management. They are encouraged to take more responsibitlities in accordance with their capacities.

In 1987, an act was adopted with a view to systematize waste management in Kathmandu and to seek possibilities of recycling solid wastes into economic resources. In accordance with the act, the Solid Waste Management and Resources Mobilization Center was established. Composting activities were carried out by the Center with successful results, but were dropped for various reasons after 3-4 years. At present, the Center is responsible for the management of sanitary landfill sites, and the rest of the waste management activities are undertaken by municipalities.

Recently, HMG adopted a national policy for solid waste management in order to set standards for waste disposal, recycling and reuse. A National Council for Solid Waste Management has been set up under the chairmanship of the Ministry of Local Development. In addition, the Ministry undertakes major activities in this field.

1. Decision-Making Structure: Local (municipal) bodies are responsible in the field; the National Council for Solid Waste Management at the national level (policy formulation); and the Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilization Center (SWMRMC) is responsible for landfill management in Kathmandu Valley.

The responsibility for public sanitation is divided among several institutions: municipalities (drainage, sanitation and solid wastes); Department of Water Supply and Sanitation (drainage and sewerage although the Department does not actually have any sewerage operations); Nepal Water Supply Cooperation (sanitary sewars) and the Depratment of Roads (roadside drains).

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information.

3. Major Groups: No information.

4. Finance: Municipal bodies and HMG/Nepal.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: The Government of Germany provided financial and technical support for the establishment of the Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilization Center in Kathmandu Valley until 1990. In 1994, the Government of India supported the municipality of Kathmandu with some modern equipements worth Rs-12 crores.

1. Decision-Making Structure: The Ministry of Population and Environment.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information.

3. Major Groups: No information.

4. Finance: No information.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information.

CHANGES IN NATIONAL BUDGET TO ADDRESS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:

1. Population and environment are treated as a separate instrument sector.

2. Project screening depends on EIA and sustainability studies.

3. A number of projects - especially in the field of rural and local development - have been started keeping in mind the concepts of empowerment, self help and sustainable development.

NEW ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS:

1. Polluter Pays Principle.

2. Surcharge on cigarettes and beverages.

3. Local development fee.

4. Duty concession for environmentally friendly vehicles.

ELIMINATION OF ENVIRONMENTALLY UNFRIENDLY SUBSIDIES: Elimination of rebate provided to public vans and cars in Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal. Previously, a rebate was provided on import duty.

Nepal is in the process of establishing this system.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION:

With regard to the promotion of EST, cooperation and capacity-building, the Ministry is looking forward to setting up information linkages and networks within a reasonable time in pursuance of national activities as well as regional inputs. The Ministry remains prepared to feed, to receive, to store, to disseminate and to retrieve information as per need. In this respect, Nepal remains prepared to consider available programmes in order to participate actively in the exchange and promotion of an information network system.

Describe any work being undertaken at the national or local level regarding efforts to promote clean production processes and/or the concepts of eco-efficiency. These processes may include training, preferential financial arrangements, information dissemination and changes in legal or regulatory frameworks.

No work being undertaken.

Provide information on the adoption of environmental management systems. National reaction to environmental management system standards such as the ISO 14000 Series and others. Please note efforts made at the national level to promote their adoption and the creation of certification infrastructure in order to facilitate access to these standards to local industry.

Not applicable.

List and describe programs or work under way to facilitate the transfer of ESTs to small and medium sized enterprises. Please note efforts to facilitate access to financial resources and other transfer strategies.

Not applicable.

a) Reorientation of education towards sustainable development As in all other areas, education and awareness-raising is critical for shaping people's preceptions, attitudes and behaviour towards the environment. These efforts enable individuals to appreciate more environmental policies, legislation and regulations, and to foster individual responsibility towards sustainable resource management and development.

b) Increasing public awareness No information.

c) Promoting training Relevant environmental concerns need to be incorporated into the programmes of different training institutions, and HMG has already initiated programmes towards this end.

ROLE OF MAJOR GROUPS: No information.

FINANCING AND COST EVALUATION OF THE LABOUR ACTIVITIES: No information.

There is a lack of professionals both in the technical and managerial sectors. In order to raise the number of competent people working in the key positions, the Government is restructuring the Public Service Commission responsible for the official selection of professionals. Qualifications, experience and proven performance have been singled out as the main selection criteria. Furthermore, qualitative reorientation and further education and training are needed in order to get a meaningful return of the investments made. Foreign cooperation and assistance is also important in this respect.