One of the main problems in this area is the scarcity of available data bases. Whatever is found tends to be outdated, having mostly been collected in the 1960s.

Several problems plague the land resources of Lebanon, the most prominent of which is the lack of integrated planning and management. Salination from natural sources or as a result of irrigation is a major environmental issue for the future of the country. Ground water, which originates from lime-stone highly califerous formations is excessively used for irrigation the Bekaa.

The irreversible reduction of vegetation cover, followed by the disappearance of top soil, has resulted in desertification in many areas.

The unsustainable forms of land management, socio-economic policy and institutional factors are also a draw back.

Crude studies have shown that local excessive grazing in the South and North of Lebanon, in addition to the Bekaa and Arti Lebanon, has caused the degradation of pasture lands.

Excessive construction in the coastal zone and Mount Lebanon reflects the lack of sound integrated management of land resources in urban areas.

Annual loss of forests, which are under the authority of the Ministry of Agriculture, has increased as a result of accidental and intentional forest fires, with current forest cover accounting for less than 7% of total area.

Reforestation efforts are under way with several donor programmes being administered through the Ministry of Agriculture. The sustainability of these efforts can only be measured with land resources data being updated with modern methods. A request by the Lebanese Government has been presented to the Friends of Lebanon conference, hosted by the American Government, in December 1996, requesting $10 million for an integrated programme with the following components:

. Preparation of a detailed reforestation plan
. Preserving an area of 5000 ha in the first phase
. Reforestation of an area of 4500ha.

It should be noted that in 1982 FAO estimated the country's need for new forest areas to be equivalent to 200,000ha.

International Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Drought and/or Desertification
Particularly in Africa
The Convention was signed in 1995, and ratified in 1996.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter

Desertification resulting from wind and water erosion, the irreversible disappearance of top soil, and salination of natural sources, is not a top government priority. Regions which are severely affected are in the cazas of Hermel, Baalbeck and Zahleh. Lack of data does not allow to precisely quantify the scope of the problem.

Previous data is obtained from meteorological stations according to a ration of precipitation to evapotranspiration.

A national committee to combat desertification has been formed. The formulation of a strategy and action plan to combat desertification is underway.

The major mountain systems in Lebanon are:
. Mount Lebanon range to Litani excluding southern mountain area: 480,000ha
. Arti-Lebanon area: 187,000ha
. South Lebanon (upper Galilee, Jabal Amel): 70,000ha

The Ministry of Agriculture, through the rural development and natural wealth directorate, oversees this issue. Additionally, the Ministry of Public Works has authority through the directorate of Urban Planning.

Some steps are being taken to raise awareness among the population regarding general environmental issues.

A joint project for public environmental education is being carried out by UNIDO/UNESCO/FAO. Some social, economic, or cultural incentives are available for farmers in mountain committee, to undertake conservation, such as:

The tree nurseries and agriculture cooperatives, of the Ministry of Agriculture, provide farmers with seedlings, land, and fertilizers at low prices.

Reforestation and public environmental awareness activities are progressively increasing due to the work of environmental NGOs and schools, in collaboration with local communities.

Social programmes being carried out in Mountain areas are:
-Irrigation schemes through MoA
-CDR executed school rehabilitation
-The Ministry of Health is constructing new hospitals
-The Ministry of Hydraulic and electric resources is renovating water and electric networks.

NOTE: mountain areas are mostly rural areas.

Three broad areas exist where agricultural practices are having adverse effects:

- Misuse of water
- Misuse of agrochemicals
- Soil erosion from land abandonment and overgrazing.

The present use of irrigation water is inefficient, with high losses and wasteful applications to most crops. Agrochemicals misuse constitute a serious health hazard with an urgent need for pesticide control through law enforcement.

Fertilizers pose a less serious health hazard. Their use appears to be haphazard and may contribute to the contamination of water resources.

In terms of rural development, MoA is implementing an integrated rural development Programme in the Baalbeck-Hermel region, to provide small and medium scale farmers assistance which would lead to sustainable human development through start off activities. These activities include improvement of health, social services, education and income generating non-agricultural activities.

Additionally, international assistance is channeled through UNDP to three local NGOs which provide assistance to vulnerable groups, such as women and the disabled. NGOs, such as YWCA, have programmes of their own with similar goals.

Studies on the Biological Diversity of Lebanon (undertaken by the Ministry of Agriculture, with the assistance of UNEP) have been completed. The results of these studies were published in 9 volumes, in January 1997.

The Protected Areas Project was launched by the Ministry of Environment, on 15 November 1996. The project has to put into place an effectively managed system, to protect endemic and endangered species and incorporate biodiversity conservation as an integral part of sustainable human development. The project includes 3 areas: 1) Arz El-Shouf (Cedars), 2) Horsh Ehden Forest, and 3) Palm Islands.

The French Government will finance 3 additional protected areas during 1997. Since 1992, the Lebanese Government has provided assistance to 3 existing Protected Areas. These include wet lands and coastal areas. The Government is taking measures to ratify the Ramsar Convention for this process.

Biotechnology research, carried out through University research programmes, is in its early stages in Lebanon.

In this respect, pollution of the marine waters is significantly high. Positive concentrations of mercury, copper, cadmium, and PCBs, due to discharges of industrial waste, and over use of fertilizers and pesticides in agricultural areas, many of which are close to the marine environment, are also a source of pollution.

Marine oil pollution, due to numerous oil storage facilities, located on the coastline, constitute a major threat.

Although exploitation of marine resources is unorganized, it has improved after the war, as the use of pesticides and dynamite stopped. Fish catches have dramatically declined over the past ten years.

National and international efforts to improve the situation of the marine environment are underway. The Government is improving major infrastructure work. Support to NGOs involved in protection activities is being encouraged both by the Government and by the international community. UNDP has mobilized GEF and FFEM resources to assist in the protection of three marine protected areas in Lebanon.

The World Band has recently undertaken a Regional Coastal Assessment Study; the recommendations of the study should be further followed up.

Follow up to the Barcelona Convention and its Protocols is slow, but initiatives are underway with the Blue Plan to activate it. The MoE is also undertaking preparations to sign and ratify the Ramsar Convention.

Water, and particularly the availability of sufficient quantities, is the most politically sensitive environmental issue facing Lebanon and the whole Middle East Region.

It should be noted that the Litani is the only major river in all the Near East not crossing national borders.

The main sources of data for the evaluation of water resource quantities in the country are based, to large extend, on desk research and literature review of sources prior to 1982.

Empirical research does not provide enough detailed analytical information, to allow for a comprehensive inventory of water resources, particularly ground water. Thus, the water budget is one of the major issues of the political/economic debate, with various studies producing surpluses or deficits in this budget.

In terms of quality, a major effort for bio-chemical monitoring of Lebanon's water sources was conducted by UNICEF, in collaboration with AUB, between 1989-1993. This monitoring process to evaluate seasonal variations, over extended periods of time, found that 70% of Lebanon's water resources was subject to bacteriological pollution effects.

Lebanon imports large quantities of toxic chemical substances for national use in industries. The management of these substances is limited to customs and MoE at points of entry. All other operations that follow do not conform to international standards and are poorly managed.

For these reasons, Lebanon has a major programme related to toxic waste management.

- Industrial activities account for the largest source of toxic materials.

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal
The Basel Convention was signed and ratified in 1994.
The latest information was provided to the Basel Convention Secretariat in 1997.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter

- Within the context of article (11) of the Convention, the MoE signed a bilateral accord, in 1994, with the German Government, concerning used battery imports.
- In 1994, Lebanon was faced with the burden of 20 ethylacylate barrels which were exported to France.
- Industrial waste from Lebanese industries represents a major problem, due to the fact that the country lacks the appropriate means to dispose of it.
- The Lebanese Government passed decree No. 22/1 dated 17/12/96 concerning the organization of plastic waste import according to the green, red and orange lists approved by EU.

- Recently, preventive measures for limiting traffic of illegal hazardous wastes were strengthened. A Government decree has also been issued limiting the import of several plastic substances, not previously listed in the 1988 law on Hazardous Waste. Various wastes were confiscated, which originated in developing countries.

- In 1994, a bilateral agreement was signed, between Lebanon and Germany, to control import of used batteries.

Two schemes prevail here:

1. Collection and treatment of solid waste is undertaken in Greater Beirut and few areas of Mount Lebanon. A project was launched to rehabilitate the existing plants at Amroussieh and Quarantina, to absorb up to 1700 tons per day, knowing that currently some 1300 ton per day are dumped at the Bourj-Hammoud open dump-site. The execution entity for this project has been assigned, but not the management entity (the former is a private company, the latter is undecided yet).

2. Waste collected in other Lebanese territories is completely monitored and contracted by local municipalities. The dumping sites at these areas are randomly selected and completely uncontrolled. Limited Environmental Impact Assessments and Envionmental audits are being made in this domain. Therefore, a master plan for Lebanon to properly manage solid waste is of utmost urgency.

Waste Water: The master plan is to include proposals to treat all kinds of waste, including water waste. Feasibility studies have been done and activities have begun. Sewage networks have been installed so far in a few areas. Others are still using collection wells, which are a major source of ground water pollution. In both cases, treatment is inexistent. All water waste is channeled directly to rivers and to the sea.

The National Council for Scientific Research (NCSR) has a mandate to formulate safety standards and develop regulations and procedures for imports, use, and disposal of radioactive substances, and to develop local capacity for monitoring doses and radioactivity in humans and the environment.

The Lebanese University is in the process of establishing a laboratory for nuclear analytical measurement.

The National Emergency Reconstruction Plan (92-95) and Horizon 2000 (95-2007) are the main national basis for domestic and external investment. Financing of these plans amounts to a gross total of $31 billion. Financing sources/ requirements include: $0.3 billion foreign capital grants, $11.2 billion foreign borrowing, $7.2 billion domestic borrowing, and $12.3 billion current budget surplus. External financing was allocated to the following sectors:

- Electricity ($980 million);
- Water supply ($286 million);
- Education ($234 million)
- Water and solid waste treatment ($207 million).

CHANGES IN NATIONAL BUDGET TO ADDRESS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:

No significant changes in direct budget allocations to environmental activities have occurred. However, the Government short-term and long-term plans address substantively the rehabilitation of infrastructure, which have major positive consequences on sustainable development in general.

NEW ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS:

- New Government statement covered sustainable development issues as priority areas
- Increased fines on tree cutting have been introduced and implemented
- Restrictions on the import of plastic wastes have been introduced and implemented
- Regulations for petroleum storage facilities implemented
- Import of diesel vehicles (which was forbidden) have been authorized

ELIMINATION OF ENVIRONMENTALLY UNFRIENDLY SUBSIDIES:

Discussions to reduce subsidies in the electricity sector are underway. The council of ministers also decided, in January 1995, to install filters on all existing power stations in the country (estimated cost is $110 million).

No information

* Agriculture and irrigation ($207 million)
* Airport ($196 million)
* Health ($163 million)
* Roads ($118 million)
* Public administration ($116 million)
* Telecommunications ($102 million)
* Housing ($64 million)
* Ports ($57 million).

- The International Trade Center at the Ministry of Economy, and the Trade and Sustainable Development Networking Programme have both been funded by UNDP and received large national support and interaction.

- Programmes on Fiscal Reform and Administration (UNDP/CIDA), and the National Administrative Rehabilitation Programme.

- MoE has established a focal point to coordinate regional and international efforts (DEC 96)

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION:

The Info. Tech. group of the Technical Cooperation Unit has been institutionalized within the various Ministries.

The National Council for Scientific Research (NCSR) is the main national body responsible for identifying scientific needs, formulate strategies, and ensure the best utilization of scientific resources for the benefit of the public.
The NCSR is directly linked to the Council of Ministers and include the following departments:
-Marine Research Center
-Geophysics Research Center
-Solar Energy Center
-Remote Sensing Center
-Information and Documentation Center

Many universities have also developed expertise in the field of environment and sustainable development, and can be considered centers of excellence in the region.

Research remains theoretical in many cases and lacks the back up practical information which cannot be obtained in many instances, due to the lack of sophisticated analytical instruments.

Some researchers are also returning to the private university, where rates are improving. However, many national experts have remained outside the country where salaries are higher.

STEPS TAKEN TO ENHANCE SCIENTIFIC UNDERSTANDING, IMPROVE LONG TERM SCIENTIFIC ASSESSMENT, BUILDING OF CAPACITY AND CAPABILITY:

Many efforts, both national and international, are undertaken to assist Scientific Research.

Various Bilateral and Multilateral agencies are supporting the NCSR, the Public Lebanese University, and other private Universities.

Vocational training and Technical Education Expansion, at the Public Lebanese University campus, are being seriously considered by the Government, and are estimated at a cost of $400,000 and $130,000 respectively. Financing will come from the World Bank, the EU, the IDB, and bilateral assistance from the Saudi Government and the Sultanate of Oman.

Other support has been channeled towards specific areas. For example, Germany assisted the Remote Sensing Center; IEAE supported the NCSR; USAID supported the American University of Beirut; AUPELF supported Francophone Universities; MEDCAMPUS assisted in training Lebanese University, and so forth.

Given the damage incurred on the Lebanese scientific community as a result of the war, it will take some time to replenish both human and financial resources needed in this sector.

A proposal from the Ministries of Environment and Education aims to promote environmental education and awareness in schools.

A National Environmental Strategy has been drafted by the MoE, in collaboration with UNDP.

a) Reorientation of education towards sustainable development

A new educational structure has been approved and will be introduced by the year 2000, whereby environmental issues will be incorporated into all subjects of the school curriculum.

b) Increasing public awareness

Public activities, such as seminars, and the production of educational materials are being undertaken by Environmental NGOs and CBOs, with the support of the private sector and the participation of the MoE.

c) Promoting training

Training activities regarding environmental issues are organized by the MoE, in collaboration with UN Agencies and concerned Ministries. Training for local community groups has also been undertaken by environmental NGOs.

ROLE OF MAJOR GROUPS:

Governmental: MoE, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Culture and Upper Education, Ministry of Agriculture, and a few municipalities.

Non Governmental: NGOs , CBOs, and the private sector.

UN: UNDP, UNICEF, and UNESCO, in collaboration with bilateral partners in some cases.

FINANCING AND COST EVALUATION OF THE LABOUR ACTIVITIES:

No specific financial allocations have been set.

1994 Figures:

Total enrolment in education institutions 770,599 49.91% females

Primary enrollment 360,858 48.6% Female
Secondary enrollment 261,341 52.2% Female
Vocational enrollment 44,651 47.4% Female
College enrollment 74,810 48.19% Female

Aside from the efforts undertaken by the MoE and CDR, the National Administrative Rehabilitation Programme can be considered as a new national mechanism, within the scope of the Ministry of Administrative Reform, which ensures a broad national intervention at the Government level. This programme is constantly looking into the

following:

-sectoral and cross-sectoral departmental programming approach
-a coordinated appraisal of sector institutions requirements
-an on-going review of the mandate and attributions of all public institutions
-a rising demand for better and more efficient public services.

This programme can be mobilized to serve the capacity building needs.

Another national mechanism, which can be considered as a potential tool for capacity building, is the work undertaken by NGOs to improve networks, coordinate their activities, and share experience. Their efforts need to be assisted by the international community, as national efforts are proving incapable of moving forward at the required pace.