Australia has a generally flat land surface with relatively low precipitation and run-off. The Great Dividing Range is a discontinuous chain of mountainous terrain that extends up the east coast and into Cape York. The higher altitude peaks often harbour a range of plant and animal species that are relictual and of Gondwanan origins and thus of high conservation significance. Australia's mountainous regions have their greatest extent in the south-east of the continent (a region known as the Australian Alps) and in parts of the island State of Tasmania. The Australian Alps cover an area of roughly 25,000 km2, or about 0.3% of Australia.

The Alps and the mountainous areas of Tasmania have a long history of grazing. In recent years other industries and land uses, particularly hydroelectricity generation, forestry, skiing, fishing, bushwalking, trail riding and general tourism have come to dominate. Protection of important catchments is a high priority, as are the control of erosion, the protection of cultural heritage, and the conservation of unique alpine fauna and flora habitat.

The Australian Alps national parks encompass an area of approximately 1.5 million hectares of the Australian mainland and provide protection to approximately 62 % of the Australian Alps geographic unit. Much of the area outside national parks is also public land. It is managed under a multiple use strategy, covering uses such as skiing, cattle grazing and forestry activities. The 1996-99 Strategic Plan for the cooperative management of the Australian Alps national parks is in place. This is an extension of the 1993-96 Strategic Plan and reflects community consultation and agency review of priorities.

CROSS-SECTORAL ISSUES

1. Decision-Making Structure:

Management of mountainous areas is, in general terms, the responsibility of the relevant State or Territory or Local Governments. Many mountain sites are included in protected areas managed by State or Territory conservation agencies.

The Alps national parks are managed by three parks agencies: The Australian Capital Territory Parks and Conservation Service, the New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service, and the Victorian Department of Natural Resources and Environment. The Federal Government, through the Department of the Environment's Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, supports the management agencies with coordination, secretariat and financial assistance. To facilitate a common approach to management for the alpine parks and reserves, the State and Federal Ministers responsible for the Australian Alps Co-operative Management Program maintain a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU), established in 1986, and revised in 1989 and again in 1996.

The objective of the agreement is to pursue cooperative management and develop complementary policies to protect the natural and cultural heritage of the Australian Alps, whilst providing opportunities for public enjoyment of that resource. The Australian Alps Liaison Committee was formed to coordinate the development and implementation of co-operative programs and arrangements.

2. Major Groups:

In developing cooperation, all projects related to mountain development aim to maximise the effective participation of local people in preserving their environment.

3. Finance:

A total annual budget of $400 000 is provided for the Australian Alps National Parks Co-operative Management Program through contributions from the States and the Commonwealth. This is in addition to the operational budgets of the individual parks and management agencies.

4. Regional/International Cooperation:

Through the implementation of the MOU, the Australian Alps national parks are developing an international reputation for their cooperative management. The IUCN publication "Parks on the Borderline: Experience in Transfrontier Conservation", give recognition to the success of cross-border cooperation between the different MOU agencies. The IUCN publication indicates that the Australian Alps parks and reserves constitute the most advanced operating cross-border park management agreement now in existence.

Australian expertise in dryland agricultural methods has been used to improve the sustainability of agricultural practices in a number of marginal mountain environments in Asia and the Pacific. Examples of such projects include the Highland Agricultural and Social Development project in northern Thailand, the Nepal Australia Community Forestry project, the Laos Upland Agriculture project, the Nusa Tenggara Timur Watershed Management project in Indonesia and two integrated area development projects in Simbu province in the Papua New Guinea Highlands. Together these projects total over $60 million. The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) has supported research projects on reducing degradation of upland areas of South Asia caused by soil erosion and acidification.

STATUS REPORT:

Over the past decade, Australian government policy has shifted away from price related assistance, towards market oriented policies. The government has progressively reduced protection measures and recast the role of statutory industry bodies who now concentrate on research and development activities, market information and promotion services largely funded by growers. Farmers have supported the new policy framework. They have improved their management and financial skills and adopted new technologies and innovative practices. They have become more flexible and better able to adapt to changing market conditions. Productivity has increased, management of the natural resource base has improved, and linkages with other sectors have been strengthened. A community-based approach has proven to be the most effective model to progress sustainable development.

A number of Federal Government initiatives have been undertaken, and are in train, to improve sustainable agriculture and rural development in farming sectors. Outlined in Chapter 10 are programs and the establishment of the $1.25 billion Natural Heritage Trust which will be the foundation for the conservation of biodiversity and the ecologically sustainable management of Australia's land and water resources. Some initiatives are discussed below.

The National Drought Policy (NDP) was agreed to by the Federal, State and Territory governments in 1992. The NDP aims to encourage primary producers and other sections of rural Australia to adopt self-reliant approaches to managing for climatic variability, maintain and protect Australia's agricultural and environmental resource base during periods of extreme climate stress and ensure early recovery of agricultural and rural industries, consistent with long term sustainable levels. To ensure a continued movement towards this goal, the National Drought Policy is currently under review.

The National Rural Finance Summit was held on 3-5 July 1996 to develop a greater appreciation of farm financial issues and identify strategies that will contribute to long term sustainability, profitability and international competitiveness of the farm sector. The Summit provided the basis for developing a coherent vision for Australian Agriculture with Government, industry, financial institutions and the community working in partnership to achieve a prosperous rural Australia. The Summit emphasised the need to ensure fair and equitable adjustment policies which will help agriculture through periods of adjustment and acknowledged that arrangements are also needed which assist those in desperate circumstances and who have no future in the industry to adjust out with dignity, and to support their families while in the process of leaving farming.

Australian farm productivity continues to increase through advances in technology and improved farm management. Central to these achievements is the ability of farmers to make appropriate structural adjustments in response to market developments. The Rural Adjustment Scheme is the main mechanism that the Government uses to overcome impediments to adjustment. The Mid-Term Review of the Rural Adjustment Scheme (RAS), will take a long term view of the adjustment challenges facing Australian agriculture and will assess the capacity of present adjustment arrangements to meet those challenges, as well as, examining the role, if any, for Government intervention. There will be a particular focus on the role of on-farm business risk management strategies.

The Federal Government is also pursuing the development of a comprehensive national Business Plan for Australian Agriculture which will set out the vision for agriculture over the next ten years and identify the roles and responsibilities of all players.

In 1995, a Land Management Taskforce reported on ways to improve the adoption of property management planning by the farm sector. The National Property Management Planning Campaign under the National Landcare Program aims to encourage better planning and management skills of individual farmers for all aspects of farm management, ensure that planning is carried out on a catchment or regional basis, take into account the needs of all users and the inter-relationships of land, water and vegetation consistent with the principles of the National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development.

Apart from Government policies and programs that cover all agricultural sectors such as Landcare, the Government looks to promote sustainable growth within specific industries through agencies such as research and development corporations. Within the dairy industry, for example, the government supports the Dairy Research and Development Corporation (DRDC). The DRDC's objectives are to increase industry effectiveness, improve the social and environmental sustainability of dairying, and to achieve efficient use of R&D resources.

Industry growth strategies have been developed for a number of industries including dairy, horticulture and sugar industries. These strategies aim to improve farming systems and strengthen the linkages with the manufacturing sector through downstream value adding and export orientation. Following a report from the Horticultural Task Force the Government established the Horticulture 2000 Group in February 1995 to implement a growth strategy for horticulture. In regard to sugar, the Federal and Queensland Governments have endorsed the recommendations of the Sugar Industry Review Working Party, established to review the Queensland sugar industry's regulatory arrangements and the need for a tariff on sugar. The recommendations, including removal of the tariff from 1 July 1997, provide an integrated package of reforms designed to promote a sustainable and internationally competitive industry.

In the food sector the Government's new Supermarket to Asia Strategy is bringing together government and industry leaders to work on further improving the competitiveness of Australia's fresh and processed food exports to Asia. The implementation of the Strategy will be overseen by the Prime Minister's Supermarket to Asia Council. The Council comprises the Prime Minister and four other senior Government Ministers, and leaders from the farming, food processing, packaging, transport, research, trade union and retailing sectors. Initially, the Council is concentrating on five key issues: quality and sustainability; business competitiveness and productivity; trade and market development; communication; and transport and logistics. The Supermarket to Asia work will complement the Business Plan for Australian Agriculture which the Government is developing, together with industry, as an outcome of the National Rural Finance Summit held in July 1996.

CROSS SECTORAL ISSUES

1. Decision making structure:

Within the federal system of government the State and Territory governments have prime constitutional responsibility for land management. Within the Australian government the Department of Primary Industries and Energy is primarily responsible for Agriculture. Local Government has a key 'hands on' role in planning and land management in rural areas. Many local governments provide support and coordination or work directly with Landcare groups.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues:

The Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics (ABARE) provides economic information of direct relevance to Australia's minerals, energy, agriculture, forestry and fishing industries through a comprehensive program of economic research and analysis. The government also funds the Australian Geological Survey Organisation (AGSO) and the Bureau of Resource Sciences (BRS).

The Australian primary industries R&D corporation (RDC) model features a high level of industry involvement and priority setting, funding and management of research. This approach ensures effective and efficient R&D that is market driven and focused on areas with the highest returns for industry. It also provides for joint industry and government funding while separating funding from the performance of research. Its core is the proactive management of all aspects of R&D by expert management boards including strategic planning and priority setting, funding and facilitation, and commercialisation and adoption of R&D outcomes. The development of sustainable rural industries is one of the key objectives in the legislation establishing the RDCs.

5. Regional/International Cooperation:

Australia participates in the Cairns Group of agricultural exporting nations, with APEC and WTO. Australia also pursues agricultural trade issues on a bilateral basis, an example being the Closer Economic Relations with New Zealand.

Australia's agricultural environments, including tropical and dryland environments, are similar to many developing countries. Despite the challenges which agriculture and rural development present, this is an area where Australia has comparative advantage, with a wide range of relevant agricultural expertise. Under Australia's bilateral aid programs, about $40 million is spent each year on agricultural production and services, agricultural storage and land survey and conservation. Another $10 million is spent on forestry activities and $5 million on fisheries. About $40 million is spent annually on international agricultural research under the aid program. There are two main ways in which these funds are used, through the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) and through the international agricultural research centres such as the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines. ACIAR promotes collaborative research among Australian scientists and their developing country counterparts on key aspects of sustainable agriculture including: better land, forest and water management; improved animal husbandry and health; improved management of coastal and marine ecosystems; more effective agronomic practices; minimisation of toxic chemical inputs; and socio-economic aspects of sustainable natural resource development and management.

Many of AusAID's activities in other sectors contribute to rural development and poverty alleviation. These include activities in health and education, water resources, transport and communication infrastructure, good governance and micro-enterprise. Support for programs that directly benefit women and girls are also vital for increased agricultural production. These related activities are estimated to involve expenditure of well over $100 million per year.

Convention on Biological Diversity

Convention signed in 1992, ratified in 1993

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

Convention signed before 1 July 1992.

Latest Australian report submitted in 1995.

Additional comments relevant to this chapter

Protection of biodiversity and the maintenance of essential ecological processes and life support systems is one of the three core objectives of the National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development (NSESD). The National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity is a product of the spirit of cooperation engendered by the InterGovernmental Agreement on the Environment and has been endorsed by all spheres of government. It is the major framework for national implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Strategy accepts the core objectives and guiding principles of the NSESD and outlines objectives and actions for six target areas. A key element of the Strategy is the management of biological diversity on a regional basis. Measures are intended to achieve the integration of biodiversity conservation into planning mechanisms at all levels.

The establishment of protected areas has long been a focus of government activity in the sphere of conservation. To achieve the Government's objective of having a national representative system of protected areas, the National Reserve System program has been established. The program includes development and refinement of methodologies for identification of protected areas, incentives for State and Territory cooperation and development of nationally consistent management principles for protected areas. The Government has a particular interest in the development of a mix of off-reserve incentives to promote the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. In addition, the Endangered Species Program, Wetlands Program and the National Landcare Program, and initiatives such as One Billion Trees and Save the Bush contribute to the off reserve management and rehabilitation of biological diversity.

Ex-situ measures include botanic gardens, seed/gene banks such as the network of plant genetic resource centres and the Australian Tree Seed Centre, aquaria, zoos, and microbial collections such as the CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation) Culture Collection of Microalgae. Networks such as the Australian Network for Plant Conservation and the Australian Species Management Scheme have been established to coordinate ex-situ conservation activities for threatened native plant and animal species, respectively.

The National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity is closely related to other national strategies: the National Forest Policy Statement, the draft National Strategy for Rangeland Management, the Feral Pests Program and a number of other national strategies currently being developed, including a National Weeds Strategy which is in the process of being finalised.

CROSS-SECTORAL ISSUES

1. Decision-Making Structure:

At the Federal level, Environment Australia has primary responsibility for formulation of national biodiversity policies on a whole of government basis. A key means for coordinating Federal, State and Territory policies and activities relevant to biodiversity is the Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council. This Council comprises all Government ministers responsible for the environment and conservation, although only Australian ministers input to issues that pertain solely to Australia. There is a wide range of legislative instruments at all spheres of government relevant to biodiversity conservation.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues:

The National Biodiversity Strategy recognises that major research initiatives are required in the areas of compilation and assessment of existing knowledge, conservation biology, achieving ecologically sustainable use in a range of sectors, rapid assessment and inventory, long-term monitoring and ethnobiology. A number of projects are underway to help fill these gaps, including pilot testing of rapid biodiversity assessment techniques.

The Australian Biological Resources Study promotes studies in the taxonomy and distribution of Australia's flora and fauna. A Multi Divisional Research Program was established aimed at providing management options to help make the National Biodiversity Strategy operational. There are, for instance, a number of newly established Cooperative Research Centres concerned with management of tropical rain forests and with sustainable forestry.

Linking of herbarium collections is achieved through the Integrated Botanical Information System (IBIS), the Australian National Botanic Gardens (ANBG) computer data base which also links the collections to an extensive photographic collection. In conjunction with the Environmental Resources Information Network, the ANBG undertakes to catalogue the biodiversity of Australian plants by maintaining as an integral part of IBIS the Census of Australian Plants and the Australian Plant Name Index and making this information available to researchers. The National Wilderness Inventory project has completed the continental mapping of wilderness quality and is now continuing a program of maintenance and update.

3. Major Groups:

Contributions of industry, business, the scientific community and NGOs were particularly important to the development of the National Biodiversity Strategy. A Biological Diversity Advisory Council comprising persons with relevant expertise from these groups has been established to advise government on biological diversity conservation issues.

Support for increased community involvement in biodiversity conservation activities and for the incorporation of biodiversity into educational programs is a major objective of the National Biodiversity Strategy. Media organisations, government agencies, educational institutions, scientific establishments and conservation groups have all been active in recent years in promoting the conservation of biological diversity. Increased community interest in the topic has resulted in greater coverage in media and educational programs.

The importance of the knowledge and participation of Aboriginal peoples and Torres Strait Islanders is increasingly being acknowledged with cooperative efforts between the communities and both government and non-government conservation organisations. Significant areas of land under Aboriginal ownership have been set aside as protected areas. Aboriginal involvement is achieved through representation on management bodies, participation in the ranger service and through the contracting of work.

4. Finance:

Australia provides annual funding to the Trust Fund for the Convention on Biological Diversity. Additional funding has been provided to assist delegations from developing countries to attend the COP, as well as contributing towards Biotechnology Fairs. In 1996 Australia provided initial funding for an indigenous persons position within the CBD Secretariat. A Natural Heritage Trust has been established to become the foundation for the conservation of biodiversity and the ecologically sustainable management of Australia's land and water resources.

5. Regional/International Cooperation: Australia participates in the South Pacific Biodiversity Conservation Program and other projects with global significance. The Rapid Assessment of Biodiversity Resources project, for instance, will lead to several products that will aid countries (and others) to rapidly appraise areas and determine priorities for the management of biodiversity.

The Australian Government funds numerous research and development programs designed to increase the quality and efficiency of production of food, fodder, and renewable raw materials. Biotechnology projects include work on improving yields, quality, and post-harvest life; diagnosing and combating plant and animal disease; reducing pesticide use; moving to more environmentally friendly herbicides; expanding plant capability to fix nitrogen, and improving food processing.

Most biotechnology projects for health and medical research are funded through the National Health and Medical Research Council (NH&MRC), the Cooperative Research Centre Program, or the Industry Research and Development Board and are focussed on molecular genetics, haematology, immunology, virology, parasitology, otology, microsurgery, diagnostics, and reproductive physiology. Biotechnology projects in agricultural industries are funded by rural industries research and development corporations as well as the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation and State agricultural research institutes.

The Genetic Manipulation Advisory Committee (GMAC) was established in 1987 to oversee the development and use of novel genetic manipulation techniques in Australia. GMAC assesses whether such work poses potential hazards to the community and the environment and, if so, recommends appropriate safety procedures and containment of organisms to researchers, commercial institutions and government regulatory bodies. Separate GMAC subcommittees consider proposals for contained work and for planned introduction of genetically modified organisms into the environment. Examples of planned releases of crop plants include subterranean clover with a sunflower albumin gene, virus resistant potato, lupins with herbicide resistance, and potato with decreased browning. GMAC also drafts and promulgates guidelines which specify procedures and containment levels. An integral part of the GMAC system is a network of Institutional Biosafety Committees (IBCs) in research institutes and companies throughout Australia. The IBCs monitor day-to-day genetic engineering work and ensure that GMAC's guidelines and specific advice are observed. GMAC participates in the development of biosafety concepts and principles undertaken internationally by the OECD.

Other bodies with an interest in biosafety include the Therapeutic Goods Administration, the National Registration Authority for Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals, the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS), the National Occupational Health and Safety Commission, Environment Australia and the Australia New Zealand Food Authority.

The Australian system of plant variety protection ensures breeders' intellectual property rights to new plant varieties. Australia's patent system is fully consistent with the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement.

Significant public information activities are undertaken by four major organisations. A Gene Technology Information Unit has been established to increase public awareness and understanding of gene technology. It develops and supplies high quality, objective and timely information on gene technology, both for schools and the general public and for "expert" communicators trained by the Unit. The CSIRO also runs workshops introducing biotechnology techniques to the public. The Australian Biotechnology Association publishes information pamphlets on various biotechnology topics. An important GMAC function is the publication of Public Information Sheets on planned release proposals, as well as general information presented through the internet (Http://www.dist.gov.au/science/gmac/gmachome.htm), quarterly newsletter and annual reports.

CROSS-SECTORAL ISSUES

1. Decision-Making Structure:

The overall responsibility for regulatory policy governing gene technology rests with the Department of Industry, Science and Tourism. However, the responsibility for biotechnology policy is widely dispersed among Federal and State Government portfolios, particularly those responsible for health, agriculture and the environment.

The voluntary guidelines for notification and assessment of genetic manipulation work have been very up to date but they have no legal force. Further options, including the possibility of new legislation for ensuring compliance with research guidelines are being considered. Consideration is also being given to extension of the role of existing bodies in regulating the general release of genetically modified organisms.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues:

Research in biotechnology is undertaken at many universities, research institutes and Cooperative Research Centres throughout Australia. Many research projects are ongoing in the field of waste management, wastewater and sewage treatment and in the bioremediation of contaminated sites.

The Australian National Genomic Information Service (ANGIS), established in 1991, assists research and development in molecular biology, genetic engineering and biotechnology through providing a databank of sequence data from nucleic acids and proteins. The Australian Proteome Analysis Facility is currently being set up to enhance research into the protein readout of the genome.

3. Major Groups:

Regulatory bodies include public consultation phases within assessment procedures. Institutional Biosafety Committees include an independent member. NGOs have promoted on a number of biotechnology issues, including:
- the need for a biosafety protocol under the Convention on Biological Diversity,
- the need to avoid restrictions on trade in biotechnology products, which are inconsistent with the non-discriminatory and other principles of the multilateral trading system,
- the limitations, as well as the potential, of biotechnology to address agronomic, health or environmental problems in an integrated, safe and sustainable manner,
- ethical issues surrounding the patenting of life forms,
- the application of the precautionary principle to genetic engineering,
- indigenous peoples' rights in relation to genetic resources, and
- labelling of consumer products derived form genetically manipulated organisms.

4. Regional/International Cooperation:

Australia cooperates with FAO, WHO, CGIAR, the International Council for the Control of Iodine Deficiency Disorders and the International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease in biotechnology issues, e.g. through the Australian Centre for International Agriculture Research (ACIAR). Among the health initiatives by Australians in underdeveloped countries are important programs to combat blindness and chronic urinary infection in Africa.

CSL Limited has been designated as a key WHO Collaborating Centre for Influenza, and now operates as an international reference centre. A novel drug to combat influenza is being developed commercially by Biota Holdings Limited; this very promising drug has almost completed clinical trials and could receive regulatory approval in 1997.

A number of biotechnology related activities have been supported through ACIAR. These include: development of a vaccine to control screw worm, development of transformation and regeneration systems for peanut and papaya to provide disease resistance in Indonesia and Thailand, and training scientists from 14 countries in molecular biology techniques.

In 1991, the Australian Government established Ocean Rescue 2000, a ten year program to protect the marine environment. The program is working to provide an overall framework for the conservation and sustainable use of Australia's marine environment, including the recently declared EEZ. An Integrated Marine and Coastal Regionalisation for Australia is being developed and the establishment of a national representative system of marine protected areas in all States/ Territories and Commonwealth waters is being prepared.

Australia is in the early stages of the development of an oceans policy for Australian waters to provide an overarching strategic framework to enhance the planning, management and ecologically sustainable development of inter alia our fisheries, petroleum, gas and seabed resources, whilst ensuring the conservation and protection of our marine environment.

The Federal Government is providing $1.25 billion for a comprehensive and integrated environment and natural resources package delivered through a Natural Heritage Trust. Legislation to allow the implementation of this package is currently before Parliament. This package includes funding for a Coasts and Clean Seas Initiative, which will involve the provision of $100 million over four years to previously neglected areas such as ocean outfalls, stormwater pollution and marine research.

The Federal Government also aims to have a comprehensive Australian oceans policy in place by early 1998. The policy will address issues such as improved fisheries management and the development of a representative system of marine protected areas. Funding for the Coasts and Clean Seas Initiative will be used to support the oceans policy.

The National Water Quality Strategy addresses threats to the marine environment from land-based activities. The Waterwatch Australia Program, a community participation and education program, promotes total catchment planning and management which contributes to addressing land-based pollution. ANZECC has developed Guidelines and Criteria for Determining the Need for and Level of Environmental Impact Assessment in Australia which includes references to 'environmentally sensitive marine localities' and marine parks.

Commercial fishing activity is regulated through fishery management plans. The management plans adopted by State, Territory and Federal Governments all embrace the concept of ecologically sustainable development. In 1995, a national policy was developed to address recreational fishing. With the broadening of fisheries management to accommodate wider environmental and habitat considerations, multiple use or zoning of marine industries is increasingly becoming a part of fisheries management in Australia. Special arrangements have been made to address fishing by-catches. In 1994, a National Strategy on Aquaculture was developed. Fishery adjustment schemes have been implemented to adjust fleet capacity to bring about the long term sustainability of fisheries resources. In 1996, all State and Territory governments and the Federal Government committed themselves to the implementation of the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity. Part of this strategy looks at ways to achieve the conservation of biodiversity through the adoption of ecological sustainable fisheries management practices.

A number of threatened marine species are listed under the Endangered Species Protection Act 1992 , providing recognition of their status and mechanisms for their protection. In addition, "incidental catch (bycatch) of seabirds during oceanic longline fishing operations" was added in 1995 to the schedule of key threatening processes recognised under the Endangered Species Protection Act. A Threat Abatement Plan is currently in preparation to address this key threatening process. Other nominations have been made under this Act and these are being evaluated.

In 1995, a strategy to manage discharges of ballast water from shipping was launched. It is aimed at minimising the risk of introduction of unwanted aquatic organisms into Australian waters, and is believed to be the world's first strategy in this field. A Council was established in 1996 to implement this strategy.

A National Plan to Combat Pollution of the Sea by Oil is in place and was reviewed in 1993. In 1996 ANZECC released a national maritime accidents and pollution strategy ('Working together to reduce impacts from shipping operations: ANZECC strategy to protect the marine environment.') to reduce pollution from shipping. The administration of the Sea Dumping Act is being reviewed. In 1995, a report into ship safety was published, entitled 'Ships of Shame - A Sequel - Inquiry into Ship Safety'. The report recommended tougher inspection procedures for vessels and the enforcement of international labour laws to combat the widespread exploitation of seafarers.

CROSS-SECTORAL ISSUES

State and Territory and Local Governments have primary responsibility for managing most coastal land and inshore waters up to three nautical miles, except for some issues such as sea dumping. The Federal Government is primarily responsible for management of the EEZ and Territorial Seas. Most States and Territories have legislation, policies or guidelines specific to coastal management. Coastal management systems have been reviewed and several States are developing new legislation or planning policies.

The Federal Government is currently developing with State and Territory Goverments new jurisdicational measures under the Offshore Constitutional Settlement arrangements for fisheries. The new arrangements will better facilitate the implementation of sustainable resource management as they are based on natural stock boundaries and fishing methods rather than on political boundaries which fish stocks overlap.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues:

The State of the Marine Environment Report, released in early 1995, comprehensively describes and assesses the current state of knowledge of Australia's marine environment and resources and the impact of human activities. The Bureau of Meteorology initiated in 1993 a Tropical Cyclone Coastal Impacts Project. National studies on port waste reception facilities and marine debris have provided important baselines against which to measure future improvements.

The Commonwealth Coastal Action Program includes capacity building initiatives covering professional development and training such as a short course program to meet the training needs of coastal managers, supports development of industry codes of practice (with the initial focus on aquaculture, recreational fishing, planning and the tourism industry), and is increasing public access to coastal information through the electronic "Coast Net" and the Coastal Atlas. As part of its Climate Change and Coastal Action Programs, the Federal Government supported a nation wide series of case studies an a national workshop to trial a revised methodology for vulnerability assessment of coastal areas to climate change.

3. Major Groups:

The Guiding Principles for the Sustainable Management of Coastal Resources include participation of local communities and indigenous people in decision-making, and the Coastcare Program was established to ensure community participation and develop projects to protect coastal areas. Many community groups, ranging from local ratepayer associations, to conservation groups and sporting clubs, play an active role in managing the coastal zone through activities such as Clean-Up Australia Day, Seaweek and projects to rehabilitate local beaches or wetlands.

The Ocean Rescue 2000 program established the Marine and Coastal Community Network to encourage and facilitate community support for the conservation and ecologically sustainable use of Australia's marine and coastal environments. The Maritime Accidents and Pollution program includes participation by shipping, plastics and packing industries as well as community groups.

The Waterwatch Australia Program is Australia's largest environmental education and participation program, with an estimated 30,000 people regularly involved in water way monitoring. The program promotes total catchment planning and management which contributes to addressing land-based marine pollution. Of the 1,200 community groups involved, between 200-300 are monitoring tidal waters and are undertaking actions at the local level to improve water quality.

4. Finance:

The Federal Government has provided funding of AUS$53 million over 4 years for the implementation of the Commonwealth Coastal Policy.

5. Regional/International Cooperation:

Australia ratified UNCLOS in 1994, and is an active participant in regional and global fisheries initiatives under UNCLOS. Australia participates in two of the Regional Seas Programs of UNEP, the East Asian Seas (EAS) Action Plan, and South Pacific Regional Environment Program (SPREP), and is committed to contributing to the promotion of sustainable development among small island developing states (SIDS) in the South Pacific region. Australia also participates in the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Marine Resources Conservation Working Group, and has actively contributed to the development and regional implementation of the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land Based Activities (GPA). Australia is a founding member of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) which was established in 1994, and has taken on the ICRI Secretariat for 1996/1998. Australia is an active participant in the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) and is playing an important role in the development of the ballast water annex to MARPOL. Australia signed the Convention for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna that entered into force in 1994.

The Australian Government has developed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with New Zealand to facilitate cooperation and assistance in the event of a marine pollution incident affecting the Tasman Sea. Australia has or is developing bilateral agreements relevant to oceans issues with Indonesia, Japan, Singapore, Vietnam, Korea, Papua New Guinea, Japan, China and Brunei.

total population)

The aim of Australia's integrated approaches to water resource development and management is the more efficient and sustainable use of those resources. Australia's integrated approaches take into account the linkages between all natural resources (soil, water and vegetation), involve all stakeholders - governments, community and industry, and recognise the importance of effort at a number of levels, namely at the national, State and local/catchment levels. Australia's approaches also seek to address the economic and social needs of communities in tandem with natural resource aspects. The examples of progress provided below explain the features of Australia's integrated approaches in more detail.

A national strategic framework for water reform, which was agreed by all governments through the Council of Australian Governments in February 1994, establishes a structured program of reform measures to achieve more efficient and sustainable water resource use. State and Territory Governments have prime responsibility for water resource management and implementation of the reforms. The Federal Government has a complementary role in the reform process in providing leadership and facilitating implementation, in the interest of promoting national outcomes.

The reforms, to be implemented over the period to 2001, cover both rural and urban areas and include measures in relation to water pricing, water entitlements and trading, environmental requirements, institutional reform, public consultation and education, and research. Good progress has been made in implementing the reforms in the short time since they were agreed.

Water property rights systems are being addressed by governments under a framework or set of national principles. Similarly, environmental requirements are being addressed through a set of national principles on water for ecosystems. All governments have in place, or are planning, measures to promote integrated catchment management approaches. Governments have undertaken activities to promote water trading and initiated action to progress interstate water trading. Urban authorities have also maintained the pace of reform in relation to institutional reforms and pricing arrangements. Issues relating to groundwater management are also being examined through a national framework, as is management of stormwater and wastewater resources.

Whilst there will be overall benefits to the Australian community and the nation as a whole through more efficient and sustainable resource use, there are also specific benefits for irrigated agriculture which accounts for the bulk (about 70%) of water used in Australia. Better defined property rights for water will assist the development of water markets and water trading, providing irrigators with greater business flexibility. The reforms will also mean more local involvement in managing irrigation areas. Other measures in the reform package address the sustainability of the resource base. Appropriate pricing policies will also help ensure that the long term future infrastructure needs of the irrigation sector can be met.

Water quality is being addressed through the National Water Quality Management Strategy (NWQMS). The NWQMS aims to achieve a nationally consistent approach to water quality management, while allowing flexibility to respond to differing regional and local circumstances, and embraces issues across the whole of the water cycle. It involves the co-operative development by governments of national guidelines and other documents which focus on part of the water cycle or a particular activity with potential to impact on water quality. A key element of the process is community consultation.

The Strategy is nearing completion and will include guidelines for fresh and marine waters, drinking water, groundwater protection, sewerage systems (trade wastes) as well as effluent management guidelines for specific industries (including dairies, piggeries, wool scouring, tanneries and wineries and distilleries). Other documents which will form part of the Strategy are a community resource document on rural land use and water quality, guidelines for urban stormwater, as well as a set of guidelines to assist in implementation.

Other key water programs include the National River Health Program (NRHP) and the National Wetlands Program. The NRHP is addressing research into the environmental flow requirements of Australia's rivers, including the development of decision support systems. The Program is also developing the first national biological monitoring system for Australia's rivers, for the assessment of river health and related management action and State of the Environment reporting. The National Wetlands Program aims to promote the conservation of Australia's wetlands through a variety of actions such as management planning for wetlands listed under the Ramsar Convention, management-oriented research, surveys, training programs and awareness raising. The program has assisted State and Territory Government with management planning for 32 of Australia's 49 Ramsar listed wetlands. In March 1996 Australia hosted the 6th Conference of Contracting parties to the Ramsar Convention, representing the first time the Conference of the Parties had been held in the southern hemisphere.

The Murray-Darling Basin is a major region in Australia facing significant resource degradation issues which are being addressed through integrated approaches. It occupies one-seventh of the nation's land mass and is one of the most important agricultural production areas in Australia. A significant achievement in 1995 was the completion by the Murray-Darling Basin (MDB) Commission (which involves the Federal and four State governments) of a comprehensive audit of current and future water use in the Basin, which indicated the dramatic impact on the environment that diversions have had on the river systems. In response to the results of the audit, the MDB Ministerial Council introduced an interim cap on diversions and agreed that a better balance needed to be struck between consumptive and environmental uses of water in the Basin. An immediate moratorium was therefore placed on further diversions whilst the details of a permanent cap and arrangements for its implementation are being worked out.

In addition to the audit and cap process, which will provide the broad macro settings, a Sustainability Plan for the Basin will address land and water management issues at a more detailed level. This plan is also complemented by a set of integrated plans, policies and programs. The Natural Resources Management Strategy supports community groups taking responsibility for coordinating natural resource management action within their regions. Other initiatives include strategies to address salinity and drainage issues, algal management and management of the Basin's wetlands, an irrigation management strategy and a program to address dryland salinity in the Basin.

CROSS SECTORAL ISSUES

1. Decision-making Structure:

The structures relating to natural resource management, described in the Chapter 10 report, also apply to water resources.

2. Capacity Building/Technology Issues:

A range of institutions and organisations undertaking research into natural resource management are described in Chapter 10.

Australia's community based policies and programs are aimed at developing a capacity for improved resource management at the local level. By encouraging community participation in monitoring water quality, the Waterwatch Australia Program aims to raise community awareness of the natural environment, instil the wise use of natural resources ethic in communities, and encourage on-ground community based activities and networking. Around 32 000 Australians in 1150 groups across 86 catchments are participating in this program.

3. Major Groups:

Australia's integrated approaches seek to involve major groups through its community based programs and public consultation processes. Irrigation farmers are a key group accounting for about 70% of the water used. Farmers have demonstrated their willingness to adopt more sustainable practices. Many are now using water saving practices (eg moisture monitoring technology, irrigation scheduling, water recycling).

4. Finance:

Considerable support is provided by a range of Federal and State/Territory programs aimed at improving water resource management. As outlined in the Chapter 10 report, the Federal Government is committed to funding a $1.25 billion package of natural resource management measures. The main elements which address water management are a National Land and Water Audit ($32m), the Murray-Darling 2001 project ($150m) and a National Rivercare Program ($85m).

5. Regional/International Co-operation:

Water supply is an important element of Australia's official development assistance (ODA) because of its contribution to poverty reduction. Australia's aid expenditure on water supply and sanitation activities has increased dramatically over the last 5 years from $10.2 million in 1990-1 to $76.1 million in 1995-6. Most projects are located in the Asia-Pacific region. AusAID activities in this sector have increasingly incorporated environmental concerns (such as improved catchment management) as well as the involvement of local communities in their design, construction and maintenance.

6. Statistical Data/Indicators

Developed Resource (as % of available water) 20% (approx.)

The Australian government is strongly committed to the sound management of chemicals and participates in domestic and international activities to implement actions addressing the six program areas of chapter 19 of Agenda 21.

Australia has implemented an extensive legislative and structural framework for the sound management of chemicals at both the federal, State and local levels. Programs are in place for the assessment of industrial, agricultural and veterinary chemicals under federal statutory assessment schemes, including the National Industrial Chemicals Notification and Assessment Scheme (NICNAS) and the National Registration Scheme for agricultural and veterinary chemicals (NRS). Federal government agencies monitor chemicals for bioaccumulation, persistence and unacceptable toxicity and work through NICNAS, NRS, and in conjunction with the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development/International Program for Chemical Safety (OECD/IPCS) chemicals programs to set priorities for assessment of chemicals of domestic and international concern. Australia has also established an Existing Chemicals Review Program to review older agricultural and veterinary chemicals against contemporary standards.

Therapeutic chemicals and food additives are also managed through federal legislation which provides a cooperative, national focus for the regulation of chemicals in food and, where appropriate, the establishment of Maximum Residue Limits.

Australia actively participates in programs aimed at the international exchange of assessment information, including assessments prepared for industrial, agricultural and veterinary chemicals. Progress in this area includes: recent modifications in the structure of some of Australia's assessment reports; negotiations on confidentiality and proprietary rights issues with industry; the development of reports with other countries that provide internationally acceptable content, structure, and decision making information; and provision of information on Australia's schedule of reviews and details of those reports available for exchange.

Australia advocates the harmonisation of classification systems and labelling wherever appropriate and has achieved uniform labelling for agricultural, veterinary and domestic chemicals and drugs. Mechanisms for harmonisation of chemicals management are being considered.

The Federal government supports public availability of information on risks presented by industrial, agricultural and veterinary chemicals and participates fully in the voluntary prior informed consent (PIC) procedure. Public information is to be an integral part of programs being developed, such as the strategy to manage scheduled wastes and the National Pollutant Inventory. The Inventory is to be premised on the need for guaranteed access by the public to emissions information.

Australia has developed a National Poisons Register and participates in the development of the IPCS INTOX project which aims to promote the development of poison information centres in each country and to develop harmonised data services to assist poisons centres worldwide in the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of poisoning. Australian State and Territory governments have established comprehensive programs aimed at educating workers on chemical safety issues. The chemical industry has also undertaken a voluntary program to improve the health, environmental and safety performance of its operations.

CROSS-SECTORAL ISSUES

1. Decision-Making Structure:

National committees and federal government inter-departmental committees, comprising departments with chemical - related responsibilities, have been created to enhance cooperative consideration of international and domestic chemicals policy issues. The National Registration Authority has the primary decision-making powers in relation to registration or non-registration of agricultural and veterinary chemicals for sale in Australia. Worksafe Australia is responsible for the administration of notification and assessment of industrial chemicals. In the assessment processes of industrial chemicals and agricultural and veterinary chemicals, advice on public health and environmental implications is provided by health, occupational and environmental agencies.

2.Capacity-Building/Technology Issues:

Australia has developed a preliminary national profile on chemicals management infrastructure and is considering the development of a comprehensive profile to provide an integrated tool for risk reduction and management.

A large program of research and development is conducted by various national and State organisations in cooperation with national research organisations such as CSIRO and universities. Research activities include field evaluation of new products; efficacy trials to determine cost effective treatment and applications rates; alternative pesticides; integrated pest management technology; identification and evaluation of biological control agents and development and evaluation of pest and disease resistance in host plants and animals.

The Australian government has conducted a major campaign to inform the public about concerns over lead, in particular, providing information and a financial incentive to encourage a switch from leaded petrol. The federal government also undertook and has published the results of a national survey of blood lead levels, particularly of young children.

3. Major Groups:

Australia seeks to promote increased collaboration between the Federal, State and Territory Governments, industry, academia and NGOs interested in various aspects of chemicals management. Consultations are held on a regular basis to enable input by industry and other non-government organisations in the development of government policy.

4. Regional/International Cooperation:

Australia actively participates in activities to strengthen international and regional cooperation on the safe management of hazardous chemicals.

The Australian government is an active member of the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS) and hosted the second Intersessional Group Meeting of the IFCS as part of its support for Forum activities on Chapter 19 of Agenda 21. Australia is a lead country for a number of international risk assessment and risk management activities. Exchange programs for assessment reports on therapeutic chemicals also exist between Australia and Canada, Sweden and New Zealand.

Through its membership of the OECD, Australia participates in international activities aimed at harmonising chemicals management methods (including OECD Test Guidelines and Chemicals and Pesticides Programs) and is involved in the OECD High Production Volume Chemicals Program and the OECD Complementary Information Exchange Procedure, the OECD EXICHEM database (and other relevant international schemes) providing information on regulatory developments. Australia has taken the lead on the exchange of assessment reports on new industrial chemicals through the OECD Chemicals Program and, since 1992, has participated in the OECD pilot pesticides project to compare toxicity data reviews for human health and environmental hazard assessment and the subsequent OECD Ad Hoc Exchange Program for Pesticide Assessments.

Australia has participated actively in discussions arising from UNEP initiatives to develop a legally binding instrument for prior informed consent (PIC) procedure and to develop recommendations on international action on certain persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Australia also participates in the UN London Guidelines, the FAO Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides, the IRPTC and the ILO information exchange scheme.

The Australian Government has co-hosted a regional workshop on Pollution Release Transfer Register's (PRTRs) for Asian Pacific countries in June 1996. The workshop provided an open forum for discussion on the benefits and users of PRTRs. Australia has also participated in the IPCS Environmental Health Criteria program, including being a co-sponsor for the IPCS workshop and taskgroups on copper in June and zinc in September 1996.

Australia is also providing assistance to countries in the Asia and the South Pacific regions through the United Nations Institute for Training and Research and the South Pacific Regional Environment Program to develop national profiles on chemicals management infrastructure.

Australian development cooperation includes risk reduction programs in developing countries, particularly through reducing the need for chemical pesticides and fertilisers. This includes promotion of integrated pest and weed management systems and the improvement of crop species and research into chemical alternatives to pest control

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal
The Basel Convention was signed by Australia in 1989 and ratified in February 1992.
Additional comments relevant to this chapter

The Federal Government has amended its implementing legislation, the Hazardous Waste (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1989 to enable Australia to fully implement its obligations under the Basel Convention. The amendments will come into force on 12_December 1996.

The OECD Council Decision is generally regarded as an Article 11 arrangement under the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Waste and their Disposal (the Basel Convention). Both the Basel Convention and the Council Decision set up notification and consent procedures to track the transboundary movement of hazardous waste. The Council Decision's procedures are simplified for movements between OECD countries of waste destined for recovery. The amended legislation will give effect to this decision under regulations to the Act.

It is an offence under the amended Act to move hazardous waste internationally without the relevant permit. The maximum penalty applies to offences that are likely to result in injury or damage to human health or the environment and is $1 million for a body corporate or up to 5 years imprisonment for an individual. Lesser penalties apply to other offences. In addition, executive officers of corporations may be held liable if they are found to have been negligent

The Federal Government has a pollution avoidance approach to waste issues and is developing programs to promote this approach in preference to end-of-pipe solutions for disposing of waste. This cleaner production approach is seen as both reducing industry costs and protecting the environment. In encouraging a cleaner production approach, Australia has been constrained by the difficulty in reaching numerous small to medium sized businesses. Pollution avoidance programs are being pursued at Federal, State and local levels. These aim to foster cleaner production, to promote the redesign of products from an environmental, life cycle perspective, and to demonstrate to industry the environmental and economic advantages of minimising the production of waste and pollution. The Federal Government has conducted a series of cleaner production workshops.

Federal funding is assisting several companies to redesign individual products from an environmental as well as functional perspective. The Australian Chamber of Manufactures, under a grant from the Federal Government, is producing environmental management handbooks providing a self assessment procedure for small industry and there are other industry sector specific manuals being produced under Federal funding. A cleaner production demonstration program is documenting economic and environmental gains including greenhouse gas reductions in several sectors. The results will be promoted widely throughout Australian industry. A Best Practice Environmental Management Program aims to encourage small and medium sized enterprises to use raw materials more efficiently, reduce solid and liquid waste discharges and increase recycling. This focuses upon assisting firms to reduce their running costs, increase production efficiency and to reduce the environmental impact of their activities.

A strategy was developed in 1992 to manage three classes of scheduled wastes, being polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), hexachlorobenzene and organochlorine pesticides (OPCs). The PCB management plan has been finalised with the hexachlorobenzene plan near completion and the OCP management plan in a developmental stage. The development of the management plans has been built around an extensive public involvement program and has considered relevant socio-economic aspects.

CROSS-SECTORAL ISSUES

1. Decision-Making Structure:

The Australian Federal Hazardous Waste (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act, 1989, has been effective from 17 July 1990. This Act was developed to implement the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal. Australia's implementing legislation is the Hazardous Waste (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1989 as amended."

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues:

A system of National Hazardous Waste Management Guidelines has been developed. It involves a mechanism for prior notification, classification of hazardous wastes and transport documents and enables governments to collect information on the production of hazardous wastes. This information is incorporated in the Australian Waste Database. The Australian Government considers that being able to understand the waste stream is central to achieving waste reduction objectives. An important part of Environment Australia's role is to develop an accessible centralised collection of information on waste, which is critical for making informed decisions. To facilitate this, Environment Australia is:

developing the Australian Waste Database (AWD) to be used to set, and report on the achievement of national waste minimisation targets;
developing a database to facilitate community and industry access to recycled materials and recyclers;
undertaking a benchmarking study to improve knowledge of waste generation levels back to 1990; and
coordinating the development of a national protocol for the collection and reporting of waste generation and landfill quantity data that will provide uniformity of waste management data.
A National Pollutant Inventory is being established to collect information on emissions and transfers of wastes and pollutants.

3. Major Groups:

Policy on hazardous waste and related issues has been developed in a highly consultative manner with input for environment and community groups, industry, unions, development cooperation groups and technical experts

4. Regional/International Cooperation:

While Australia signed the Regional Convention on Hazardous and Radioactive Waste (the Waigani Convention) on 16 September 1996, it is yet to become a party through the process of ratification. In accordance with Australian treaty-making practice, ratification can only be considered once the Convention has been given effect through domestic legislation.

Australia has assisted in facilitating workshops to discuss the establishment of Regional Centres in Beijing and Jakarta for the treatment of hazardous wastes in the Asian-Pacific Region. Australia held workshops in China and Thailand on cleaner production and environmental management systems in June 1996

The National Waste Minimisation and Recycling Strategy (1992) includes recycling targets and national packaging guidelines, sets the target of a 50% reduction in rubbish to landfill by 2000 and has national recycling targets to be achieved by 1995. The Strategy complements comprehensive waste minimisation and recycling programs being implemented throughout Australia at all spheres of government. The Strategy incorporates the waste management hierarchy (in order of preference) of waste avoidance, waste reduction, waste recycling or reclamation, waste treatment and waste disposal.

Other waste and water quality management issues are being pursued through, for example, the National Water Quality Management Strategy, involving the following principles:
- adoption of a life cycle approach to waste minimisation;
- the application of the precautionary principle to waste management;
- adoption of a user pays approach;
- application of the polluter pays principle;
- incorporation of full social and environmental costs into waste management options; and
- cleaner production techniques, as opposed to end-of-pipe waste treatment.
The material specific targets set out in the National Kerbside Recycling Strategy and the National Packaging Guideline expired in 1995. ANZECC convened a Task Force on Industry Waste Reduction Agreements to develop new voluntary agreements in areas that include green and organic waste, construction and demolition waste and with the packaging industry. The new agreements incorporate waste reduction at source and recycling targets.

The use of economic instruments to deal with solid waste and water issues is currently being widely investigated and/or implemented by the various spheres of government within Australia. Trade waste charges have been proposed and are being implemented by several State governments. Local authorities are reviewing charging systems for water.

CROSS-SECTORAL ISSUES

1. Decision-Making Structure:

In Australia, waste management is the responsibility of three spheres of government, Federal, State/Territory and local government. Each level of government is responsible for specific roles in regard to the management of waste. The Federal Government is responsible for leading and coordinating the development of the policy and regulatory framework for waste management and for international conventions and agreements on waste.

State and Territory government are responsible for the development of waste management strategies, legislation, standards and regulations for their jurisdictions. Local governments are responsible for the day to day management of waste collection and disposal. Coordination of national waste management issues is also addressed through the Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC). Local governments also develop waste management strategies and plans to manage the large variety of waste materials in their local areas. They are responsible for the day to day management of waste collection, recycling and disposal.

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues:

A National Waste Database and a National Solid Waste Classification System are presently being built up. Australia is initiating programs to develop and strengthen national capabilities in research and design of environmentally sound technologies, as well as programs designed to reduce industrial waste processes through cleaner production technologies and 'good housekeeping' practices. The EcoRedesign project aims to redesign a number of household products from an environmental and total life cycle perspective. The Federal Government is also running a project demonstrating to industry the environmental and economic benefits of implementing cleaner processes.

The Cooperative Research Centre for Waste Management and Pollution Control (at Sydney, Melbourne, Newcastle and Perth) focuses on waste reduction and minimisation, sewerage and water quality, site remediation, instrumentation and monitoring, disposal of wastes from intensive rural industries, on-site treatment of liquid wastes, disposal of wastes as solids, odours and atmospheric emissions and social ecology. Research underway includes waste audit protocols and their application.

3. Major Groups:

NGOs participate in the development of a National Waste Database and a National Solid Waste Classification System.

4. Regional/International Cooperation:

Australia funds a number of projects with sanitation components through the development cooperation program including: UNICEF Water/Sanitation project in Malawi, Waste Management Technology in India, East Timor Water Supply and Sanitation project, Visayas Water and Sanitation in the Philippines, Tarawa Sanitation in Kiribati, South Pacific Sanitation project and the Wei Hai Sewerage Treatment Plant in China. These projects include elements of technology transfer, institutional strengthening and training.

Safe storage, transportation and disposal of radioactive wastes is promoted in Australia through national codes of practice promulgated in State and Territory regulations. The Codes have been developed on a federal consultative basis and follow international standards and guidelines developed by the IAEA. The national Code of Practice on the Management of Radioactive Wastes from the Mining and Milling of Radioactive Ores (1982) is to be revised to take account of changes in international philosophies in this area.

In early 1996 a shipment of spent fuel from the High Flux Australian Research reactor (HIFAR) was made to the UK Atomic Energy Authority's (AEA) Dounreay plant for reprocessing. The purpose of this shipment was to reduce spent fuel holdings at Lucas Heights, Sydney, consistent with Australia's non-proliferation objectives and to convert spent fuel to a waste form amenable to long term management in Australia. The enriched uranium will also be recovered for re-use in fresh research reactor fuel, further contributing to resource and energy conservation.

The Government is yet to make a final decision on the disposition of the remaining HIFAR spent fuel. Meanwhile, HIFAR spent fuel is stored in accordance with international safeguards obligations.

Radioactive waste from reprocessing of HIFAR spent fuel will eventually be returned to Australia as a stable intermediate level waste form. Management options for this waste will be considered in the context of arrangements by the Federal and State Governments for management of Australia's other intermediate level radioactive wastes.

In 1994 the Federal Government commenced a project to rehabilitate the former British nuclear test sites at Maralinga (South Australia). The Maralinga test sites include areas seriously contaminated with plutonium. Earth works required to bury surface contamination in engineered trenches commenced in June 1996 and will be completed in 1998. A further phase of the project involves stabilisation of plutonium contaminated burial pits using in-situ vitrification technology.

In 1995 a Senate Select Committee was established to inquire into and report on radioactive waste management issues in Australia. A Commonwealth study to identify a suitable site for a national near-surface repository for Australia's low level and short-lived intermediate level wastes recognised under IAEA guidelines as suitable for near-surface disposal, was suspended to take account of the Committee's findings. The Government is currently considering the Committee's report.

CROSS-SECTORAL ISSUES

1. Decision-Making Structure:

The Environment Protection (Sea Dumping) Amendment Act (1986) prohibits the dumping into the sea and the incineration at sea of radioactive material. The Commonwealth/State Consultative Committee on Management of Radioactive Waste provides an opportunity for Governments to review a range of radioactive waste management issues

2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues:

Australia is involved in research and development of methods for the safe and environmentally sound treatment, processing and disposal of radioactive waste. Australia is a major participant in the Alligator Rivers Analogue Project, an aim of which is to develop and test models for radionuclide migration relevant to the assessment of the safety of radioactive waste repositories.

Australia has developed the SYNROC waste management technique for disposal of high level waste. Australia is continuing to pursue the commercial application of SYNROC technology overseas. The technique requires commercialisation overseas because Australia does not have a nuclear power industry.

The Australian Government is continuing to fund a program for monitoring the effectiveness of a rehabilitation project at the former Rum Jungle uranium site in the Northern Territory. The Rum Jungle mine site represents a unique case study in mine rehabilitation and there is continuing international interest in the monitoring and maintenance at the site. The research has implications for management of wastes arising from the mining and milling of radioactive ores in Australia and overseas.

3. Finance:

Australia set aside $A1.29 million in the 1996/97 budget for contribution to the Technical Assistance Cooperation Fund (TACF) of the IAEA for the 1997 calendar year.

4. Regional /International Cooperation:

Australia is participating in negotiations to draw up an international Convention on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management. The purpose of the proposed Convention is to encourage the safe and environmentally sound management of radioactive wastes world wide. Australia supports giving the IAEA Code of Practice on the Transboundary Movements of Radioactive Waste legally binding status under the proposed Convention. Australia is party to the London Convention (1992) and has ratified the South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty.

Australia signed the "Convention to Ban the Importation into Forum Island Countries of Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes and to Control the Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within the South Pacific Region" (the Waigani Convention) in September 1995. Australia supports the Waigani Convention as an important initiative which seeks to prohibit the importation of hazardous and radioactive wastes into the Pacific Island Developing Countries; and to regulate and facilitate the environmentally sound management of wastes generated in the Convention Area.

Australia actively supports effort within the IAEA to introduce international radioactive waste safety standards, guidelines and codes of practice. Australia supports research and development into radioactive waste management by participating in activities undertaken by such organisations as the NEA and IAEA and in international forums on radioactive waste management.

Financial resources and mechanisms are also covered under each sectoral chapter. This summary highlights broader external funding policies. In the 1996-97 fiscal year, Australia will provide $1.45 billion in official overseas development assistance (ODA). This is expected to equate to an ODA/GDP ratio of 0.3 per cent. The 1996-97 aid budget strengthens the focus of Australia's aid program with respect to its fundamental purpose, to assist developing countries reduce poverty and improve the standard of living of their people through sustainable development and to assist in achieving a more secure and equitable international order.

The environmental aspects of sustainable development are addressed in the bilateral aid program on two levels:

by ensuring that environmental impact is considered in the design implementation of all activities undertaken by the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID); and

by building a portfolio of projects with specific environmental objectives.

The aid program administered by AusAID, is subjected to an independent environmental audit of its activities. Since 1991 the audit has been conducted annually. Following the release of the 1994 audit in November 1995, AusAID will move to a combination of three yearly audits of environment-related processes and systems, with evaluations of environment-related projects in intervening years. This will expand the range of AusAID's environmental reviews and reporting and allow more specific feedback into the design of future aid projects. AusAID has also produced Country Environment Profiles on Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Laos and China.

The aid program supports a range of international environment organisations and programs that help address environmental concerns at cross-border, regional and global levels. This includes support for the Montreal Protocol Fund ($10.18m, 1994/96); the Global Environment Facility ($72.76m, 1991-97), UNEP ($5.25m, 1991-96), and the South Pacific Environment Program ($1.2m annually). Funding is also provided to the Multilateral Development Banks ($204.7m, 1996-97) and United Nations development organisations ($74.7m, 1996-97) which have an environment focus in many of their program activities.

Considerable support is also provided for a range of environment-focused activities through bilateral program channels. In a number of country programs, for instance in Indonesia and the Philippines, environment issues are being specifically addressed through activities aimed at improving issues such as watershed management and land management practices. In Africa, support is being provided to a number of countries to assist them in their efforts to combat desertification

The National Environment Industries Database aims to deliver, throughout Australia and its trading partners, information on technologies and skills currently available in Australia to solve environmental problems. The network is wide-ranging, including information on technologies, environmental education and training, legal services, research and development, government capability and consulting services. The network will be promoted to, and linked in where possible, with other international databases.

Research organisations such as the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS) and Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO) also promote collaboration between Australia and developing countries. For example:

CSIRO has formal agreements with counterparts in Asia Pacific countries aimed at specific technical or environmental concerns. These include projects on coastal zone management, marine ecosystems and ocean current measurement.

ANSTO has conducted training courses under the Regional Cooperative Agreement of the International Atomic Energy Commission in the application of nuclear science-based techniques to environmental issues, the application of radio analytical and radio tracer techniques to understanding pollutant and sediment transport and environmental processes in the coastal zone, as well as to the use of biological indicators of water quality, ecotoxicology and age dating of sediments and marine organisms.

The Australian Government is also promoting the development and transfer of environment technologies and services through the Environmental Cooperation with Asia Program. This program seeks to strengthen commercially based environmental relations in the region by enhancing awareness in Asia of Australian environmental management expertise. The program is expected to enhance Australia's share in the growing Asian market in environmental technologies, as well as contribute to stronger environmental management in partner countries through measures aimed at the development of markets for Australian environmental goods and services.

The transfer of environment technologies often occurs within the private sector. Environment Australia cooperates closely with Austemex, the export arm of the Environment Management Industry Association of Australia, in developing strategies to enhance the awareness of and the business of Australian environment management companies in the Asian region.

Recognising the role of industry and business in ESD, the Australian aid program also provides a wide spectrum of support for the development of a vibrant private sector in developing countries. The Australian program's mix of policies, such as training programs and infrastructure improvement, and newer initiatives, including support for micro-enterprise development and assistance to adjust to the post-Uruguay Round trading environment, provide a strong basis for encouraging private sector growth.

Australia has an advanced science base and in many fields Australia's scientists are at the leading edge of research. Specific strengths relevant to sustainable development include remote sensing; climate change research; numerical modelling; dryland farming, irrigation research and salinity control; fisheries science, near shore and coral reef marine biology and ecology, limnology and water management, geology and mining technology; and the biology and ecology of the Australian biota.

The most important research agencies, apart from universities, are the Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), the Defence Science & Technology Organisation, the Australian Nuclear Science & Technology Organisation, the Australian Institute of Marine Science, the Australian Geological Survey Organisation, the Bureau of Meteorology and the Bureau of Resource Sciences. Considerable effort is going into coordinating and publishing existing work and identifying gaps in the information base.

The development of links between indigenous knowledge and modern science is a relatively new field in Australia and is an increasingly urgent task as traditional knowledge and culture are lost with the passing of traditional lifestyles. Some work has been done by scientists in central Australia working with the Mutitjulu community, revealing an understanding of the relationships between landforms, plants, creatures and people, very different from prevailing scientific paradigms. They concluded that the detailed understanding of habitat preferences and the behaviour of rare, threatened and exotic species could be well utilised in future monitoring of wildlife conservation.

STEPS TAKEN TO ENHANCE SCIENTIFIC UNDERSTANDING, IMPROVE LONG TERM SCIENTIFIC ASSESSMENT, BUILDING OF CAPACITY AND CAPABILITY:

CSIRO devotes over 10% of its budget specifically to environmental research and has in place a number of large multidisciplinary programs addressing climate change, the coastal zone, integrated pest management, land and water care and mine site rehabilitation. The Australian Research Council is the primary funding agency for universities and funds research projects which range across all aspects of environment and development. The National Health & Medical Research Council funds health-related research.

Environmental indicators are a relatively new field, and research is progressing in some areas. The Land & Water Resources R&D Corporation and the Grains and Meat R&D Corporation are respectively developing indicators of sustainable production systems. Individual agencies are also developing specialist electronic databases. To encourage research and further development of Australia's environmental industries, environmental technologies have been declared 'generic' by the Government under the generic technologies grants scheme for industrial research. Industry also benefits from a general 125% tax deduction for expenditure on R&D.

There is an increasing recognition of the links between ecology and health. The National Health & Medical Research Council is formulating principles for ecology and health and considering ways to include health into environmental impact assessment procedures. The Genetic Manipulation Authority has been established to oversee the management of the environmental and health risks of the new biotechnologies.

a) Reorientation of education towards sustainable development

With the release of a curriculum statement in 1994, the incorporation of ESD became a key element for curricula development. The World Wide Web site at the Environmental Resources Information Network (ERIN), lists information and education materials and resources and provides links with other relevant stakeholders. Environment Australia has helped incorporate ESD principles in schools through the One Billion Trees schools education program and by producing educational resource materials.

b) Increasing public awareness

Awareness raising activities include national advertising campaigns; the production of various specialist and general publications including booklets, brochures, leaflets and posters; the production of educational audio-visual materials; the conduct of seminars and workshops; the promotion of static displays, mass media campaigns and special events (e.g. on coastal management, biodiversity).

Environment Australia mounted a major public awareness campaign involving mass media advertising and point of sale distribution of information designed to demonstrate that many pre-1986 cars could use unleaded petrol. It was highly successful and more than 500 000 drivers switched to unleaded petrol over a six month period

A range of environmental education programs are developed, e.g. EnviroQuest, an interactive computer game for schools to increase awareness and interest in environmental issues by school children; Australian Ways, a resource kit for teachers of English as a second language focused on ESD; a capacity building program for coastal managers; the Environment Protection Agency's Cleaner Production workshop series; and the Australian Heritage Commission's primary school teaching resource, Special Places.

c) Promoting training

The National Resources Information Centre (NRIC) has a Web site enabling access to a broad range of information relating to sustainable development issues. NRIC, through its purpose-built training facility, the Advanced Systems Institute, offers 'best practice' focused training in the use of information systems as enabling technologies for sustainable development. Courses have been held for scientists and managers in both the public and private sectors and from both developed and developing countries. A telecentres program has been established to link rural communities to the resources of the Internet and to train rural people in the use of information technology to enhance the sustainability of their communities.

Australia's development cooperation program supports capacity building in developing countries through a range of mechanisms, particularly in the areas of human resource development and technology transfer. For many developing countries amongst the most pressing problems are the lack of skilled personnel and technical and institutional capacity. Australia therefore considers that the transfer of environmentally sound technology accompanied by capacity building measures is crucial in assisting developing countries adopt and implement sustainable policies.

Sustainable resource use continues to be a critical concern of Australia's development cooperation program the South Pacific. Considerable assistance is being provided on a country and regional basis to help countries in the region sustainably manage forestry and fisheries resources. Australia is supporting the national Environment Management Strategies program under the South Pacific Regional Environment Program. These and other initiatives reflect Australia's commitment to the Plan of Action of the Barbados Conference on the development of small island developing states.

Australia is funding an environmental technology transfer and capacity building project in Indonesia titled the BAPEDAL Pollution Control Project. This five year, $22 million project is designed to improve Indonesia's environment protection capabilities by helping to develop the capacity of Indonesia's environment protection agency. Major capacity building projects are also underway in a number of other countries including Papua New Guinea ($6.2m assisting the Department of Environment and Conservation fulfil its mandate for the sustainable management of natural resources), the Philippines ($5.5m towards the Department of the Environment and Natural Resources Human Resource Development project) and India ($12m Hyderabad Waste Management Project).

The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) provides support for bilateral collaborative projects involving research partnerships between scientists in Australia and developing country institutions. ACIAR's projects have a strong capacity building focus, giving developing country scientists opportunities to work closely with highly experienced Australian scientists who are often world leaders in their field.

Education is sustainable development's most fundamental building block. By supporting improvements in education in developing countries to reduce poverty and improve the standard of living of their people through sustainable development. Under a new education and training policy there is an increased emphasis in the areas of basic education and vocational and technical education. Targeted support for higher education and the provision of tertiary scholarships for study in Australia will also continue in recognition of the role that it plays in meeting human resource development needs in recipient countries.

Environmental information is held by a diverse range of institutions in Australia. The primary responsibility for the collection and collation of economic and social statistics in Australia rests with the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). There are numerous projects being undertaken by government agencies at the Federal and State level and in research and teaching institutions, which are aimed at developing methods of integrating economic, social and environmental information with a view to better understanding of sustainable development implications of human activity. These include state of environment reporting, the development of indicators of sustainable development, methods for resource valuation and systems of environmental and natural resources accounting. Projects relevant to resource accounting include a forests inventory and a national pollutant inventory being developed by Environment Australia, and accounts for water, energy, fisheries, forests, minerals being developed by the ABS.

The Environmental Resources Information Network (ERIN), located Environment Australia is providing environmental information for policy development and decision-makers. ERIN databases store a vast array of information about the environment, ranging from endangered species to drought and water pollution. Information is drawn from many sources including maps, species distributions, documents and satellite imagery. Through the Internet the community can access this information and the analytical tools to interpret it. It is found on Internet at http://www.erin.gov.au.

The National Resource Information Centre (NRIC)develops advanced computing systems designed to service policy and community needs for information on sustainable development. NRIC integrates information from diverse disciplines using data modelling, decision support systems, visualisation and animation to analyse and then communicate the complexities of natural and socio-economic systems. Its information resources consist of more than 50 national and 100 regional spatially maintained datasets. Its resources include FINDAR, software for interrogating metadata on more than 6500 databases that it maintains as a directory linked to all other major international directories. NRIC also provides training in information technologies and applications for sustainable development to domestic and international agencies via its Advanced Systems Institute. NRIC has an active Internet site at http://www.nric.gov.au.

NGOs and community based organisations also play a significant role in collecting and disseminating information to the community and to all spheres of government in Australia. Australian NGOs are also developing contacts with other NGO networks at the regional and international levels, especially through the use of computer based communication networks such as PACTOK, which links NGOs in the Pacific Region.