| United Nations | E/CN.17/1995/16 |
Economic and Social Council
Distr. GENERAL
2 March 1995
ORIGINAL: ENGLISH
COMMISSION ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Third session
11-28 April 1995
EDUCATION, SCIENCE, TRANSFER OF ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND
TECHNOLOGIES, COOPERATION AND CAPACITY-BUILDING
Science for sustainable development
Report of the Secretary-General
SUMMARY
The present report covers issues related to science for sustainable
development, as discussed in chapter 35 of Agenda 21. The report focuses on
the experiences of national Governments, the United Nations system, other
international organizations and the scientific community in implementing
science-related policies and programmes at the national, regional and
international levels (paras. ___). Based on this analysis, priority issues
have been identified within the four programme areas for which specific
actions need to be taken (paras. ___). Several policy recommendations to
encourage and promote those actions are presented (para. ___).
CONTENTS
Paragraphs Page
INTRODUCTION .............................................. 1 - 6 3
I. ASSESSMENT OF THE CURRENT SITUATION AND TRENDS
RELATED TO SCIENCE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ...... 7 - 47 4
A. The role of science in achieving sustainable
development ..................................... 7 - 13 4
B. Intergovernmental processes ..................... 14 - 18 5
C. United Nations system and major international
scientific organizations ........................ 19 - 38 6
1. Main activities in relation to the four
programme areas of chapter 35 of Agenda 21 .. 19 - 29 6
2. Enhancement of inter-agency cooperation ..... 30 - 38 9
D. Financing of science for sustainable development 39 - 47 11
II. STRATEGIC ISSUES CONCERNING SCIENCE FOR SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT ......................................... 48 - 91 13
A. Capacity-building in science, with particular
relevance to the needs of developing countries .. 49 - 69 14
1. General science education and training ...... 52 - 54 14
2. Enhancement of the status of science ........ 55 15
3. Science in national development plans ....... 56 - 61 16
4. Promoting interdisciplinary approaches and
use of new technologies ..................... 62 - 65 17
5. Training in specialized fields .............. 66 - 69 17
B. Enhancing international scientific cooperation .. 70 - 81 18
1. Strengthening existing international
scientific programmes ....................... 70 - 73 18
2. Emerging issues for international scientific
cooperation ................................. 74 - 81 19
C. Improving communication of science .............. 82 - 88 21
D. Enhancing the application of science ............ 89 - 91 22
III. PROPOSALS FOR ACTION BY THE COMMISSION .............. 92 23
INTRODUCTION
1. The multi-year thematic programme of work adopted by the Commission on
Sustainable Development at its first session identified chapter 35 of
Agenda 21, 1/ "Science for sustainable development", for review by the
Commission at its third session, in 1995. The present report provides a basis
for the forthcoming discussion of the Commission on how to encourage and
support national initiatives and strengthen international cooperation with a
view to enhancing the contribution of science to sustainable development,
particularly in developing countries.
2. The analysis of the report covers the four programme areas of chapter 35,
namely:
(a) Strengthening the scientific basis for sustainable management;
(b) Enhancing scientific understanding;
(c) Improving long-term scientific assessment;
(d) Building up scientific capacity and capability.
3. The report focuses on the experiences of national Governments, the United
Nations system, other international organizations and the scientific community
in implementing science-related policies and programmes at the national,
regional and international levels. Based on this analysis, priority issues
have been identified within the four programme areas for which specific
actions need to be taken by national Governments, with the support of
international organizations and major groups, in particular the scientific
community. Several policy recommendations to encourage and promote those
actions are presented for consideration by the Commission.
4. Linkages have been established to the extent possible with other
cross-sectoral chapters of Agenda 21, in particular chapters 31, "Scientific
and technological community", 34, "Transfer of environmentally sound
technology, cooperation and capacity-building", 36, "Promoting education,
public awareness and training", and 37, "National mechanisms and international
cooperation for capacity-building in developing countries".
5. The report benefited from the consultative process during the
inter-sessional period, which involved the United Nations system, governmental
and non-governmental organizations and the scientific community, in particular
the International Council for Scientific Unions (ICSU). An inter-agency
consultation was convened by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (Paris, 24 and 25 March 1994), with the
participation of United Nations bodies and organizations, including the Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO), the United Nations Industrial Development
Organization (UNIDO), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the
United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat), the Department for
Policy Coordination and Sustainable Development of the United Nations
Secretariat, the United Nations University (UNU), the Economic and Social
Council for Western Asia (ESCWA) and the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA),
other international organizations, such as the Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD), and scientific institutions, in particular
ICSU. The inter-agency consultation agreed on the outline for the report and
its major contents.
6. Extensive use was made of information provided to the Commission by
national Governments, the United Nations system, governmental and
non-governmental organizations, and research and development institutions.
Contributions from individual experts were also taken into account. Reference
is made to recent relevant publications by, for example, UNESCO, UNIDO, FAO,
WMO, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the World Bank, OECD, ICSU and
the Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS).
I. ASSESSMENT OF THE CURRENT SITUATION AND TRENDS RELATED TO
SCIENCE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
A. The role of science in achieving sustainable development
7. The policies and programmes being developed and implemented by national
Governments, the United Nations system and other intergovernmental
organizations have emphasized the key role of national scientific capacities
and capabilities for achieving sustainable development objectives. It is not
an exaggeration to assert that without science there can be no sustainable
development. A critical mass of scientists and engineers is needed in
developing and developed countries alike for the development, adaptation and
use of environmentally sound technologies and production systems. Science is
the basis for sustainable agricultural and industrial development, as well as
for meeting the world's increasing energy demand.
8. Effective actions to ensure a sustainable future for human society on
Earth need to be based on the assessment of the impact of human activities on
natural systems and the well-being of people. To understand the impact of
human activity on the environment and, subsequently, to identify appropriate
solutions, a solid knowledge is required of the functioning of ecosystems and
their interrelations with human society. Thus, policy-making for sustainable
development centres around extremely complex questions for which
interdisciplinary scientific information from both the natural and social
sciences is needed to find viable and long-term solutions.
9. Scientific research conducted during the last 30 to 40 years has led to
the understanding that there are limits to the healthy functioning of life-
support systems. That understanding has been instrumental in moving towards
the concept of sustainable development. A major challenge for science, on the
eve of the twenty-first century, is to deepen this understanding of the
functioning of the overall Earth system through further investigation of
boundaries or limits within which development can take place. It will also be
necessary to determine the rates at which those limits will be reached. Both
questions require intensive research in order to improve the forecasting
capabilities needed to design sustainable development strategies. Buying time
to do that research is one of the most important rationales for applying the
precautionary principle.
10. At present, many developing countries, in particular the least developed
ones, lack even a critical mass of qualified scientists in the relevant
disciplines. Without an endogenous scientific capacity and infrastructure,
development is impeded. These countries are not in a position to carry out
the scientific work needed and to apply the science needed for addressing
their environment and development problems. These countries are also unable
to participate actively in international Earth system research programmes and
in international conventions dealing with the global environment. Only a
strong science education programme can ensure such a critical mass of
scientists, beginning in primary school and continuing through secondary
school to graduate and post-graduate research and training.
11. Recent publications by UNESCO, UNDP, the World Bank and UNCTAD conclude
that there are three crucial factors associated with economic development:
science, technology and education. Their studies show that there is a
relation between investments in science and education and the growth of gross
national product (GNP) in countries showing rapid economic growth. The
correlation between science and the growth of GNP highlights the important
role of science in furthering the societal goals of economic growth and
environmentally sound and sustainable development.
12. The information available from countries, including those submitted by
national Governments to the Commission, indicate that very few countries have
taken specific measures in direct response to chapter 35 of Agenda 21. In a
number of countries, however, scientists have been included either in their
personal capacities or as ex officio representatives of national scientific
institutions in the national coordination mechanism (national commission/
national council for sustainable development).
13. Developing countries generally consider both internal and external brain
drain to be a most serious problem in relation to science for sustainable
development. While provisions ensuring the equal treatment of women in
national science policy and scientific institutions already exist in a large
number of countries, it appears that there have been no specific measures
taken in this respect in direct response to chapter 35 of Agenda 21.
B. Intergovernmental processes
14. Two intergovernmental processes have been launched recently that are
specifically dedicated to supporting science for sustainable development in
developing countries and to sensitizing governmental decision makers at the
highest possible level to this need.
15. The first process was initiated by the Prime Minister of Pakistan, who
invited heads of State and their representatives to endorse the establishment
of a Commission on Science and Technology for the South (COMSATS). Forty-nine
countries were represented at the first meeting of COMSATS (Islamabad, 4 and
5 October 1994), which was chaired by the Prime Minister of Pakistan. The
objective of COMSATS is to provide political and economic support for major
initiatives related to scientific capacity-building. In this vein, COMSATS
endorsed the aim of creating 20 centres of excellence in the South as the
frontier areas of science related to sustainable development, and established
the Network of International Centres of Excellence in the South, with
headquarters in Islamabad. COMSATS called for enhanced North-South and South-
South cooperation in order to achieve self-reliance and adequate endogenous
scientific capacity in the South. The COMSATS Technical Assistance Fund was
established, with Pakistan contributing Rs 30 million (equivalent to
US$ 1 million).
16. The second process, the Presidential Forum on the Management of Science
and Technology for Development in Africa, was initiated by a regional non-
governmental scientific organization called the Rand Forum. The Presidential
Forum met for the first time in Maputo, in 1993. The second Presidential
Forum was held in July 1994 and was attended by 16 heads of State or their
representatives, who endorsed the establishment of an African Foundation for
Research and Development. The meeting reaffirmed its support for the periodic
sessions of the Presidential Forum as a major endeavour to sensitize the
African geopolitical and geo-economic leadership to the crucial role of
science-led development.
17. Specific scientific issues and activities were addressed in the context
of the conventions on biological diversity, 2/ climate change 3/ and
desertification 4/ aimed at promoting technical and scientific cooperation;
research and development; scientific and technological capacity-building; and
the establishment of intergovernmental scientific and technological advisory
bodies.
18. The Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island
Developing States (Barbados, 26 April-5 May 1994) recognized the important
role of science and technology by including in its Programme of Action, 5/ a
separate chapter (chap. XIII) on this issue. Moreover, within the topical
chapters on such subject areas as climate change, sealevel rise, natural and
environmental disasters, and management of wastes, the need for a strong
scientific basis was emphasized.
C. United Nations system and major international
scientific organizations
1. Main activities in relation to the four programme
areas of chapter 35 of Agenda 21
(a) Strengthening the scientific basis for sustainable management
19. By including this programme area in chapter 35 of Agenda 21, the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) recognized that
development and natural resources management will be sustainable only if it is
based on sound science, using the best scientific knowledge available and with
continued research to improve the knowledge base. In this respect, with the
support of international organizations, as appropriate, countries need to:
(a) Collect, analyse, interpret and disseminate scientific data and
information related to the broad areas of sustainable development as defined
in Agenda 21, and develop and apply science-based policies, resource
management systems and technologies;
(b) Generate through science new knowledge that is relevant for
sustainable management and policy-making, in particular through
interdisciplinary research.
20. While these are tasks for industrialized and developing countries alike,
the gap between them is widening. Many developing countries, particularly in
Africa, lack the necessary scientific manpower and infrastructure. The bodies
and organizations of the United Nations system, including the World Bank, have
a long tradition of supporting programmes and activities in developing
countries aimed at strengthening the scientific basis either in particular
sectors, such as food, agriculture, fisheries and forestry (FAO), industry
(UNIDO), health and sanitation (WHO), agrometeorology and operational
hydrology, weather and climate forecasting and services (WMO), or for broader
scientific inquiry in the basic engineering, social and environmental sciences
(UNESCO, UNU). The regional commissions have also developed programmes
focused on strengthening science as related to development in the developing
countries. ICSU has mounted a programme dedicated to strengthening scientific
capacities in developing countries related to global change research.
(b) Enhancing scientific understanding
21. This programme area of chapter 35 stresses the need to:
(a) Carry out research programmes in order to better understand the
carrying capacity of the Earth as conditioned by its natural systems, such as
the bio-geo-chemical cycles, the atmosphere/hydrosphere/lithosphere/cryosphere
system, the biosphere and biodiversity, the agro-ecosystem and other
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems;
(b) Develop and apply new analytical and predictive tools in order to
assess more accurately the ways in which the Earth's natural systems are being
increasingly influenced by deliberate and inadvertent human actions,
demographic trends, and the impact and consequences of those actions and
trends;
(c) Integrate the physical, economic and social sciences in order to
better understand the impacts of economic and social behaviour on the
environment and of environmental degradation on local and global economies.
22. The international research programmes needed to understand the Earth
system, its carrying capacity and the mechanisms governing its life-support
systems, are now by and large in place. These programmes, which involve
United Nations bodies and organizations as well as other international
organizations, include the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP)
of ICSU; the joint WMO/UNESCO/ICSU World Climate Research Programme (WCRP);
Diversitas, a joint programme on biodiversity of the International Union of
Biological Sciences (IUBS), the Scientific Committee on Problems of the
Environment (SCOPE) of ICSU and UNESCO; the Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) of
WMO; the International Hydrological Programme (IHP) of UNESCO; and some
others. The agro-ecosystems and the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems are
the subject areas of scientific activities of FAO and UNEP, as well as the
major focus of UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme. The
lithosphere is the subject of the International Geological Correlation
Programme (IGCP) jointly sponsored by the International Union of Geological
Sciences and UNESCO.
23. The relevant organizations, based on decisions of their governing bodies,
have also started to develop comprehensive global observation systems for the
major components of the Earth system, such as the Global Climate Observing
System (GCOS) sponsored by WMO, UNEP, the Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission (IOC) and ICSU; the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) sponsored
by IOC, WMO and ICSU; and the Global Terrestrial Observing System (GTOS)
sponsored by UNEP, UNESCO, FAO, WMO and ICSU.
24. Progress has been made in the integration of natural sciences and socio-
economic research at the national, regional and international levels. That
progress, however, appears to be proceeding more slowly than anticipated. The
Human Dimensions of Global Change Programme (HDP) has been launched by the
International Social Sciences Council (ISSC). Another encouraging example is
that UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme has been reoriented since
UNCED to further enhance its interdisciplinary function and to include a major
focus on the links between economics and natural resources research.
25. A distinction needs to be made between international scientific
undertakings dedicated to Earth system research on global environmental
issues, such as climate and biodiversity, and the need to integrate
environmental science in other major fields of science, such as agriculture
and health. Significant progress has been made during the last few years in
this respect. An example is the integration of a sustainable agriculture
component into agricultural research as well as into the work of the
international research centres of the Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research (CGIAR), which are co-sponsored by the World Bank, FAO
and UNDP.
(c) Improving long-term scientific assessment
26. The primary objective of this programme area is to provide assessments of
the current status and trends in major developmental and environmental issues
at the national, subregional, regional and global levels. These assessments
need to be based on the best available scientific knowledge in order to
develop strategies for achieving sustainable development.
27. At the international level, the main scientific assessment programme
under way is that of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
sponsored by WMO and UNEP. IPCC has proven to be a valuable tool for
Governments. Based on its scientific assessments, IPCC has proposed various
response strategies to counter the potential impacts of climate change. As
the IPCC interfaces efficiently with the international scientific community,
its framework could serve as a model for similar assessment panels on
environment and development. Other important scientific assessments being
coordinated by the scientific community include assessments for stratospheric
O3 (WMO and UNEP), for greenhouse gases (WMO/GAW), and for marine pollution
(Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution
(GESAMP)). The UNCTAD Advanced Technology Assessment System addresses
technology-related issues of sustainable development.
28. Over the past few years, a large number of statistical publications and
reports on the status of environment and development have been launched and
continue to gain prominence. In this regard, important contributions are
being made, for example, by UNDP, UNESCO and UNEP, as well as by non-
governmental organizations, such as the World Resources Institute and the
World Conservation Union. Several agencies are developing indicators for
sustainable development, including on the basis of cooperation.
(d) Building up scientific capacity and capability
29. The primary objective of this programme area of chapter 35 is to improve
the scientific capacities of all countries, in particular the least developed
countries, in order to enable them to fully participate in the generation and
application of scientific research concerning sustainable development.
Traditionally, scientific and technological capacity-building in developing
countries has been an area accorded high priority by United Nations bodies and
organizations. Accordingly, efforts have been reinforced and capacity-
building programmes reviewed to better address the new paradigm of linking
environment and development.
2. Enhancement of inter-agency cooperation
30. Inter-agency cooperation and coordination in the field of science has
been enhanced since UNCED through the efforts of the ACC Inter-agency
Committee on Sustainable Development (IACSD) and its two subcommittees on
oceans and coastal areas and on freshwater resources. The establishment by
IACSD of the task- manager system was of crucial importance in this respect.
31. The United Nations bodies working with UNESCO as task manager for
chapter 35 have agreed to set in motion a process of enhanced cooperation and
coordination focused on the implementation of this chapter. The group has
agreed that the first step towards this goal is more efficient exchange of
information, followed by increased quantity and quality of joint activities,
and the development of joint programming where appropriate. The ultimate
objective is to eliminate overlap, to pool expertise and resources and to
concentrate international action on the priority areas of common concern.
32. At its 1994 substantive session, the Economic and Social Council
addressed the division of labour and improvement of coordination within the
United Nations system in the field of science and technology. It was
concluded that as an immediate focus for coordination and joint action in
science and technology at the inter-agency level, organs and organizations of
the United Nations system should give particular attention to (a) science and
technology policy and planning capabilities at the national level; (b) the
sustainable use of natural resources; (c) new technologies, including
biotechnology; and (d) education and human resources development.
33. Several major initiatives have already been taken since UNCED to enhance
cooperation between relevant United Nations agencies. A number of these
initiatives also involve major international scientific organizations, as well
as major national organizations that are geared towards international
cooperation in scientific fields related to sustainable development.
34. UNEP, in partnership with UNESCO, ILO, UNIDO and a number of
universities, has developed a series of training programmes for cadres of
ministries of environment of developing countries in the field of
environmental management, which involve both the scientific and ecological
foundations of environmental care and modern management tools, such as
simulation models and resources accounting. The ultimate objective of the
United Nations system is for developing countries to develop and run national
and regional training courses in direct response to their needs.
35. A novel collaborative venture, Project 2000+: Science and Technology
Education for All, has been launched by UNESCO to address the priority area of
scientific capacity-building and science education, with an emphasis on
developing countries. The objective of Project 2000+ is to ensure scientific
and technology literacy for all children, youth and adults throughout the
world. Project 2000+ is based on partnerships between a group of major
intergovernmental organizations and agencies and non-governmental
organizations that have special concerns and responsibilities in the field of
science and technology education and research. Its Steering Committee
includes UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP, UNEP, the World Bank, the Commonwealth
secretariat, ICSU, and several international non-governmental bodies grouping
associations for science and technology education.
36. The World Climate Programme (WCP), for which WMO plays an overall
coordinating role, is another example of enhanced inter-agency cooperation
and, to some extent, integration of activities by a number of United Nations
bodies and ICSU. In 1993, a special intergovernmental meeting on the theme
"Climate agenda" was held to determine the WCP response to UNCED. At this
meeting, the sponsors of WCP (WMO, UNEP, UNESCO/IOC, FAO and ICSU) were asked
by the Governments represented to draw up an integrated proposal to
Governments indicating programme and budget requirements for the next several
years according to the four main thrusts of the WCP: climate services for
sustainable development, studies of climate impact assessment and response
strategies to reduce vulnerability, new frontiers in climate science and
prediction, and dedicated observation of the climate system. The socio-
economic benefits of climate research for member States will also be
addressed. An integrated proposal will be presented to the governing bodies
of the sponsoring institutions in 1995.
37. The World Bank has indicated its willingness to support another
international initiative promoted by developing countries in specialized
fields and in centres of excellence. This initiative is designed to establish
strategic links among the agricultural, environmental, basic and engineering
sciences. The project will identify 20 centres of excellence in various
regions of the South that will promote capacity-building in science and
technology according to the priorities of each region and with the commitment
of Governments in the region. Each regional or international centre is
expected to encompass a network of national centres aimed at training
scientists and promoting research and development. The regional centres will
form a global network. The backbone of the international network will be the
international agricultural research centres of CGIAR (co-sponsored by the
World Bank, FAO and UNDP). Other intergovernmental organizations with major
science programmes, such as UNESCO, UNIDO and WMO, would also be invited to
participate, as well as major scientific non-governmental organizations, such
as TWAS.
38. Another example of recent efforts to enhance international cooperation
related to science and Agenda 21 is the newly launched pilot project entitled
Global Forum for Sustainable Development Research and Capacity Development
(Bellanet). Bellanet (named after Bellagio in Italy) aims to promote and
achieve efficient information exchange, more concerted efforts and concrete
collaboration among a broad range of donors and actors, including
intergovernmental organizations, bilateral donors and foundations in the field
of research and development for sustainable development in developing
countries. This initiative has been developed by IDRC (Canada), the MacArthur
Foundation, the Rockefeller Foundation, SAREC (Sweden), and the World Bank, on
the basis of consultations with other United Nations agencies and bilateral
donors. The project includes specific provisions to ensure relevance and
linkages of Bellanet with Governments and the scientific communities in the
developing countries.
D. Financing of science for sustainable development
39. Consistent with the relevant decision of the Commission on Sustainable
Development taken at its second session, the in-depth discussion on the
financial aspects of science for sustainable development was part of the
overall discussion on financing the implementation of Agenda 21 that took
place in the context of the Inter-sessional Ad Hoc Open-ended Working Group on
Finance (New York, 6-8 March 1994). In the context of the present report, the
financing of science for sustainable development is considered as it is
directly related to the priority issues discussed in the report. The
financial implications of research and development in relation to the sectoral
issues to be discussed by the Commission at its third session are not
addressed.
40. There are considerable financial implications associated with the
measures to be taken to implement chapter 35 of Agenda 21. The financial
responsibility of Governments with regard to science is significant.
Developing country Governments need to consider long-term investment in
science education a high priority, on the premise that such investment will
unlock a vast human capital that has been underexploited to date: the
intellect of present and future generations. At the same time, developing
country Governments need to increase the financial resources devoted to
science and technology, particularly with regard to research and development.
41. Financing for science for sustainable development is being provided
primarily at the national level through national and provincial governments,
industry and business, as well as by foundations and sometimes by
non-governmental organizations. In most countries, the data available does
not distinguish between the financing of research and development in general
and the financing of science for sustainable development in particular. As
stated in UNESCO's World Science Report, published in 1994, many
industrialized countries spend about 3 per cent of their GNP on research and
development activities. In developing countries, the figure in most cases is
significantly below 1 per cent. This demonstrates that there is a great
shortfall of funds needed for increased scientific capacity-building in
developing countries, in particular in the least developed countries.
42. Financial support to developing countries in the field of science is
provided by a number of bilateral donors. The limited availability of funds
for research assistance and training in specialized scientific fields,
however, has become a particular concern. With the shrinking overall volume
of development assistance funds and with acute emergencies in developing
countries on the increase (e.g., in Somalia and Rwanda), it is becoming more
and more difficult to defend aid budgets for long-term capacity-building for
research. There is a need to reach agreement among donors of research
assistance on the measures that must be taken to safeguard resources for
essential purposes; to agree on common programmes; and to seek synergy and
increased efficiency.
43. Relevant bodies and organizations of the United Nations system, including
the World Bank and intergovernmental regional banks, continue to be another
major source of financial support for scientific activities and scientific
capacity-building in developing countries. In addition to the financial means
provided for this purpose, a number of United Nations bodies and
organizations, including FAO, UNESCO, UNIDO and UNEP, have spent a
considerable share of their regular programme funds on supporting programmes
and activities related to science for sustainable development and scientific
capacity-building in developing countries.
44. Given the serious lack of resources and qualified personnel in the least
developed countries, a realistic short to medium-term strategy for building
scientific and technological capacity to manage the transition to sustainable
development would be to concentrate on subregional measures rather than
national ones. Subregions usually tend to share several common
characteristics that facilitate a more rational and efficient use of
resources, including qualified staff. Subregional efforts also have greater
potential for creating local capacity in the short to medium term than
regional (continental) and international programmes. Examples of subregions
are East Africa, southern Africa, West Africa, and the Caribbean. Frequent
contacts between scientists from developing and industrialized countries is a
precondition for rapidly disseminating and applying new scientific and
technological methods. At relatively low cost, much can be achieved in
practical terms by providing funds for scientific visits and meetings,
electronic communication, access to data banks etc.
45. Two recent important initiatives have been taken to enhance the funding
of science and technology for sustainable development in developing countries,
in particular in Africa. The first initiative is the above-mentioned creation
of the COMSATS Technical Assistance Fund; the second is the creation by UNESCO
of the International Fund For Technological Development of Africa. UNESCO has
already contributed US$1 million as seed money to the Fund, as a mark of its
commitment to the technological development of the African region. The Fund
is aimed at supporting science and technology for sustainable development in
Africa, in particular at promoting intensive interaction between national
scientific and engineering institutions and local industry.
46. The financing of international scientific programmes, in particular those
of an intergovernmental nature, such as the World Climate Research Programme
(WMO, IOC of UNESCO and ICSU) or the International Hydrological Programme of
UNESCO, is again primarily provided by national Governments. Governments
naturally give priority to financing the national activities feeding into
these internationally mandated and coordinated programmes. Hence, it is
generally more difficult to raise the funds needed for the international
coordination efforts within each programme and for true international
cooperative activities, in particular those supporting developing country
participation in these activities. Governments should realize that
internationally coordinated scientific programmes need to have sufficient
international core funding in order to work efficiently as true programmes.
47. In conclusion, a major obstacle to initiating essential activities for
implementing the objectives of chapter 35 of Agenda 21, in particular in
developing countries, is the lack of funds allocated to science and science
education. The Commission may wish to address appropriate measures to
increasing financing for priority actions at the national level related to
science for sustainable development, in particular scientific capacity-
building in developing countries, and to formulate recommendations addressed
to multilateral and bilateral donor agencies and Governments, as well as
specific funding mechanisms, such as the Global Environment Facility (GEF).
II. STRATEGIC ISSUES CONCERNING SCIENCE FOR
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
48. The overview of the four programme areas of chapter 35 of Agenda 21 that
has been provided above, as well as the subsequent review of the status of
implementation of the objectives of that chapter, demonstrates the need for
broad action at the national, subregional, regional and global levels.
Strategic issues for which there is a need for priority actions are:
(a) Capacity-building in science, with particular relevance to the needs
of developing countries;
(b) Strengthening international scientific cooperation;
(c) Improving communication of science;
(d) Enhancing the application of science.
A. Capacity-building in science, with particular relevance
to the needs of developing countries
49. An integral part of development and environment planning in developing
countries should be provision for capacity-building, in particular in the
least developed countries. Radical measures should be taken by Governments in
developing countries, particularly in Africa, in the following areas: general
science education and training; enhancement of the status of science; science
in national development plans; and training in specialized fields and
interdisciplinary approaches. While these questions are of greatest relevance
for the developing countries, they are also of strategic importance for the
developed countries and the economies in transition.
50. Developing countries are approaching the end of the twentieth century
with a monumental challenge to their survival and long-term development.
Perhaps the greatest challenge facing humankind is how to provide adequate
amounts of food, water, raw materials and energy for a projected world
population of between 8 and 10 billion by the year 2020, which will call for
an enormous response. For example, most people agree that world food supplies
will have to more than double over the next 30 years. To achieve the
requisite increases in the productivity of resource use in a sustainable way
calls for new integrated systems of knowledge. Today, biotechnology and
information technology are providing some of the solutions, as well as
pointers to the future. But more creative work on new integrated systems is
required. Above all, greatly increased investment in science and technology
will be necessary.
51. The ability of developing countries to meet this challenge will depend on
their ability to participate in and benefit from the scientific and
technological revolution that is rapidly unfolding in the developed countries.
The new forces of modern science and technology, if harnessed properly and
applied in accordance with each country's particular socio-economic and
cultural circumstances, offer immense possibilities for solving many of the
complicated problems that are currently impeding economic, social and
environmentally sound and sustainable development in the developing countries.
For example, recent advances in tissue cultures, genetic engineering,
biotechnology and biometeorology could be instrumental in increasing
agricultural productivity, reversing land degradation and conserving
biodiversity in the ecologically fragile zones of the South. The challenge
is, therefore, for developing countries to master modern science and
technology as part of the movement towards sustainable development. This
should be achieved by first building up their indigenous capacity and then
transferring the technology and know-how needed to maximize productivity.
1. General science education and training
52. Building indigenous capacities calls for the strengthening of science
education at all levels. The fundamental importance of literacy for all is
now recognized by developing countries. A similar emphasis and commitment
needs now to be given to science education, which is the starting point for
building a sound technology base. Science education should begin at the
primary school level, when attitudes and behaviour are shaped. This needs to
be understood as a strategic issue requiring action during the next decade,
particularly in terms of funding for scientific equipment in schools and
universities, and for restructuring secondary and higher education systems,
especially in the fields of mathematics and other basic sciences and technical
training.
53. The four basic sciences - biology, chemistry, mathematics and physics -
are indispensable for understanding, applying and developing all branches of
science and technology within the context of sustainable development. Higher
education and research in the basic sciences need to be strengthened, in
particular in the least developed countries, with special emphasis on the
infrastructure required, i.e., laboratories (including equipment,
instrumentation, electricity and water supplies, and consumables), libraries
and other basic facilities.
54. Among the basic sciences, biology and chemistry attract more students and
practitioners than physics and mathematics. For instance, in sub-Saharan
Africa, the output of postgraduate physicists and mathematicians is very low,
as a result of which even the essential replacement of retiring university
teachers is in jeopardy. Therefore, special attention should be paid to
promotion of postgraduate and research training in physics and mathematics in
the least developed countries.
2. Enhancement of the status of science
55. The classical brain drain of scientists can be avoided only if the status
of scientists, scientific institutions and the government bodies responsible
for science and technology improves. In many countries, particularly in the
developing world, scientists, scientific institutions and government agencies
responsible for science have a low priority in society in general and on
governmental agendas in particular. To change this situation, the following
steps should be taken:
(a) Provide adequate salaries and other incentives for scientists;
(b) Provide adequate financing for scientific institutions, including
universities, especially with respect to scientific instruments and equipment;
(c) Set up or strengthen professional scientific associations and other
means of reinforcing the scientific and technological community in order to
improve quality through peer review and raise the self-confidence of
scientists;
(d) Provide leadership at the highest level - when appropriate by the
head of State - to national bodies charged with formulating and implementing
science and technology policy;
(e) Promote public understanding of the role of science for sustainable
development;
(f) Give emphasis to fully utilizing the talents of women and to their
career development.
3. Science in national development plans
56. Strategies, policies and plans should exist at the national level, and,
as appropriate at the subregional and regional levels in order to ensure the
development of scientific capacity and the management of science. Recognizing
that science and technology are essential for both economic (including
industrial and agricultural) development and for the protection of the
environment, increasing numbers of Governments now integrate science and
technology into their national development plans. It is recommended that
Governments follow that approach whenever feasible.
57. Most smaller countries do not possess economies of sufficient scale to
allow for a national scientific infrastructure of the scope required to
address national needs. One solution to this problem is for countries to
cooperate at the subregional or regional levels to share institutions of
higher learning and advanced research and development. Pooling the resources
of countries with similar problems is more cost-effective than trying to
develop national institutions.
58. National science plans should also promote strong linkage between
universities and research institutions, on the one hand, and national
industries and agriculture etc. on the other, so that scientific knowledge and
information finds its way into the productive sectors. Measures should be
taken to make the private sector of national economies invest more in the
development of science.
59. Women and men from all regions of a country and belonging to all its
various ethnic groups need to be mobilized to participate in national science
and technology efforts. Because some of a country's most valuable natural
resources may be found in remote areas, often known only to groups on the
fringes of society, the inclusion of such groups is essential. Governments
need to be sensitized to the importance of involving such groups, which might
sometimes require administrative restructuring. Non-traditional partners for
scientific activity, such as the military, can also be engaged in national and
regional efforts for sustainable development.
60. The brain drain of specialists from developing countries to
industrialized countries is a well-known problem that requires urgent action.
Existing research and training institutions, particularly those in critical
areas such as food security, soil erosion, deforestation and desertification,
energy supply and tropical diseases, need to be upgraded in order to provide
the necessary conditions for scientists to carry out research. In each
subregion, there should be at least one centre of excellence in each of these
critical fields.
61. Another measure to alleviate the brain drain is for Governments in the
South and international and bilateral donor organizations to establish in
developing countries research and training centres in key areas of frontier
science and high technology, such as molecular biology, biotechnology,
informatics and new materials. If a number of well established and competent
institutions can reach the standards of international excellence, it will be
possible to retain scientists in their countries of origin.
4. Promoting interdisciplinary approaches
and use of new technologies
62. The science addressed in chapter 35 is intended to provide the knowledge
base for sustainable development and must therefore be designed to cover all
facets of the complex problems of environment and development as they appear
at the global, regional, and local levels. Traditional disciplinary research
is inadequate, because in that approach only part of a problem is treated in
isolation from other interrelated parameters. Disciplinary scientific work
needs to be complemented by interdisciplinary research involving the basic and
engineering sciences, environmental sciences, economics, demography, and other
social and human sciences.
63. The role and impact of human activity within the natural environment
needs to be the focus of research relevant to sustainable development. In the
past, humans were seen as separate from the natural environment. What is
needed is to recognize that humans are an integral part of ecosystems and to
understand the interrelationships that affect humans and the natural resource
base.
64. Research intended to study those interrelationships needs to be problem-
oriented, i.e., to focus on specific problems of resource use and management
as they appear in real life. Scientists from different disciplines need to
design research programmes together with planners, managers and local
populations to plan, execute and follow up research work. This kind of
scientific endeavour requires new organizational structures of research and
science at the national level. Such science needs to include prospective
studies in order to improve the ability of the sciences to predict the likely
consequences of human activity and the changes over time that can be expected
in the Earth's natural and human systems.
65. The use of new information and communications technologies has far-
reaching implications for science related to sustainable development. It is
now possible to better manage massive amounts of data, such as satellite data,
in order to track global conditions and trends. Technologies such as GIS and
sophisticated computer modelling are important tools for carrying out research
on the whole Earth system in order to understand the interactions among the
atmosphere, the biosphere, and the geosphere at a global level. New
technologies also allow for rapid, frequent and low-cost interaction among
scientists around the world. Scientific research and capacity-building
related to sustainable development need to take further advantage of the new
opportunities offered by such technologies.
5. Training in specialized fields
66. Despite considerable efforts, many developing countries, in particular
the least developed countries, do not yet possess a critical mass of trained
personnel in specialized fields and in interdisciplinary approaches related to
sustainable development. Efforts must be increased to train specialists in
many specific areas of science, including those in the topical chapters of
Agenda 21 (chaps. 9 to 22). Many countries do not have adequate training
facilities at universities or other institutions to prepare scientists to
carry out research related to development and policy-making. Specific
attention needs to be given to the development of such facilities.
67. The recycling of materials and energy is the foundation on which
sustainable development rests. The relatively new science and technology of
recycling in the modern sector is virtually non-existent in most developing
countries. Policies, strategies and resources are needed urgently to put this
new science in place in education, application and research within the
specific contexts (geographical, ecological, climatic, resources, population,
education levels, etc.) of the developing world.
68. An understanding of specific scientific and engineering disciplines is
crucial in the era of recycling. Such disciplines include thermodynamics, the
self-organization and reorganization of biological systems, the management of
cities as closed-loop systems and waste management techniques. The social
sciences also have an important role to play in this context and there is a
large body of research findings on low-cost participatory approaches to
environmental management in third world cities and rural areas.
69. A problem shared by developing and industrialized countries alike is that
most current training programmes and institutional structures are sectoral and
disciplinary and do not address the complex interactions among people, natural
resources, technology, environment and development. This constitutes a major
challenge in the training of a new generation of scientists, engineers and
other experts, who need to have appropriate interdisciplinary insights and
knowledge if they are to tackle complex issues and pave the way for
scientifically sound policy decisions. In this connection, it is particularly
urgent to initiate training programmes and institutional infrastructures that
respond to sustainable development objectives and can provide support to the
implementation of Agenda 21. The United Nations system should act as a
catalyst for providing technical support to such innovative interdisciplinary
capacity-building activities.
B. Enhancing international scientific cooperation
1. Strengthening existing international scientific
programmes
70. Science related to environment and sustainable development needs, by
definition, to be based both on national scientific programmes and activities
and on international scientific cooperation. In many fields, such as ocean
sciences, climate research, and research on the functioning of the Earth
system and its carrying capacity, the generation of new knowledge is not
possible without international scientific cooperation. And without this
knowledge, as stated above, sustainable development cannot be achieved.
Hence, it has become a strategic issue for Governments to support
international scientific observation and research programmes.
71. National plans and investment in science should further global
environment and developmental observing systems and should strengthen
internationally coordinated scientific programmes on environment and
development involving relevant United Nations bodies and major international
scientific bodies. Major emphasis should be given to national activities that
contribute to global observation and research undertakings. Special efforts
need to be made to increase the participation of developing countries and
their scientists in international scientific undertakings in the field of
environment and development.
72. The strategy followed to date in designing and implementing major
international research and observation programmes has proved to be sound in
principle and feasible in practice. This strategy is based on two principles:
(a) The programmes are based upon collaboration among the relevant
United Nations bodies and one or more international scientific
non-governmental organizations. In this way, scientific quality and
objectivity, as well as policy-making relevance, is ensured.
(b) Scientists from participating countries design the international
coordinating framework or research agenda together, in cooperation with a
high-level international scientific steering committee. Nations then
integrate the programme framework into their national research and observation
activity. In this way, countries are part of coherent synergistic
international programmes and networks that not only advance knowledge in the
interests of all but also utilize more efficiently scarce human and financial
resources, keeping duplication to a minimum.
73. For this strategy to work best, countries need to participate actively in
the preparation of the framework (i.e., the observation and research agenda)
as well as in its implementation.
2. Emerging issues for international scientific cooperation
74. Many subject areas related to environment and development have already
significantly benefited from international scientific cooperation. However,
there are several emerging interdisciplinary subject areas that are not yet
adequately addressed by specific scientific programmes at the international
level. Two of these areas were identified by the inter-agency consultation
convened by UNESCO in its function as task manager for chapter 35 of
Agenda 21: environmental economics and indigenous knowledge.
75. As to environmental economics, chapter 35 recognizes that increased
international cooperation is needed for interdisciplinary research linking
economics and the natural sciences. Chapter 2 refers to the development of
economic theories linked to macroeconomic policies conducive to sustainable
development, as well as to trade and debt issues in the context of environment
and development.
76. Current methods for assessing different environmental values, such as
option and existence values, are not yet universally agreed upon.
International scientific cooperation is needed to develop the methodologies
that will take into account different cultural and socio-economic situations.
Other issues in environmental economics will also clearly require
international scientific cooperation, because national experiences have to be
shared between countries and regions and will have to be adapted to suit
national or regional needs and circumstances.
77. The range of issues at the interface of environment and economics,
important in both industrialized as well as developing countries, and the
scientific inputs necessary to address them, are too broad to be covered by
any single institution. Cooperation between the international community,
including the United Nations system, and universities, the private sector,
research institutions, NGOs and Governments is essential.
78. Through centuries of living close to nature, indigenous or local peoples
throughout the world have acquired an immense knowledge of their environment
and its natural resources. Living in and on the richness and variety of
complex ecosystems, they have an understanding of the properties of plants and
animals, the functioning of ecosystems and the techniques for using and
managing them that is particular and often detailed. In many developing
countries, rural communities rely on locally occurring species for many -
sometimes all - foods, medicines, fuel, building materials and other products.
Equally, the knowledge and perception of the environment of local people and
their relationship with it are often important elements of cultural identity.
79. Recent years have seen a growing appreciation of the existence of these
two systems of knowledge for managing natural resources and the environment:
one based on indigenous people's knowledge, and a second based on so-called
western scientific knowledge. Using the two systems in a complementary
fashion provides a powerful tool for achieving and managing sustainable
development.
80. Indigenous knowledge received a great deal of attention during the
preparations for UNCED and references to its importance are found in all the
UNCED agreements, including the Convention on Biological Biodiversity and the
Non-legally Binding Authoritative Statement of Principles for a Global
Consensus on the Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of All
Types of Forests, 6/ as well as in several chapters of Agenda 21. Within that
perspective, several initiatives have taken shape over the last two or three
years. They include the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)/UNESCO/Royal Botanic
Gardens at Kew Initiative on People and Plants, which promotes ethnobotany and
the sustainable and equitable use of plant resources. A number of projects
within the World Decade of Cultural Development focus on the links between
culture and resource use. Several FAO activities are rooted in local
knowledge of natural resources, including its programmes on community forestry
and on non-wood timber products. Traditional medicine is among the programmes
of the World Health Organization (WHO). At the non-governmental level, the
Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor produced by the Centre for
International Research and Advisory Networks, serves as the international
community of people who are interested in indigenous knowledge.
81. In terms of possible future action, Governments should take steps to
record and apply indigenous knowledge in promoting participatory approaches to
natural resources management and to the equitable and sustainable use of
resources. Various bodies within the United Nations system should be
encouraged to examine the current profile of indigenous knowledge in their
programmes relating to environment and development, and explore ways and means
of reinforcing such profiles. Steps might also be taken for ensuring
coordination of these activities and making better use of existing
information, and for improving access to sources of information through such
means as preparing various handbooks on particular subjects (e.g.,
ethnobotany) which could be subsequently made available on computerized
networks and updated on a regular basis.
C. Improving communication of science
82. A critical but often neglected link in making effective use of science
for sustainable development concerns communication. While science is
indispensable for sustainable development, it can have an impact only if it is
communicated to various non-specialist user groups in a language and form that
can be understood and used.
83. At present there is a serious gap between the producers of scientific
information and the users of such information, including policy makers,
teachers, the media, non-governmental organizations, and other groups that
play a major role in taking action towards sustainable development. The
information on which decisions and actions are based is sometimes too sectoral
to be relevant to complex real-world problems, out of date, partial to a
particular geographical or cultural perspective, or driven by emotional
reactions or interpretations.
84. What is needed is to ensure that the most recent and comprehensive
information is collected, synthesized and made available in appropriate forms,
depending on the particular needs of each target user group. The
interpretation and language appropriate for a policy maker will differ from
what is most effective for a teacher or for the general public.
85. In order to close this producer-user gap, the scientific and
technological community needs to recognize that, for research to be used to
solve the problems faced by society, the communication exercise described
above must be considered an integral part of the research process. Scientists
should be encouraged and indeed rewarded by their universities and research
institutions to commit their time and energy to this communication work. At
the same time, society needs to convey its requirements to the scientific
community in order to mobilize the resources that science can bring towards
finding solution to those problems.
86. Scientists need to work hand in hand with communicators, educators,
journalists, and others who have the professional skills to assist in the
effective transfer of technical information to non-specialist users of that
information. Professional educators and communicators also need to take the
initiatives of working with scientists to improve the content and relevance of
their work concerning environment and development. Another need is the
development of on-line information systems for various aspects of sustainable
development (e.g., sustainable agriculture and rural development) in order to
ensure easy access by managers and decision makers to high-quality and up-to-
date scientific information.
87. Governments need to understand the importance of ensuring that scientific
knowledge and information is tapped for decision-making. Governments should
play an active role to help close the communication gap and to provide
adequate financial support.
88. The need to address this communications challenge is also taken up in
chapter 31 of Agenda 21, "Scientific and technological community" and
chapter 36, Promoting education, public awareness and training.
D. Enhancing the application of science
89. Once new scientific information becomes available, it needs to be
channelled quickly towards application by Government, industry and other
economic sectors. To achieve this goal, close relationships must be fostered
and, where absent, created between universities and research institutions on
the one hand and business, industry and agriculture on the other. It is
within the agricultural sector that such linkage has been developed most
effectively so far. Extension services in some countries convey the results
of agricultural research to farmers within one to three years.
90. Business and industry should strive to systematically absorb scientific
findings. Success in this area can best be achieved through research
undertaken on a collaborative basis between research universities, other
research institutions and industry. Since sustainable development depends to
a large extent on an evolutionary process of the world's "industrial
metabolism", it is encouraging to note that in several branches of industry
new opportunities for successful competition are being recognized. Science
must support industry in its effort to design cleaner products and to devise
cleaner production processes in response to environmental risks.
91. Intensive interaction and cooperation needs to be developed between
national scientific, engineering and technology centres and institutions, on
the one hand, and local and national industry on the other. In this vein,
different types of partnership and cooperation between industry and
universities need to be explored, including continuing education programmes
for industry staff, industrial in-service training and apprenticeships for
university students, consultancy services by universities and research
institutions, research contracts to carry out research work on behalf of
private or public-sector industries and the establishment of cooperative
research centres. Such collaboration, which implies certain ethical rules and
regulations, has become an integral part of the technological achievements of
several regions in the world. This approach should be applied elsewhere in
order to enhance science and technology in general and science for sustainable
development in particular.
III. PROPOSALS FOR ACTION BY THE COMMISSION ON
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
92. The Commission on Sustainable Development may wish to consider the
following proposals:
(a) Governments, with the support of international organizations, are
encouraged to exchange information concerning the impact of the lack of
scientific capacities and capabilities on achieving sustainable development
objectives in developing countries, in particular the least developed
countries, and to make this information available to the Commission;
(b) Governments of developed and developing countries, the United
Nations system, and other relevant international organizations should accord
high priority, including within cooperation and partnership arrangements, to
specific activities aimed at enhancing the scientific capacities and
capabilities of developing countries, e.g., through scientific education,
enhancement of the status of science, improved integration of science in
national development policies and plans, increased training in specialized
fields and promoting interdisciplinary approaches;
(c) Governments that are members of COMSATS are encouraged to take
efforts towards implementing the main objectives agreed upon by COMSATS,
including:
(i) Providing political and economic support to major initiatives in
capacity-building for science in the South;
(ii) Establishing a network of international centres of excellence in the
south;
(d) Recognizing that in many scientific fields related to sustainable
development, such as climate change, the human dimensions of global
environmental change, the global hydrological cycle, the assessment of
freshwater resources, and oceans and regional seas, the generation of new
knowledge needs enhanced international scientific cooperation, Governments,
international organizations and the scientific community should join efforts
towards:
(i) Developing global environment and development observing systems;
(ii) Strengthening and, where necessary, expanding existing international
scientific programmes to ensure coordination and high-quality
science;
(iii) Increasing the participation of developing countries in these
international scientific programmes;
(e) Governments, the industrial sector, and science and technology
institutions, including universities, should enhance their cooperation at the
national level as an effective way to strengthen both science for sustainable
development and environmentally sound and sustainable economic - especially
industrial - development;
(f) In addressing the need for increased financing to implement
activities in the identified priority areas, in particular activities related
to scientific capacity-building in developing countries, Governments of
developed countries may consider:
(i) Increasing the amount of funds dedicated to the projects aimed at
providing the scientific basis for the four portfolios of the Global
Environment Facility;
(ii) Providing increased financial support to activities aimed at
interdisciplinary training and the development of interdisciplinary
research and development facilities, including in the context of the
UNDP Capacity 21 programme;
(g) Governments of donor countries and multilateral and bilateral donor
agencies should be encouraged to financially support:
(i) The International Fund For Technological Development of Africa, in
order to support innovative programmes and projects intended to
promote intensive interaction between scientific and engineering
institutions and local industry in Africa;
(ii) The COMSATS Technical Assistance Fund for establishing a network of
international centres of excellence in the South.
Notes
1/ United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de
Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992, vol. I, Resolutions Adopted by the Conference (United
Nations publication, Sales No. E.92.I.8 and corrigendum), resolution 1,
annex II.
2/ See United Nations Environment Programme, Convention on Biological
Diversity (Environmental Law and Institutions Programme Activity centre),
June 1992.
3/ United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (A/AC.237/18
(Part II) and Add.1 and Add.1/Corr.1).
4/ United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Those
Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in
Africa (A/49/84/Add.2), annex, appendix II.
5/ Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island
Developing States, Bridgetown, Barbados, 26 April-5 May 1994 (United Nations
publication, Sales No. 94.I.8 and Corrigenda), resolution 1, annex II.
6/ United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ...,
resolution 1, annex III.
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