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NATURAL RESOURCE ASPECTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THAILAND

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• Agriculture
• Atmosphere
• Biodiversity
• Desertification and Drought
• Energy
• Forests
• Freshwater
• Land Management
• Mountains
• Oceans and Coastal Areas
• Toxic Chemicals
• Waste and Hazardous Materials

AGRICULTURE

Decision-Making: Coordinating Bodies  

The Community Development Department (CDD), Ministry of Interior, is responsible for improving the quality of life and environment of rural people to meet basic minimum needs by promoting participation in family and community development activities. The Department of Land Development is the principal Thai Government agency responsible for the rehabilitation of degraded lands.

According to the 1992 Degree on Administration of the Community Development Department, the CDD has the following mission:

- to educate and develop people in the learning process to establish self-reliance in social, economic and environmental development. The target groups are children, youth, women, community volunteers and local leaders;

- to support people's organizations, community development volunteers and leaders in community development by promoting public participation with respect to their economic, social and cultural circumstances;

- to systematically promote rural development administration by assisting communities to establish Village Data Systems to guide Rural Development Plans. The CDD also develops community organizations to enable them to solve problems.

Decision-Making: Legislation and Regulations

National legislation does not restrict the transfer of productive arable land to other uses. Only in the case where an area is worthy of being conserved due to its natural or aesthetic values or amenities, and such area is yet to be designated a conservation area, can the Minister of Science, Technology, and Environment issue a ministerial regulation designating such an area as an "environmentally protected area." Following designation of such an area, protective measures can be prescribed as seen appropriate.

Thailand adopted a new Constitution in 1997 that requires every person to conserve natural resources and the environment as provided by law. The Constitution also requires that the State promote and encourage public participation in the preservation, maintenance and balanced utilization of natural resources and biological diversity, in accordance with the principles of sustainable development.

Decision-Making: Strategies, Policies and Plans 

The target of the 8^th National Economic and Social Development Plan is to reduce poverty from13.7 percent of the total population in 1992 to less than 10 percent of the total population by the year 2001.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives is executing economic policies adopted by the Thai Cabinet in 1998 to reduce poverty through agriculture and food security. Key policies include the following:

• Campaign to promote rural savings through agricultural cooperatives, with the objective of increasing the potential for farmer groups to help themselves, such as simple processing and alternative occupations at the household level. Community banks will be supported and farmers will participate in administering funds deposited, by formulating policies for utilization and recovery.
• Use chemical fertilizers and agricultural chemicals more efficiently through application with organic and biological fertilizers, in order to improve soils and to increase yields. Natural methods of controlling crop pests will be employed in an effort to reduce imports of fertilizers and agricultural chemicals. Efforts will be made to improve soils and community environment over the long-term.
• Utilize refuse and wastes from agriculture, by encouraging private sector production of organic fertilizer and bio-fertilizers, and other products used in the agriculture sector. This approach will reduce farmers’ expenditures on imported fertilizers.
• Identify land and extend land tenure rights, to solve the problem of availability of land for subsistence.
• Provide assistance to farmers who are impacted by natural disasters in the form of food, inputs important to their occupations, and consumer goods.
• Ensure food security for the country to prevent impacts from natural disasters, by accelerating production of agricultural products in areas with production potential as well as in areas that are adequately served with water resources; particularly in areas that have sources of natural surface water, irrigation system infrastructure, underground water supplies, and irrigated areas serviced by electric pumps.
• Undertake occupational and livelihood rehabilitation following natural disasters, by providing assistance in the form of production inputs, including plant material and breeding animals, to support agricultural production activities.

Under the Eighth National Social and Economic Development Plan, the Department of Land Development will undertake the following activities to promote sustainable agriculture between l997-2001: land use planning, land and water conservation systems, Vertiver grass against erosion, cropping systems, integrated agricultural systems, selection of crop varieties tolerant of pest and soil, and tree conservation and forests expansion by growing new trees.

A national policy on sustainable agriculture and rural development was last revised in 1998. The objectives of the policy include:

• Enabling an estimated 80 million small farmers to have an opportunity to earn sufficient income, while being able to select from among alternative methods of agricultural development, and living securely on their own farm lands.
• Generating additional foreign exchange earnings by increasing the export of agricultural products.
• Accelerating domestic production of agricultural products to substitute for imports.
• Promoting sustainable agricultural development to smallholder farmers.

A national policy review of food security issues was undertaken in 1998. As part of the agriculture sector policy reform measures adopted by the Thai Cabinet in 1998, the Thai Government adopted a policy for preparing for global climate change. An important element of this policy is that the Government committed itself to ensuring food security for the country to prevent impacts from natural disaster, by accelerating production of agricultural products in areas with high production potential as well as in areas that are adequately served with water resources; particularly in area that have sources of natural surface water, irrigation system infrastructure, underground water supplies, and irrigated areas serviced by pumps.

The Office of Environmental Policy and Planning has prepared a "Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016" that was adopted for implementation by the Thai Cabinet in 1997. This document aims at the integration of natural resources management and enhancement, and conservation of national environmental quality, with sustainable economic and social development, and to ensure the quality of life. The Plan elaborates goals, policies, and implementation guidelines for the effective use of land resources; conservation, rehabilitation, and development of degraded soils and land. It is to be a resources base for sustainable development by rehabilitation of degraded soils and mitigating soil erosion; and, conservation and utilization of areas containing unique ecosystems. In the context of this Plan, the Thai Government is committed to the following policies related to the systematic development, conservation, and rehabilitation of water resources:

• Systematically develop and conserve surface and ground water sources at the basin level, taking into consideration socio-economic and environmental impacts;
• Improve administration and management of surface water resources to have integrity and to be efficient;
• Promote effective utilization of surface water resources to maximize benefits and minimize environmental impacts;
• Promote effective administration and management of ground water; and
• Promote effective utilization of ground water while minimizing environmental impacts

Issues related to safe and appropriate use of pesticides have also been addressed in the "Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016". The national policy states that the Thai Government will promote reduced utilization of chemical pesticides. Law enforcement guidelines include consideration of measures to strictly prohibit imports and production of hazardous materials in agriculture that affect public health and the environment. Supporting guidelines include preparation of an action plan to provide knowledge and understanding to workers to properly use hazardous materials, especially those in the agriculture sector, with the support of NGOs.

The Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board has prepared and coordinated and facilitated the implementation of the 8^th National Economic and Social Development Plan that includes policies and measures for environmental protection and the conservation, preservation, and rehabilitation of natural resources, including land and soils

The policies include strategies to accelerate rehabilitation of renewable resources and application of mitigation measures to address water pollution, air pollution, noise and vibration pollution, and pollution from solid wastes, hazardous materials and hazardous wastes.

The objectives of the proposed policies and plans include protecting and rehabilitating environmental quality; conserving natural resources; boosting institutional capacities to administer and manage environmental quality; effectively using land resources for activities based on their capacity; conserving, rehabilitating, and improving degraded soil and land as the resource base for sustainable development; conserving areas containing unique ecosystems; protecting 50 percent of the country in forest; and conserving biodiversity.

Over the next two years (1999-2001) the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives is implementing an agriculture sector reform policy that requires a paradigm shift that will result in the implementation of measures that will lead to increases in equitable access to production-support services by the rural poor including:

• Improved access to information, through the strengthening of the Agriculture and Resource System Information Network (ARSIN) and the mass communications abilities of the Ministry, to ensure that agricultural development plans are adequately articulated at the sub-district level;
• Opportunities for farmer education in awareness and confidence building, resource management, and enterprise development;
• Specialized training in problem solving;
• Innovative types of community mobilization and institution building at the grassroots level that would release the spirit and creative potential of people;
• Improved access to institutional credit;
• Improved access to technology through creation of an Institute for Adaptive Research and Pilot Trials and an Institute for the Advancement of Traditional Knowledge; and,
• Organization of production, transport, and marketing groups at the community level.

In 1998 the Thai Cabinet adopted the policy recommendations of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives for a Policy on Fertilizer and Agricultural Chemicals as follows:

• Use chemical fertilizers and agricultural chemicals more efficiently through application with organic and biological fertilizers, in order to improve soils and to increase yields. Natural methods of controlling crop pests will be employed in an effort to reduce imports of fertilizers and agricultural chemicals. Efforts will be made to improve soils and community environment over the long-term.
• Promote sustainable agricultural development to ensure farmer self-sufficiency and to reduce the use of imported agricultural production inputs, including chemical fertilizers and agricultural chemicals.
• Utilize refuse and wastes from agriculture, by encouraging private sector production of organic fertilizer and bio-fertilizers, and other products used in the agriculture sector. This approach will reduce farmers’ expenditures on imported fertilizers.

In the same year, the Thai Cabinet adopted the policy additional recommendations of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives to develop agricultural potential in irrigation command areas, by efficiently producing agriculture products, while mitigating pollution problems impacting on the environment in these areas.

The "Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016," sets forth policies, goals, and guidelines to ensure adequate protection for plant genetic resources. The policy recommendations that were adopted by the Thai Cabinet included one for the management of biodiversity in forest ecosystems, namely: Protect, preserve, and conserve flora, fauna, aquatic life, and other living organisms in forest areas. Guidelines included:

• Enforcement of legal measures for conservation of flora, fauna and other organisms in forest areas;
• Control and monitor any activities that might impact on biological diversity;
• Strengthen capacities of protected areas for conservation of biodiversity;
• Establish a trust fund for protected area management;
• Create trans-boundary reserves;
• Strengthen institutional and human resources;
• Establish a national biodiversity information network
• Support research and applied science and technology for protected areas management and conservation of biological resources; and,
• Provide incentives for and accept the existence of indigenous knowledge, including decentralizing power and responsibility to local authorities and communities.

Directly in response to Convention on Biological Diversity, the Office of Environmental Policy and Planning on behalf of the National Committee on the Convention on Biological Diversity has prepared the National Policies, Measures and Plans on conservation and sustainable use of Biodiversity. The Policies, Measures and Plan was approved by the Cabinet in 15 July 1997.

Decision-Making: Major Groups involvement 

The Department of Agriculture is implementing a Sustainable Agricultural Development Project that will lead to the following outputs within the next two years:

• Design and operation of an effective local level sustainable agriculture network and a database system that will include indigenous knowledge.
• An effective model and structure for cooperation among local level institutions, in the form of a network among government agencies, farmers, NGOs, and the public.
• Implementation of environmental friendly agricultural activities on a significant scale that contribute to improving the quality of life in rural communities, and activities that have less negative impact on human beings, animals, plants, and the environment.

Programmes and Projects 

In terms of Environmental Development the CDD has 3 main activities as follows:

• Rural Infrastructure Development to build, maintain and use public properties, such as rainwater containers, wells, village roads and bridges;

• Environmental Development to encourage people to conserve natural resources and environment through non-formal education methods, that is training and mass media (printed materials and audio visual aids);

- Water Resource Utilization Promotion Project. This project has organized water resource users (that is, occupation groups and general water users), to establish Water Resource Utilization Groups for water resource maintenance and problem solving. The Water Utilization Group has developed administrative committees, rules and water utilization regulations in order to maximize its distribution among users so that living standards can be improved.

The Water Resource Management Project has two main activities. The project provides a training course for members of the group about water resource management. The project has also supported a revolving fund per group for occupational and water utilization activities, that is vegetable cultivating, live stock, fishery, and integrated farming.

Through the Community Approach to the Natural Resources Management Project (CNM Project), the CDD has established a collaborative relationship with the Faculty of Social Administration, Thammasat University, a committee of community development experts from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in the United States, and The Royal Forest Department of Agriculture and Cooperatives. The CNM project received funding from the Ford Foundation. The project's goal is to encourage participation in natural resource management with an emphasis on community forests, the role of community development, workers, and the process of raising the level of local participation. The CDD encourages participation in the conservation, maintenance, and sustenance of nature and the environment through a joint effort of the government and private sector.

Major activities to implement the SARD policy include:

• Modifying irrigation systems in existing large and medium scale irrigation command areas to increase productivity and maximize efficiency of water use in existing irrigation systems, and to increase the area under cultivation and yields of crops in the dry season, from existing levels. The irrigation systems concerned include water delivery systems, drainage systems, and on-farm level water use systems. Farmers need to have water all year round for household and farm use. Additional investment plans are established for piped water irrigation, drip irrigation, and digging of irrigation ditches for water delivery. Most importantly, modifications are needed as appropriate, for irrigation water delivery systems at the on-farm level, from flood and drain at the present time to furrow irrigation, that is more suitable for planting crops and other types of agriculture.

• Increasing production and the efficient use of land for development of commercial agriculture or agriculture linked to industries through promotion of an area approach to production (i.e., production on a large scale in designated areas). Production activities are to be undertaken in a fully integrated manner, from cultivation to marketing, through establishing linkages with agroindustrial processing facilities and other upstream and downstream industries. Concerned promotion and development agencies would operate in the designated areas to undertake soil improvement, supervise and control product quality, from the outset to the end of the production cycle, ensuring the quality and value of products. The role of the private sector investment is emphasized in production or related industrial processing.

• Promoting different types of alternative agriculture to smallholder farmers that are suitable to local conditions, such as: mixed farming, organic farming, safe-use of chemicals agriculture, and "new theory" agriculture. An appropriate farmer-operated services and support program is to be established, emphasizing small scale investment activities appropriate to the farmers’ economics, including promotion of having farmers mix their own fertilizers or making green fertilizers.

• Providing advisory services to develop small-scale irrigation systems with farmers; to encourage community irrigation systems; and, to examine systems for finding water for individual farms, including: improving existing irrigation systems and making additional investments to increase the potential for water resource use, taking into consideration distinct local conditions in each region and each local area, and different alternative agricultural systems in use.

• Implementing alternative agriculture activities with the participation of communities or farmers organizations through establishing community water systems and having returning migrant laborers participate in improving these systems.

• Establishing a network for alternative agriculture among groups of farmers, emphasizing learning and exchange visits between farmers who practice alternative agriculture, to strengthen management capabilities of farmers and to disseminate results in nearby areas.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives has developed a program for Rehabilitation of Forests and Forestry Occupations and Other Natural Resources, including biological diversity. This program is being implemented as part of the 8th Agricultural Development Plan. Elements include, but are not limited to the following guidelines to integrate environmental concerns into agricultural development:

• Promote the participation of local communities in solving problems and joining to conserve forest areas, while conforming to local ecosystems and using an integrated conservation and development process that will give an economic value to forests from the community’s perspective. The forest will be recognized as a source of employment that generates income for the community without impacting on natural resources or the environment. An awareness of the need to conserve natural resources will be created as a result.
• Promote various types of community reforestation, including commercial forests and community forests, in degraded forest areas the government designates as areas for community implementation. Communities in the designated areas will be given priority importance. Undertake activities related to reforestation and other natural resources on a continuous basis that generate income for farmers without impacting on natural resources and local ecosystems, such as development of wooden furniture using wood obtained from commercial forests, with the government supporting research and development, as well as information and credit for use by communities investing in reforestation and forestry occupations.
• Ensure that local communities participate in sharing income derived from nature-based tourism in protected areas or areas nearby, by providing lodging, operating tourism programs, serving as guides, providing food, and producing and selling souvenirs. The government establishes guidelines or criteria for tourism management to ensure that the environment is not negatively impacted and supports credit programs and conditions for communities to invest.

Sustainable agricultural development programs have been initiated through 40 Agricultural Technology Transfer Centers throughout Thailand using the resources of the Department of Agricultural Extension, Department of Agriculture, Department of Land Development, and the Natural Resources and Biodiversity Institute, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives has programs that will promote crop diversification at the farm level, including:

• Promote increased efficiency in commercial production of target products in special economic zones established to produce specific products. Give specific attention to expanding industrial activities linked to value added processing of target products. Formulate tax and financial measures to promote special economic zones.
• Promote investments in enhancing production efficiencies, such as: establishing closed system shrimp aquaculture production facilities, to produce environmentally safe crops (fruits and vegetables) as well as shrimp as green products; improve production infrastructure; improve old rubber plantations; and, establish irrigation systems for oil palm plantations.
• Promote investments in infrastructure necessary for facilitating production and marketing, such as: shrimp hatcheries, cool store units, and warehouses for para-rubber. The government will identify sources of investment credit for farmers or farmer institutions; or, the government will make the necessary investments and farmer institutions can rent from the government.
• Provision of quality inspection and control services by the government, such as: inspection of plant and breeding material; certification of commodities; and, control of water quality in shrimp aquaculture ponds.

The Department of Agriculture is implementing a Sustainable Agricultural Development Project that will lead to the following outputs within the next two years:

• Design and operation of an effective local level sustainable agriculture network and a database system that will include indigenous knowledge.
• An effective model and structure for cooperation among local level institutions, in the form of a network among government agencies, farmers, NGOs, and the public.
• On-farm research related to promotion of more environmentally friendly agriculture activities, including reduction in the use of agricultural chemicals that benefit implementation of sustainable agriculture.
• Programs on-going that promote environmental awareness in rural areas, resulting in a correct and common understanding about sustainable agriculture.
• Implementation of environmental friendly agricultural activities on a significant scale that contribute to improving the quality of life in rural communities, and activities that have less negative impact on human beings, animals, plants, and the environment.
• Organically grown agricultural products are available in most wholesale markets in Bangkok and in major fresh produce wholesale markets in major regional cities, providing safety to consumers.
• Markets have been developed for products from sustainable agricultural production.
• Economic indicators for sustainable agriculture developed by OAE.

Major activities that the Government has initiated to increase non-farm employment opportunities in the rural areas include:

• Promotion of the manufacture of products by local communities or farmers that are characteristic of the local area, for sale as souvenirs to tourists and other consumers, including easily processed agricultural commodities and handicrafts.
• Improvement of the quality of local products, including more attractive packaging. Establish a system for controlling quality and certification by local communities, including labeling that would be an emblem or trademark of a local community, that is accepted by consumers. Support for training in designing and product development provided by the government, including initially coordinating and supporting marketing, such as introducing products when promoting tourism.
• Inclusion of the production of local uncommon or unusual products for sale that are not prohibited products, to substitute for products that must be found or collected from natural sources. This will generate income for farmers without impacting on a locality’s natural resources and ecosystems. Such production activities could include breeding of local species of orchids; breeding of exotic local species of tropical fish; and, butterfly farming. The government provides support for research and development activities.
• Initially this program is implemented in communities near different tourist sites including nature-based tourism sites.

The Department of Fisheries initiated a program in 1993 of marine and fisheries protected areas to enhance protection and conservation of breeding grounds in Gulf of Thailand.

Status 

According to the Thai Government’s policy indicated in 8th National Plan (1997-2001), sustainable agriculture is practiced in an area of not less than 20 percent of Thailand’s cultivable area (or 4 million hectares). Additional agriculture area brought under irrigation since 1992 on land rehabilitated is as follows:

Area in Ha: 281,121.92; Percentage of total cultivated land: 6 percent

The agriculture sector had been Thailand’s "engine of growth" in the 1960s and 1970s, with annual growth in the sector of 4-5 percent. In the mid-1980s, manufactured exports overtook agricultural exports in importance, but agriculture still accounted for a relatively large share of employment in 1997 (39.4 percent in the dry season and 50.3 percent in the wet season); provided raw materials for agribusiness; and, continued to ensure household food security. The growth in agriculture in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s resulted significantly from land expansion including occupation of forest reserve areas. Since the financial and economic crises of 1997, agricultural production in physical terms has held its ground and actually increased, as a result of devaluation-led increase in prices of agricultural products and an increase in demand for Thai products to compensate for damage inflicted by ENSO in other exporting countries. Farmgate prices have declined while the costs of production have increased from the devaluation of the currency (baht). Growth in the agriculture sector increased an average of 3.7 percent annually between 1990 and 1996, and maintained a positive growth of 1.6 percent in 1997, and 2.5 percent in 1998.

Since the financial and economic crises of 1997, the rural sector has been coping with the impact of re-migration involving an estimated 1.2 million people, reduced remittances, and increased numbers of rural youth who would, in normal circumstances, have migrated out to urban centers. The result is that poverty in some rural areas is rapidly increasing - in aggregate from 11.4 percent in 1996 to 13 percent in the first quarter of 1998. Real wages have fallen by 13 percent since 1997, and seasonal unemployment has increased significantly.

Sustainable development is promoted in Thailand, inter alia, through:

• Promote sustainable agricultural development to ensure farmer self-sufficiency and to reduce the use of imported agricultural production inputs, including chemical fertilizers and agricultural chemicals. Also promote integrated / mixed farming, agroforestry, organic agriculture, and the New Theory of Agricultural Development that emphasize production for self-sufficiency, to meet the needs of farm households.
• Promote strengthening of communities by supporting the organization of farmer groups to enhance the quality of agricultural commodities and undertake value-added processing of agricultural products. Support a community-based savings program. Coordinate with the private sector to amass funds for production and marketing to enable income generation.
• Promote occupations linked to nature-based tourism (ecotourism) by improving natural resources and ensuring their suitability to receive visitors. Create employment opportunities for residents at tourism locations, enabling occupational development and local income generation. This approach is another way to develop awareness among local people of the need to conserve natural resources. Support the sale of uncommon or unusual objects or articles that could serve as a symbol or brand name linked to a specific community.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MOAC) has adopted several specific measures authorized by the Thai Cabinet in 1998 to change the sector towards sustainability, including the following:

Area Development Approach: MOAC will concentrate its efforts on irrigation command areas, cooperative land settlements, land reform areas, coastal zones, and terrestrial and marine ecosystems, to increase the export of agricultural products, and to increase domestic production of agricultural products to substitute for imports. This approach will allow improved management of water for irrigation, better control of quality of agricultural products, and regulation of sanitary and phyto-sanitary standards.

Alternative Farming Systems: MOAC will use an area-based approach to promote alternative farming systems to smallholder farmers to advance sustainable agricultural development, through an integrated program consisting of the following:

• reduction of production and marketing risks;
• support for local level food conservation and security initiatives;
• research and development of appropriate technologies;
• promotion of rural savings through agricultural cooperatives;
• support for safe agriculture and natural agriculture; and,
• support for appropriate irrigation infrastructure development.

Institutional Development Approach: Initiation of an integrated management approach among line agencies in the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, with an emphasis on collaborating to implement programs and projects. Through this approach, MOAC also will cooperate with local governments, non-governmental organizations, cooperatives, local community groups, and the private sector to strengthen the capacity of local institutions to more effectively carry out their duties and responsibilities, as mandated by laws governing their establishment and operations. This process will aim to prepare local bodies to:

• ensure the quality of agricultural products;
• access information systems and disseminate information to farmers;
• assure the transparency of procedures and proceedings; and,
• effectively manage agricultural infrastructure elements.

The Rome Declaration on World Food Security and the World Food Summit Plan of Action (Rome, 1996) called for a minimum target of halving the number of undernourished people in the world by the year 2015. The following target products have been focused in this regard:

• Export products: jasmine rice, broilers, livestock products, shrimp
• Products with export potential to targeted markets: young ear corn, seedless watermelon Agricultural products that are raw materials for processing and inputs for livestock feeds; young ear corn, field corn, soybeans

• Basic marketing infrastructure necessary to link production and marketing, including drying pads, silos, cool store units, and curing houses.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives has begun a restructuring process that will lead to the following:

• Identification and prioritization of areas with the most seriously degraded soils at the sub-district level and formulation and implementation of a series of participatory land use planning pilot projects in each region of Thailand, to demonstrate rehabilitation approaches to the principal problem areas.
• Participatory coastal land use planning designed in an integrated and participatory manner by community-based organizations and NGOs, working in collaboration with the Department of Land Development, Royal Forest Department, and Department of Fisheries, in consultation with local communities and other public and private sector stakeholders.

Beginning in 1993, with the assistance of UNDP, the World Bank, and the Global Environment Facility, the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives undertook a comprehensive review of Thailand’s terrestrial biological diversity. A pre-investment study was prepared that included an assessment of biodiversity in the context of the protected areas system operating in Thailand and the condition of conservation forests. An investment plan was prepared to enhance the capacity of concerned Thai Government agencies, community-based organizations, NGOs, and local governments to administer and manage biological diversity in Thailand. The plan focused on providing enhanced protection to Thailand’s Western Forest Complex that is comprised of --- protected areas, covering ---- hectares, in collaboration with local communities and occupants. Agencies and NGOs working in the area have executed parts of the plan.

To further concentrate the human and financial resources of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives to ensure adequate protection for plant genetic resources, the Ministry created in 1997 the Natural Resources and Biodiversity Institute to operate as an independent agency within the Ministry. The Institute is mandated to facilitate and coordinate natural resources and biodiversity management programs among concerned line agencies, and to serve as the principal contact point for other concerned Thai Government and international agencies on issues related to natural resources management.

To further ensure adequate protection and promote sustainable use of plant and animal genetic resources, the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Environment established the National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), as well as the Biological Diversity Information Center.

The Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board, in collaboration with the Department of Fisheries, created the Thai Seas Rehabilitation Institute in 1995. This Institute has the goals of improving the management of coastal and marine ecosystems; monitoring coastal and marine environments; improving management of aquatic life habitats; and, undertaking co-management of coastal fisheries and habitats with community-based organizations and NGOs.

The consumption of primary inputs such as purchased seeds, fertiliser, and pesticides in Thailand over the last five years, is as follows:

1 Quantity of fertilizer distributed by the Marketing Organization for Farmers

N/A = Information is not available 

 Challenges

Weak institutional coordination is a major problem in implementation of sustainable agriculture measures.

The principal information gap is that databases are not yet linked nor accessible to the general public.

Capacity-building, Education, Training and Awareness-raising 

The following measures are taken to improve quality of agricultural products for export:

• Establish appropriate quality standards for agricultural products for export. Focus on operating a "One Stop Service", with private sector participation in providing services and issuing certificates to entrepreneurs who volunteer to adhere to those quality standards.
• Develop agricultural production systems that have fully integrated quality controls, from production at the field level, to packing and packaging, and to consumers, by focusing on quality and standards of products that conform to international sanitary and phyto-sanitary standards.
• Encourage agricultural organizations to expand their roles in participating in inspection and guarantee of the quality of products, through Government promotion of infrastructure that will facilitate marketing and ensure the quality of products being held for sale; such as warehouses and cool store units.
• Support safe agriculture and natural agriculture for domestic consumption and for export to specific markets.

In 1997, the Thai Cabinet adopted policy recommendations of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives that supported the promotion of sustainable agricultural development programs through support for self-sufficiency and economic moderation programs including integrated / mixed farming, agroforestry, organic agriculture, and the New Theory of Agricultural Development that emphasize production for self-sufficiency, to meet the needs of farm households.

The Sustainable Agricultural Development Project of the Department of Agriculture promotes environmental awareness in rural areas, resulting in a correct and common understanding about sustainable agriculture.

Extension services are provided to community-based organizations and NGOs to develop small-scale irrigation systems with farmers; to encourage community irrigation systems; and, to examine systems for finding water for individual farms. This approach includes improving existing irrigation systems and making additional investments to increase the potential for water resource use, taking into consideration distinct local eco-agricultural and socioeconomic conditions in each region and each local area, and different alternative agricultural systems in use.

Support is given to production activities in a fully integrated manner, from cultivation to marketing, by establishing linkages with agro-industrial processing facilities and other upstream and downstream industries. Promotion and development agencies concerned are operating in the designated areas to undertake soil improvement, supervise and control product quality, from the outset to the end of the production cycle, ensuring the quality and value of products. The role of the private sector investment is emphasized in production or related industrial processing.

The Royal Forest Department is receiving support to strengthen the capacity of forestry researchers to operate botanical gardens at sites in the country with unique flora, to ensure adequate protection for plant genetic resources.

Information 

The following measures are being taken in preparation for the 21st Century:

• Accelerate undertaking of surveys and preparation of inventories of Thailand’s biological resources. Establish a database network to manage forest, soils, and coastal resources; and to control utilization of biological resources, to ensure equality in sharing their use.
• Monitor the resolution of issues related to implementation of agreements that employ non-tariff barriers to trade, particularly those issues related to the environment, restrictions on crops and livestock, and to quality and origin of products.
• Establish a database and manage natural resources as assets of the State. Resolve problems related to citizens earning their livelihood from State owned natural resources through establishment of an information system and a database system for managing forest and coastal resources. Personnel will be made ready to undertake tasks related to the sustainable, proper, and appropriate management of resources into the 21st Century.

The Natural Resources and Biodiversity Institute of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives currently is designing a web page that will have links to natural resources and agriculture databases of the line agencies of the Ministry. At this time, the Ministry has an Internet web page (www.moac.go.th) with links to those line agencies that also have web pages.

The Government has initiated the development of on-farm and off-farm programmes to collect and record indigenous knowledge.

Indicators are currently being developed in Thailand.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives is implementing a comprehensive sustainable agricultural development program to implement integrated farm management technologies and practices.

Financing 

The Department’s investment budget for the rehabilitation of degraded lands between 1993 and 1997 was approximately US$183 million.

Cooperation

Since no early warning systems are in place to monitor food supply nor any national or regional institutions exist for an early warning system, the Thai Government is cooperating with ASEAN Member Countries to develop a regional system for monitoring the food security situation.

Support is being made available from the following multilateral and bilateral agencies:

* * * 

This information was provided by the Government of Thailand to the fifth and eighth sessions of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last Update: February 2000.

Click here to link to Country and Sub-regional Information on Plant Genetic Resources of the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.
To access the FAOSTAT Data Base for information by country, item, element and year, click here:

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ATMOSPHERE

Decision-Making: Coordinating Bodies  

The Office of Environment Policy & Planning (OEPP) of the Ministry of Science, Technology & Environment (MOSTE) is primarily responsible for the protection of the atmosphere. It is a full-fledged member of the National Coordination Mechanism for Sustainable Development and serves as the Secretariat to the National Environment Board (NEB). National legislation has been reviewed partly in light of Agenda 21. Air pollution standards are reviewed continuously and are revised occasionally by the Pollution Control Department and the Ministry of Science Technology and Environment. The Hazardous Substances Control Division of the Department of Industrial Work of the Ministry of Industry is responsible for the control of chlorofluorcarbons (CFCs).  The other offices involved in decision-making for protecting the atmosphere are: Department of Energy Development and Promotion of MOSTE, National Energy Policy Office and Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board under the Office of the Prime Minister.

The NESDB supervises the work of the Office of the NESDB, and recommends suitable economic and social development strategies to the Thai Cabinet. The Board also has responsibility for screening and deliberating on various plans, programs, projects and policies submitted by the Office of the NESDB, and for making recommendations to the Thai Cabinet.  The Office of the NESDB is responsible for supplying data and submitting draft five-year national plans to the Board for consideration.  From time-to-time, the Thai Cabinet will assign work directly to the Office of the NESDB, through the Secretary-General, who is invited to participate in Cabinet meetings.   

The Prime Minister chairs the NEB. Vice-chairmen include a deputy prime minister and the Minister of Science, Technology and Environment.  The NEB is comprised of twenty additional members, including members of the private sector. The NEB submits policies and plans for environmental enhancement, protection, and conservation to the Thai Cabinet for approval; prescribes environmental quality standards; approves environmental quality management plans; recommends financial, fiscal, tax and investment promotion related to the environment; proposes amendments to laws and regulations related to the environment; supervises the Thai Environment Fund; and, submits annual reports on national environmental quality.

Article 60 of the 1997 Thai Constitution states that an individual retains the right to participate in the decision-making process of State officials in the performance of administrative functions which affect his or her rights and liberties, as provided by law.

 Articles 78 and 79 of the Thai Constitution call for the State to decentralize power to localities for the purpose of independence and self-determination of local affairs, as well as to promote public participation in the use and quality of natural resources and the environment.

Decision-Making: Legislation and Regulations

The Montreal Protocol and its Amendments were ratified by Thailand July 7, 1989. The London Amendment (1990) and Copenhagen Amendment (1992) were ratified by Thailand on June 25, 1992 and December 1, 1995 respectively. The latest report to the Montreal Protocol Secretariat were prepared in mid-1996.

According to the Thai Constitution of 1997, every person has a duty to conserve natural resources and the environment, as provide by law.

 The Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act of 1992 stipulates provisions for several aspects of air pollution control, namely:  

•  Chapter III (Environmental Protection) gives the NEB authority to establish environmental quality standards, including atmospheric ambient air standards, based upon scientific knowledge, principles, criteria, and other related evidence.  

• Chapter IV (Pollution Control), establishes a Pollution Control Committee that includes the directors-general of important departments and agencies in the transport, energy, industry, and agriculture sectors, which advises the NEB and the Minister of Science, Technology, and Environment on the setting of emission standards and the issuing of ministerial regulations related to air and noise pollution. This chapter also has a section that deals with monitoring, inspecting, and controlling pollution, including the treatment of polluted air, and equipment or instruments for controlling the discharge of polluted air.

Regulations for protection of the atmosphere: Ministerial Orders, Ministerial Decrees, and regulations include the following:

2.1 ATMOSPHERIC AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS 

1) Notification of the National Environment Board No.10, 2538 (1995) 

issued under the National Environmental Quality Act B.E. 2535 (1992) Re: Atmospheric Ambient Air Quality Standards

2) Notification of the National Environment Board No.12, 2539 (1996) 

issued under the National Environmental Quality Act B.E. 2535 (1992) Re: Acceptable Concentration of Carbon dioxide in Atmospheric Ambient Air Quality in One Hour

2.2 AIR QUALITY STANDARDS AT POINTED-SOURCE

2.2.1 Industrial Emission Standards

1) Notification of the Ministry of Industry No.2, E.B. 2536 (1993)

issued under the Factory Act issued under the Factory Act B.E. 2535 (1992) Re: Substance Limits in Industrial Emission

2) Notification of Science, Technology, and Environment

issued under the National Environmental Quality Act B.E. 2535 (1992) Re: Emission Standards for Electricity Plant

2.2.2 Motor Vehicle Emission Standards

1) Notification of Science, Technology and Environment

issued under the National Environmental Quality Act B.E. 2535 (1992) Re: Allowable Concentration Black Smoke and Carbon dioxide in Motor Vehicle emission

2) Notification of Science, Technology and Environment

issued under the National Environmental Quality Act B.E. 2535 (1992) Re: Allowable Concentration of Carbon dioxide in Motorcycle Emission

2.2.3  Boat/Ship/Vessel Emission Standards

1) Notification of the Harbor Department No. 177/2527 (1984)

Re: Usage of Fume and Noise Level Motors for Boats/Ships/Vessel

Fiscal and financial measures related to promoting protection of the atmosphere have been developed and implemented by the National Energy Policy Office. Specific measures successfully implemented have included the following:

i)      Abolition of leaded gasoline: Distribution of unleaded premium gasoline in the country since May 1991. The distribution of leaded gasoline was abolished by 1 January 1996, earlier than originally targeted.

ii)      Gasoline quality improvement:

-                                 Increase the octane of regular gasoline from 83 to 87 RON

-                                 Lower the lead content from no more than 0.40 grams/liter to no more than 0.15 grams/liter

-                                 Reduce the quantity of benzene from no more than 5 percent volume to no more than 3.5 percent volume

-                                 Classify premium gasoline into that mixed with oxygenate compounds on a compulsory basis and that mixed
             with oxygenate compounds on a voluntary basis

-                                 Enforce the mixture of additives in premium and regular gasoline

-                                 Limit the quantity of aromatic compounds to no more than 50 percent volume

iii)                 High speed diesel quality improvement in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region:

-    Lower the 90 percent distillation point from no higher than 370? C to no higher than 357?C.

-    Lower the sulfur content from no more than 1 percent to no more than 0.50 percent by weight, effective as of September 1993.

-          Lower the sulfur content from no more than 0.50 percent to no more than 0.25 percent by weight, effective           as of 1 January 1996.

-          Lower the sulfur content from no more than 0.25 percent to no more than 0.05 percent by weight, effective as of 1 January 1999.

-          Enforce the mixture of additives.

iv)                    Improvement of fuel oil available to the general public as follows :

-         Reduce the minimum viscosity of fuel oil, grades 2-4, from not lower than 81, 181, and 231, respectively to not lower than 7 centi-stokes, which is the same as that of grade 1 fuel oil.

-          Improve the quality of fuel oil distributed in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region by reducing the sulfur                     content from no more than 2.5-3.2 % by weight, to no more than 2.0 percent by weight.

-         Improve the quality of fuel oil distributed to other provinces by reducing the sulfur content from no more           than 2.5-3.2 % by weight, to no more than 2.0 % by weight, with the effective date of 1 January'98.

-         Improve the quality of fuel used by the Electric Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT) at its Bangkok           area plants, as of early 1994.

v)        Installation of a Flue Gas Desulfurization system at EGAT’s Mae Moh Thermal Power Plant in Lampang                    Province, northern Thailand, to control the level of sulfur dioxide concentration; reduced to an acceptable 1,300 micrograms/cubic meter.

Decision-Making: Strategies, Policies and Plans 

The “Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016,” provides goals, policies, and implementation guidelines for addressing air pollution.

Effective policy mechanisms exist in the form of the principal elements of the 1985 Statement of Forest Policy (based on the Thai Cabinet resolution of 1985 and still in  effect) includes the following: 

·        Forest management for environmental protection;

·        Formulation of a forest development plan for inclusion in each five year national development plan;

·        Conservation and protection of the natural environment through city planning and designating zones for forests, communities, and agriculture in each province

·        Creation of a National Forestry Policy Committee

·        Execution of extension programs to raise the level of public awareness, instill positive attitudes, and introduce proper skills on the wise use of  forest resources;

·        Promotion of reforestation;

·        Promotion of integrated wood industries;

·        Revision of the legal framework to support efficient forest resources conservation and utilization;

·        Promotion of wood energy from plantation sources as a substitute  for fossil fuels;

·        Designation of sloped land greater than 35 percent as forest land;

·        Formulation and implementation of guidelines for dealing forest degradation problems;

·        Introduction of an incentive system to promote reforestation and forest plantations by the private sector; and,

·        Human resources development and rural settlement planning in conformity with national natural resources management and conservation plans.       

Strategies related to greenhouse gas emissions are stated in the following: 

    From. the “Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016

-         Continuously monitor, check, analyze, and construct databases of overall ambient air quality and emission of air pollutants from its sources.

-         Prepare reports on the efficiency of systems or facilities and equipment for controlling designated air pollutants emissions from industries.

-        Promote and support improvement and upgrading of fuel standards to meet international standards, including promotion of ending the use of polluting fuels.

-          Formulate and improve air quality standards, both overall standards and emission standards, including designating methods to check and measure pollution, to be the same as international standards, and strictly enforce these laws against offenders.

-         Establish categories of sources of air pollution discharge that must be controlled and discharged into the atmosphere, including formulating appropriate standards for controlling air pollution from sources.

-         Designate all categories and ages of vehicles to undertake annual inspections of fuel combustion discharge systems, using an inspection system based on the service center model.

-         Support and collaborate with the private sector, associations, independent groups and all categories of mass media to participate in public relations efforts and campaigns to educate and increase understanding and awareness of hazardous threats from pollutants in the air, and be informed of enforcement of laws against all categories of polluters.

From “Thailand’s Action Plan for Sustainable Development,” March 1997, greenhouse gases are being reduced through the following:

-         Switching from fossil fuels to gases

-          Improving mass transit systems in urban areas

-          Implementing demand-side management in power use

-         Accelerating reforestation of degraded forest lands

-        Protecting conservation forests and watershed areas

From “Final Report: Environmental Quality Management Plan, Vol. 1,” December 1997: 

-         A Management Plan for Environmental Quality Enhancement (1999-2006) has been formulated in accordance with the “Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016,” based on a strategic management concept that the important natural resources and environmental problems are to be analyzed and given priorities; targeted environmental priorities to be achieved during the 8 years of operation period are to be set; policy guidelines and measures as a frame to formulate relevant programs and projects are to be determined; programs/projects and associated manpower and budgetary requirements are to be analyzed and proposed for improvements of both a physical and natural environment and quality of institutions simultaneously. Six natural resource and environmental issues are set for high priorities and emphasis:  soils and land use, water resources, natural forests and mangrove areas, air pollution, water pollution, and solid waste and sewage disposal. 

 Strategies include:

-       Rehabilitation and development of existing degraded natural resources including the atmosphere;

-        Improvement of organizations dealing with administration and management of natural resources and of the coordination structure for agencies concerned for more efficiency and unity in management

-        Amendment of laws and regulations that hinder the advancement of natural resources and environmental development and conservation

-        Launching of relevant programs to change the attitude of the Thai people on the importance of natural resources and environmental quality enhancement and conservation.

        -           Implement the Management Plan for Environmental Quality Enhancement (1999-2006) over an 
         8 year period, in two phases.

        -           Air pollutants will be maintained within the standard value in 1997, particularly for carbon monoxide.      

-        Industrial areas and communities will be require to keep their air pollutants within the standard limits   especially for sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide.

From “Thailand Environment Monitor 2000,” (World Bank, January 2000):

Policy responses by Thailand for air quality management include:

-        Comprehensive program in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region to reduce air pollution.

-         Phase-out of leaded gasoline and improvements in fuel quality to reduce emissions. Improvements in transportation planning and traffic management systems.

-          Emission standards for new and in-use motor vehicles tightened.

         -          Power plants equipped with flue gas desulfurization technology and low sulfur fuel oil used since 1992.

From “Thailand Environment Monitor 2000,” (World Bank, January 2000):

        -             Policy responses by Thailand for air quality management include:

-          Comprehensive program in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region to reduce air pollution.

-          Phase-out of leaded gasoline and improvements in fuel quality to reduce emissions. Improvements in       transportation planning and traffic management systems.

-          Emission standards for new and in-use motor vehicles tightened.

         -           Power plants equipped with flue gas desulfurization technology and low sulfur fuel oil used since 1992.

Strategies related to terrestrial and marine resource development for greenhouse gas sinks are stated in the following:

From the “Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016”

-               Promote the use of economic incentives to promote solutions to air pollution.  

-            Accelerate reforestation and rehabilitation of degraded watersheds by re-establishing natural healthy forests    using native species.

-            Formulate a legal framework to protect watersheds.

-           Promote economic incentives for reforestation on privately owned land and support participation of the private sector, NGOs, communities, and local people in development of community forests, urban forestry and fast growing tree plantations.

-            Promote development of local awareness of forest conservation.

-          Increase capacity and efficiency for forest protection and rehabilitation and conserve forest resources in national reserve forests, while monitoring the situation and changes in the integrity of the forest.

-         Preserve remaining healthy forests, those without encroachment, and prevent any other utilization of these forested areas.

-         Strengthen capacities to manage protected areas for conservation of biodiversity and establish a trust fund for protected areas management, as well as crate transboundary reserves.

Strategies related to substances that deplete the ozone layer  are stated in the following:;

From the “Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016”

-         Promote collaboration among government agencies, state enterprises, and the private sector to control and prevent air pollution, and support efficient and safe energy utilization.

-          Control and reduce utilization of substances that are a danger for atmospheric ozone layer.

-         Support study, research, and training in technologies for control and eradication of polluted air, including improving and maintaining machinery to decrease air pollution.

-         Support and collaborate with the private sector, associations, independent groups and all categories of mass media to participate in public relations efforts and campaigns to educate and increase understanding and awareness of hazardous threats from pollutants in the air, and be informed of enforcement of laws against all categories of polluters.

-         Promote the use of economic incentives to promote solutions to air pollution.

From the “Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016”

-         Promote collaboration among government agencies, state enterprises, and the private sector to control and prevent air pollution, and support efficient and safe energy utilization.

-          Control and reduce utilization of substances that are a danger for atmospheric ozone layer.

-         Support study, research, and training in technologies for control and eradication of polluted air, including improving and maintaining machinery to decrease air pollution.

-          Support and collaborate with the private sector, associations, independent groups and all categories of mass media to participate in public relations efforts and campaigns to educate and increase understanding and awareness of hazardous threats from pollutants in the air, and be informed of enforcement of laws against all categories of polluters.

-         Promote the use of economic incentives to promote solutions to air pollution.  

From “Thailand’s Action Plan for Sustainable Development,” March 1997:

-       Provide support the use of substitutes for the following:  

Notes:     ODS = ozone depleting substances

Source:  Ministry of Science, Technology, and Environment, March 1997

Strategies related to transboundary air pollution are stated in the following: 

From the “Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016”

-         Formulate prevention measures and prepare emergency plans for protection, mitigation, suppression, or abatement of emergency situations, or accidents from air pollution.

-         Strengthen capacities to manage protected areas for conservation of biodiversity and establish a trust fund for protected areas management, as well as crate transboundary reserves.

The strategies proposed for sustainable management of the forestry sector include: 

(i)                  preserve and enrich forestry resources;

(ii)                protect ecological balance;

(iii)               protect the environment to maintain the quality of life and a solid foundation for development;

(iv)              establish forestry management systems for the efficient utilization and protection of forestry resources and forest ecology for the benefit of society and local communities; and,

(v)                protect against and provide relief from natural disasters.

Short-term Goals concerning reduction of green house gas emissions include

Within the scope of the Eighth National Economic and Social Development Plan (1997-2001), the National Energy Policy Office has set the following targets to prevent and solve environmental problems resulting from energy development and utilization, namely:

-    Expand the designated areas, where the distribution of fuel oil shall have no more than 2.0 percent of sulfur content for grades 1-4 and no more than 0.5 percent for grade 5, to cover more provinces than the Bangkok Metropolitan Region.

-    Speed up the distribution of non-corrosive (low sulfur) diesel 0.05 percent by weight, by 1 January 1999, and consider improving quality specifications of high speed diesel in order to further reduce pollution (e.g., the increase of cetane number and the decrease of density).

-        Control and monitor the storage and demolition of lube oil residue and used lube oil together with promoting investment in recycling used lube oil according to an appropriate basis.

-        Enforce that oil depots, oil tank trucks, and petroleum service stations in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region and major urban centers are installed with oil vapor traps.

-        Intensify the expansion of natural gas application to commercial vehicles in order to reduce air pollution, especially in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region.

-        Encourage solid waste disposal yielding energy as a by-product to reduce problems of environmental pollution in urban areas.

-         Switching from fossil fuels to gases: Thailand now purchase electricity from Laos, has agreed to purchase gas from Myanmar, and strengthened the power agreement with Malaysia, reducing emission of CO₂ from the powe