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NATURAL RESOURCE ASPECTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THAILAND

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• Agriculture
• Atmosphere
• Biodiversity
• Desertification and Drought
• Energy
• Forests
• Freshwater
• Land Management
• Mountains
• Oceans and Coastal Areas
• Toxic Chemicals
• Waste and Hazardous Materials

AGRICULTURE

Decision-Making: Coordinating Bodies  

The Community Development Department (CDD), Ministry of Interior, is responsible for improving the quality of life and environment of rural people to meet basic minimum needs by promoting participation in family and community development activities. The Department of Land Development is the principal Thai Government agency responsible for the rehabilitation of degraded lands.

According to the 1992 Degree on Administration of the Community Development Department, the CDD has the following mission:

- to educate and develop people in the learning process to establish self-reliance in social, economic and environmental development. The target groups are children, youth, women, community volunteers and local leaders;

- to support people's organizations, community development volunteers and leaders in community development by promoting public participation with respect to their economic, social and cultural circumstances;

- to systematically promote rural development administration by assisting communities to establish Village Data Systems to guide Rural Development Plans. The CDD also develops community organizations to enable them to solve problems.

Decision-Making: Legislation and Regulations

National legislation does not restrict the transfer of productive arable land to other uses. Only in the case where an area is worthy of being conserved due to its natural or aesthetic values or amenities, and such area is yet to be designated a conservation area, can the Minister of Science, Technology, and Environment issue a ministerial regulation designating such an area as an "environmentally protected area." Following designation of such an area, protective measures can be prescribed as seen appropriate.

Thailand adopted a new Constitution in 1997 that requires every person to conserve natural resources and the environment as provided by law. The Constitution also requires that the State promote and encourage public participation in the preservation, maintenance and balanced utilization of natural resources and biological diversity, in accordance with the principles of sustainable development.

Decision-Making: Strategies, Policies and Plans 

The target of the 8^th National Economic and Social Development Plan is to reduce poverty from13.7 percent of the total population in 1992 to less than 10 percent of the total population by the year 2001.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives is executing economic policies adopted by the Thai Cabinet in 1998 to reduce poverty through agriculture and food security. Key policies include the following:

• Campaign to promote rural savings through agricultural cooperatives, with the objective of increasing the potential for farmer groups to help themselves, such as simple processing and alternative occupations at the household level. Community banks will be supported and farmers will participate in administering funds deposited, by formulating policies for utilization and recovery.
• Use chemical fertilizers and agricultural chemicals more efficiently through application with organic and biological fertilizers, in order to improve soils and to increase yields. Natural methods of controlling crop pests will be employed in an effort to reduce imports of fertilizers and agricultural chemicals. Efforts will be made to improve soils and community environment over the long-term.
• Utilize refuse and wastes from agriculture, by encouraging private sector production of organic fertilizer and bio-fertilizers, and other products used in the agriculture sector. This approach will reduce farmers’ expenditures on imported fertilizers.
• Identify land and extend land tenure rights, to solve the problem of availability of land for subsistence.
• Provide assistance to farmers who are impacted by natural disasters in the form of food, inputs important to their occupations, and consumer goods.
• Ensure food security for the country to prevent impacts from natural disasters, by accelerating production of agricultural products in areas with production potential as well as in areas that are adequately served with water resources; particularly in areas that have sources of natural surface water, irrigation system infrastructure, underground water supplies, and irrigated areas serviced by electric pumps.
• Undertake occupational and livelihood rehabilitation following natural disasters, by providing assistance in the form of production inputs, including plant material and breeding animals, to support agricultural production activities.

Under the Eighth National Social and Economic Development Plan, the Department of Land Development will undertake the following activities to promote sustainable agriculture between l997-2001: land use planning, land and water conservation systems, Vertiver grass against erosion, cropping systems, integrated agricultural systems, selection of crop varieties tolerant of pest and soil, and tree conservation and forests expansion by growing new trees.

A national policy on sustainable agriculture and rural development was last revised in 1998. The objectives of the policy include:

• Enabling an estimated 80 million small farmers to have an opportunity to earn sufficient income, while being able to select from among alternative methods of agricultural development, and living securely on their own farm lands.
• Generating additional foreign exchange earnings by increasing the export of agricultural products.
• Accelerating domestic production of agricultural products to substitute for imports.
• Promoting sustainable agricultural development to smallholder farmers.

A national policy review of food security issues was undertaken in 1998. As part of the agriculture sector policy reform measures adopted by the Thai Cabinet in 1998, the Thai Government adopted a policy for preparing for global climate change. An important element of this policy is that the Government committed itself to ensuring food security for the country to prevent impacts from natural disaster, by accelerating production of agricultural products in areas with high production potential as well as in areas that are adequately served with water resources; particularly in area that have sources of natural surface water, irrigation system infrastructure, underground water supplies, and irrigated areas serviced by pumps.

The Office of Environmental Policy and Planning has prepared a "Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016" that was adopted for implementation by the Thai Cabinet in 1997. This document aims at the integration of natural resources management and enhancement, and conservation of national environmental quality, with sustainable economic and social development, and to ensure the quality of life. The Plan elaborates goals, policies, and implementation guidelines for the effective use of land resources; conservation, rehabilitation, and development of degraded soils and land. It is to be a resources base for sustainable development by rehabilitation of degraded soils and mitigating soil erosion; and, conservation and utilization of areas containing unique ecosystems. In the context of this Plan, the Thai Government is committed to the following policies related to the systematic development, conservation, and rehabilitation of water resources:

• Systematically develop and conserve surface and ground water sources at the basin level, taking into consideration socio-economic and environmental impacts;
• Improve administration and management of surface water resources to have integrity and to be efficient;
• Promote effective utilization of surface water resources to maximize benefits and minimize environmental impacts;
• Promote effective administration and management of ground water; and
• Promote effective utilization of ground water while minimizing environmental impacts

Issues related to safe and appropriate use of pesticides have also been addressed in the "Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016". The national policy states that the Thai Government will promote reduced utilization of chemical pesticides. Law enforcement guidelines include consideration of measures to strictly prohibit imports and production of hazardous materials in agriculture that affect public health and the environment. Supporting guidelines include preparation of an action plan to provide knowledge and understanding to workers to properly use hazardous materials, especially those in the agriculture sector, with the support of NGOs.

The Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board has prepared and coordinated and facilitated the implementation of the 8^th National Economic and Social Development Plan that includes policies and measures for environmental protection and the conservation, preservation, and rehabilitation of natural resources, including land and soils

The policies include strategies to accelerate rehabilitation of renewable resources and application of mitigation measures to address water pollution, air pollution, noise and vibration pollution, and pollution from solid wastes, hazardous materials and hazardous wastes.

The objectives of the proposed policies and plans include protecting and rehabilitating environmental quality; conserving natural resources; boosting institutional capacities to administer and manage environmental quality; effectively using land resources for activities based on their capacity; conserving, rehabilitating, and improving degraded soil and land as the resource base for sustainable development; conserving areas containing unique ecosystems; protecting 50 percent of the country in forest; and conserving biodiversity.

Over the next two years (1999-2001) the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives is implementing an agriculture sector reform policy that requires a paradigm shift that will result in the implementation of measures that will lead to increases in equitable access to production-support services by the rural poor including:

• Improved access to information, through the strengthening of the Agriculture and Resource System Information Network (ARSIN) and the mass communications abilities of the Ministry, to ensure that agricultural development plans are adequately articulated at the sub-district level;
• Opportunities for farmer education in awareness and confidence building, resource management, and enterprise development;
• Specialized training in problem solving;
• Innovative types of community mobilization and institution building at the grassroots level that would release the spirit and creative potential of people;
• Improved access to institutional credit;
• Improved access to technology through creation of an Institute for Adaptive Research and Pilot Trials and an Institute for the Advancement of Traditional Knowledge; and,
• Organization of production, transport, and marketing groups at the community level.

In 1998 the Thai Cabinet adopted the policy recommendations of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives for a Policy on Fertilizer and Agricultural Chemicals as follows:

• Use chemical fertilizers and agricultural chemicals more efficiently through application with organic and biological fertilizers, in order to improve soils and to increase yields. Natural methods of controlling crop pests will be employed in an effort to reduce imports of fertilizers and agricultural chemicals. Efforts will be made to improve soils and community environment over the long-term.
• Promote sustainable agricultural development to ensure farmer self-sufficiency and to reduce the use of imported agricultural production inputs, including chemical fertilizers and agricultural chemicals.
• Utilize refuse and wastes from agriculture, by encouraging private sector production of organic fertilizer and bio-fertilizers, and other products used in the agriculture sector. This approach will reduce farmers’ expenditures on imported fertilizers.

In the same year, the Thai Cabinet adopted the policy additional recommendations of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives to develop agricultural potential in irrigation command areas, by efficiently producing agriculture products, while mitigating pollution problems impacting on the environment in these areas.

The "Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016," sets forth policies, goals, and guidelines to ensure adequate protection for plant genetic resources. The policy recommendations that were adopted by the Thai Cabinet included one for the management of biodiversity in forest ecosystems, namely: Protect, preserve, and conserve flora, fauna, aquatic life, and other living organisms in forest areas. Guidelines included:

• Enforcement of legal measures for conservation of flora, fauna and other organisms in forest areas;
• Control and monitor any activities that might impact on biological diversity;
• Strengthen capacities of protected areas for conservation of biodiversity;
• Establish a trust fund for protected area management;
• Create trans-boundary reserves;
• Strengthen institutional and human resources;
• Establish a national biodiversity information network
• Support research and applied science and technology for protected areas management and conservation of biological resources; and,
• Provide incentives for and accept the existence of indigenous knowledge, including decentralizing power and responsibility to local authorities and communities.

Directly in response to Convention on Biological Diversity, the Office of Environmental Policy and Planning on behalf of the National Committee on the Convention on Biological Diversity has prepared the National Policies, Measures and Plans on conservation and sustainable use of Biodiversity. The Policies, Measures and Plan was approved by the Cabinet in 15 July 1997.

Decision-Making: Major Groups involvement 

The Department of Agriculture is implementing a Sustainable Agricultural Development Project that will lead to the following outputs within the next two years:

• Design and operation of an effective local level sustainable agriculture network and a database system that will include indigenous knowledge.
• An effective model and structure for cooperation among local level institutions, in the form of a network among government agencies, farmers, NGOs, and the public.
• Implementation of environmental friendly agricultural activities on a significant scale that contribute to improving the quality of life in rural communities, and activities that have less negative impact on human beings, animals, plants, and the environment.

Programmes and Projects 

In terms of Environmental Development the CDD has 3 main activities as follows:

• Rural Infrastructure Development to build, maintain and use public properties, such as rainwater containers, wells, village roads and bridges;

• Environmental Development to encourage people to conserve natural resources and environment through non-formal education methods, that is training and mass media (printed materials and audio visual aids);

- Water Resource Utilization Promotion Project. This project has organized water resource users (that is, occupation groups and general water users), to establish Water Resource Utilization Groups for water resource maintenance and problem solving. The Water Utilization Group has developed administrative committees, rules and water utilization regulations in order to maximize its distribution among users so that living standards can be improved.

The Water Resource Management Project has two main activities. The project provides a training course for members of the group about water resource management. The project has also supported a revolving fund per group for occupational and water utilization activities, that is vegetable cultivating, live stock, fishery, and integrated farming.

Through the Community Approach to the Natural Resources Management Project (CNM Project), the CDD has established a collaborative relationship with the Faculty of Social Administration, Thammasat University, a committee of community development experts from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in the United States, and The Royal Forest Department of Agriculture and Cooperatives. The CNM project received funding from the Ford Foundation. The project's goal is to encourage participation in natural resource management with an emphasis on community forests, the role of community development, workers, and the process of raising the level of local participation. The CDD encourages participation in the conservation, maintenance, and sustenance of nature and the environment through a joint effort of the government and private sector.

Major activities to implement the SARD policy include:

• Modifying irrigation systems in existing large and medium scale irrigation command areas to increase productivity and maximize efficiency of water use in existing irrigation systems, and to increase the area under cultivation and yields of crops in the dry season, from existing levels. The irrigation systems concerned include water delivery systems, drainage systems, and on-farm level water use systems. Farmers need to have water all year round for household and farm use. Additional investment plans are established for piped water irrigation, drip irrigation, and digging of irrigation ditches for water delivery. Most importantly, modifications are needed as appropriate, for irrigation water delivery systems at the on-farm level, from flood and drain at the present time to furrow irrigation, that is more suitable for planting crops and other types of agriculture.

• Increasing production and the efficient use of land for development of commercial agriculture or agriculture linked to industries through promotion of an area approach to production (i.e., production on a large scale in designated areas). Production activities are to be undertaken in a fully integrated manner, from cultivation to marketing, through establishing linkages with agroindustrial processing facilities and other upstream and downstream industries. Concerned promotion and development agencies would operate in the designated areas to undertake soil improvement, supervise and control product quality, from the outset to the end of the production cycle, ensuring the quality and value of products. The role of the private sector investment is emphasized in production or related industrial processing.

• Promoting different types of alternative agriculture to smallholder farmers that are suitable to local conditions, such as: mixed farming, organic farming, safe-use of chemicals agriculture, and "new theory" agriculture. An appropriate farmer-operated services and support program is to be established, emphasizing small scale investment activities appropriate to the farmers’ economics, including promotion of having farmers mix their own fertilizers or making green fertilizers.

• Providing advisory services to develop small-scale irrigation systems with farmers; to encourage community irrigation systems; and, to examine systems for finding water for individual farms, including: improving existing irrigation systems and making additional investments to increase the potential for water resource use, taking into consideration distinct local conditions in each region and each local area, and different alternative agricultural systems in use.

• Implementing alternative agriculture activities with the participation of communities or farmers organizations through establishing community water systems and having returning migrant laborers participate in improving these systems.

• Establishing a network for alternative agriculture among groups of farmers, emphasizing learning and exchange visits between farmers who practice alternative agriculture, to strengthen management capabilities of farmers and to disseminate results in nearby areas.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives has developed a program for Rehabilitation of Forests and Forestry Occupations and Other Natural Resources, including biological diversity. This program is being implemented as part of the 8th Agricultural Development Plan. Elements include, but are not limited to the following guidelines to integrate environmental concerns into agricultural development:

• Promote the participation of local communities in solving problems and joining to conserve forest areas, while conforming to local ecosystems and using an integrated conservation and development process that will give an economic value to forests from the community’s perspective. The forest will be recognized as a source of employment that generates income for the community without impacting on natural resources or the environment. An awareness of the need to conserve natural resources will be created as a result.
• Promote various types of community reforestation, including commercial forests and community forests, in degraded forest areas the government designates as areas for community implementation. Communities in the designated areas will be given priority importance. Undertake activities related to reforestation and other natural resources on a continuous basis that generate income for farmers without impacting on natural resources and local ecosystems, such as development of wooden furniture using wood obtained from commercial forests, with the government supporting research and development, as well as information and credit for use by communities investing in reforestation and forestry occupations.
• Ensure that local communities participate in sharing income derived from nature-based tourism in protected areas or areas nearby, by providing lodging, operating tourism programs, serving as guides, providing food, and producing and selling souvenirs. The government establishes guidelines or criteria for tourism management to ensure that the environment is not negatively impacted and supports credit programs and conditions for communities to invest.

Sustainable agricultural development programs have been initiated through 40 Agricultural Technology Transfer Centers throughout Thailand using the resources of the Department of Agricultural Extension, Department of Agriculture, Department of Land Development, and the Natural Resources and Biodiversity Institute, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives has programs that will promote crop diversification at the farm level, including:

• Promote increased efficiency in commercial production of target products in special economic zones established to produce specific products. Give specific attention to expanding industrial activities linked to value added processing of target products. Formulate tax and financial measures to promote special economic zones.
• Promote investments in enhancing production efficiencies, such as: establishing closed system shrimp aquaculture production facilities, to produce environmentally safe crops (fruits and vegetables) as well as shrimp as green products; improve production infrastructure; improve old rubber plantations; and, establish irrigation systems for oil palm plantations.
• Promote investments in infrastructure necessary for facilitating production and marketing, such as: shrimp hatcheries, cool store units, and warehouses for para-rubber. The government will identify sources of investment credit for farmers or farmer institutions; or, the government will make the necessary investments and farmer institutions can rent from the government.
• Provision of quality inspection and control services by the government, such as: inspection of plant and breeding material; certification of commodities; and, control of water quality in shrimp aquaculture ponds.

The Department of Agriculture is implementing a Sustainable Agricultural Development Project that will lead to the following outputs within the next two years:

• Design and operation of an effective local level sustainable agriculture network and a database system that will include indigenous knowledge.
• An effective model and structure for cooperation among local level institutions, in the form of a network among government agencies, farmers, NGOs, and the public.
• On-farm research related to promotion of more environmentally friendly agriculture activities, including reduction in the use of agricultural chemicals that benefit implementation of sustainable agriculture.
• Programs on-going that promote environmental awareness in rural areas, resulting in a correct and common understanding about sustainable agriculture.
• Implementation of environmental friendly agricultural activities on a significant scale that contribute to improving the quality of life in rural communities, and activities that have less negative impact on human beings, animals, plants, and the environment.
• Organically grown agricultural products are available in most wholesale markets in Bangkok and in major fresh produce wholesale markets in major regional cities, providing safety to consumers.
• Markets have been developed for products from sustainable agricultural production.
• Economic indicators for sustainable agriculture developed by OAE.

Major activities that the Government has initiated to increase non-farm employment opportunities in the rural areas include:

• Promotion of the manufacture of products by local communities or farmers that are characteristic of the local area, for sale as souvenirs to tourists and other consumers, including easily processed agricultural commodities and handicrafts.
• Improvement of the quality of local products, including more attractive packaging. Establish a system for controlling quality and certification by local communities, including labeling that would be an emblem or trademark of a local community, that is accepted by consumers. Support for training in designing and product development provided by the government, including initially coordinating and supporting marketing, such as introducing products when promoting tourism.
• Inclusion of the production of local uncommon or unusual products for sale that are not prohibited products, to substitute for products that must be found or collected from natural sources. This will generate income for farmers without impacting on a locality’s natural resources and ecosystems. Such production activities could include breeding of local species of orchids; breeding of exotic local species of tropical fish; and, butterfly farming. The government provides support for research and development activities.
• Initially this program is implemented in communities near different tourist sites including nature-based tourism sites.

The Department of Fisheries initiated a program in 1993 of marine and fisheries protected areas to enhance protection and conservation of breeding grounds in Gulf of Thailand.

Status 

According to the Thai Government’s policy indicated in 8th National Plan (1997-2001), sustainable agriculture is practiced in an area of not less than 20 percent of Thailand’s cultivable area (or 4 million hectares). Additional agriculture area brought under irrigation since 1992 on land rehabilitated is as follows:

Area in Ha: 281,121.92; Percentage of total cultivated land: 6 percent

The agriculture sector had been Thailand’s "engine of growth" in the 1960s and 1970s, with annual growth in the sector of 4-5 percent. In the mid-1980s, manufactured exports overtook agricultural exports in importance, but agriculture still accounted for a relatively large share of employment in 1997 (39.4 percent in the dry season and 50.3 percent in the wet season); provided raw materials for agribusiness; and, continued to ensure household food security. The growth in agriculture in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s resulted significantly from land expansion including occupation of forest reserve areas. Since the financial and economic crises of 1997, agricultural production in physical terms has held its ground and actually increased, as a result of devaluation-led increase in prices of agricultural products and an increase in demand for Thai products to compensate for damage inflicted by ENSO in other exporting countries. Farmgate prices have declined while the costs of production have increased from the devaluation of the currency (baht). Growth in the agriculture sector increased an average of 3.7 percent annually between 1990 and 1996, and maintained a positive growth of 1.6 percent in 1997, and 2.5 percent in 1998.

Since the financial and economic crises of 1997, the rural sector has been coping with the impact of re-migration involving an estimated 1.2 million people, reduced remittances, and increased numbers of rural youth who would, in normal circumstances, have migrated out to urban centers. The result is that poverty in some rural areas is rapidly increasing - in aggregate from 11.4 percent in 1996 to 13 percent in the first quarter of 1998. Real wages have fallen by 13 percent since 1997, and seasonal unemployment has increased significantly.

Sustainable development is promoted in Thailand, inter alia, through:

• Promote sustainable agricultural development to ensure farmer self-sufficiency and to reduce the use of imported agricultural production inputs, including chemical fertilizers and agricultural chemicals. Also promote integrated / mixed farming, agroforestry, organic agriculture, and the New Theory of Agricultural Development that emphasize production for self-sufficiency, to meet the needs of farm households.
• Promote strengthening of communities by supporting the organization of farmer groups to enhance the quality of agricultural commodities and undertake value-added processing of agricultural products. Support a community-based savings program. Coordinate with the private sector to amass funds for production and marketing to enable income generation.
• Promote occupations linked to nature-based tourism (ecotourism) by improving natural resources and ensuring their suitability to receive visitors. Create employment opportunities for residents at tourism locations, enabling occupational development and local income generation. This approach is another way to develop awareness among local people of the need to conserve natural resources. Support the sale of uncommon or unusual objects or articles that could serve as a symbol or brand name linked to a specific community.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MOAC) has adopted several specific measures authorized by the Thai Cabinet in 1998 to change the sector towards sustainability, including the following:

Area Development Approach: MOAC will concentrate its efforts on irrigation command areas, cooperative land settlements, land reform areas, coastal zones, and terrestrial and marine ecosystems, to increase the export of agricultural products, and to increase domestic production of agricultural products to substitute for imports. This approach will allow improved management of water for irrigation, better control of quality of agricultural products, and regulation of sanitary and phyto-sanitary standards.

Alternative Farming Systems: MOAC will use an area-based approach to promote alternative farming systems to smallholder farmers to advance sustainable agricultural development, through an integrated program consisting of the following:

• reduction of production and marketing risks;
• support for local level food conservation and security initiatives;
• research and development of appropriate technologies;
• promotion of rural savings through agricultural cooperatives;
• support for safe agriculture and natural agriculture; and,
• support for appropriate irrigation infrastructure development.

Institutional Development Approach: Initiation of an integrated management approach among line agencies in the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, with an emphasis on collaborating to implement programs and projects. Through this approach, MOAC also will cooperate with local governments, non-governmental organizations, cooperatives, local community groups, and the private sector to strengthen the capacity of local institutions to more effectively carry out their duties and responsibilities, as mandated by laws governing their establishment and operations. This process will aim to prepare local bodies to:

• ensure the quality of agricultural products;
• access information systems and disseminate information to farmers;
• assure the transparency of procedures and proceedings; and,
• effectively manage agricultural infrastructure elements.

The Rome Declaration on World Food Security and the World Food Summit Plan of Action (Rome, 1996) called for a minimum target of halving the number of undernourished people in the world by the year 2015. The following target products have been focused in this regard:

• Export products: jasmine rice, broilers, livestock products, shrimp
• Products with export potential to targeted markets: young ear corn, seedless watermelon Agricultural products that are raw materials for processing and inputs for livestock feeds; young ear corn, field corn, soybeans

• Basic marketing infrastructure necessary to link production and marketing, including drying pads, silos, cool store units, and curing houses.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives has begun a restructuring process that will lead to the following:

• Identification and prioritization of areas with the most seriously degraded soils at the sub-district level and formulation and implementation of a series of participatory land use planning pilot projects in each region of Thailand, to demonstrate rehabilitation approaches to the principal problem areas.
• Participatory coastal land use planning designed in an integrated and participatory manner by community-based organizations and NGOs, working in collaboration with the Department of Land Development, Royal Forest Department, and Department of Fisheries, in consultation with local communities and other public and private sector stakeholders.

Beginning in 1993, with the assistance of UNDP, the World Bank, and the Global Environment Facility, the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives undertook a comprehensive review of Thailand’s terrestrial biological diversity. A pre-investment study was prepared that included an assessment of biodiversity in the context of the protected areas system operating in Thailand and the condition of conservation forests. An investment plan was prepared to enhance the capacity of concerned Thai Government agencies, community-based organizations, NGOs, and local governments to administer and manage biological diversity in Thailand. The plan focused on providing enhanced protection to Thailand’s Western Forest Complex that is comprised of --- protected areas, covering ---- hectares, in collaboration with local communities and occupants. Agencies and NGOs working in the area have executed parts of the plan.

To further concentrate the human and financial resources of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives to ensure adequate protection for plant genetic resources, the Ministry created in 1997 the Natural Resources and Biodiversity Institute to operate as an independent agency within the Ministry. The Institute is mandated to facilitate and coordinate natural resources and biodiversity management programs among concerned line agencies, and to serve as the principal contact point for other concerned Thai Government and international agencies on issues related to natural resources management.

To further ensure adequate protection and promote sustainable use of plant and animal genetic resources, the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Environment established the National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), as well as the Biological Diversity Information Center.

The Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board, in collaboration with the Department of Fisheries, created the Thai Seas Rehabilitation Institute in 1995. This Institute has the goals of improving the management of coastal and marine ecosystems; monitoring coastal and marine environments; improving management of aquatic life habitats; and, undertaking co-management of coastal fisheries and habitats with community-based organizations and NGOs.

The consumption of primary inputs such as purchased seeds, fertiliser, and pesticides in Thailand over the last five years, is as follows:

1 Quantity of fertilizer distributed by the Marketing Organization for Farmers

N/A = Information is not available 

 Challenges

Weak institutional coordination is a major problem in implementation of sustainable agriculture measures.

The principal information gap is that databases are not yet linked nor accessible to the general public.

Capacity-building, Education, Training and Awareness-raising 

The following measures are taken to improve quality of agricultural products for export:

• Establish appropriate quality standards for agricultural products for export. Focus on operating a "One Stop Service", with private sector participation in providing services and issuing certificates to entrepreneurs who volunteer to adhere to those quality standards.
• Develop agricultural production systems that have fully integrated quality controls, from production at the field level, to packing and packaging, and to consumers, by focusing on quality and standards of products that conform to international sanitary and phyto-sanitary standards.
• Encourage agricultural organizations to expand their roles in participating in inspection and guarantee of the quality of products, through Government promotion of infrastructure that will facilitate marketing and ensure the quality of products being held for sale; such as warehouses and cool store units.
• Support safe agriculture and natural agriculture for domestic consumption and for export to specific markets.

In 1997, the Thai Cabinet adopted policy recommendations of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives that supported the promotion of sustainable agricultural development programs through support for self-sufficiency and economic moderation programs including integrated / mixed farming, agroforestry, organic agriculture, and the New Theory of Agricultural Development that emphasize production for self-sufficiency, to meet the needs of farm households.

The Sustainable Agricultural Development Project of the Department of Agriculture promotes environmental awareness in rural areas, resulting in a correct and common understanding about sustainable agriculture.

Extension services are provided to community-based organizations and NGOs to develop small-scale irrigation systems with farmers; to encourage community irrigation systems; and, to examine systems for finding water for individual farms. This approach includes improving existing irrigation systems and making additional investments to increase the potential for water resource use, taking into consideration distinct local eco-agricultural and socioeconomic conditions in each region and each local area, and different alternative agricultural systems in use.

Support is given to production activities in a fully integrated manner, from cultivation to marketing, by establishing linkages with agro-industrial processing facilities and other upstream and downstream industries. Promotion and development agencies concerned are operating in the designated areas to undertake soil improvement, supervise and control product quality, from the outset to the end of the production cycle, ensuring the quality and value of products. The role of the private sector investment is emphasized in production or related industrial processing.

The Royal Forest Department is receiving support to strengthen the capacity of forestry researchers to operate botanical gardens at sites in the country with unique flora, to ensure adequate protection for plant genetic resources.

Information 

The following measures are being taken in preparation for the 21st Century:

• Accelerate undertaking of surveys and preparation of inventories of Thailand’s biological resources. Establish a database network to manage forest, soils, and coastal resources; and to control utilization of biological resources, to ensure equality in sharing their use.
• Monitor the resolution of issues related to implementation of agreements that employ non-tariff barriers to trade, particularly those issues related to the environment, restrictions on crops and livestock, and to quality and origin of products.
• Establish a database and manage natural resources as assets of the State. Resolve problems related to citizens earning their livelihood from State owned natural resources through establishment of an information system and a database system for managing forest and coastal resources. Personnel will be made ready to undertake tasks related to the sustainable, proper, and appropriate management of resources into the 21st Century.

The Natural Resources and Biodiversity Institute of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives currently is designing a web page that will have links to natural resources and agriculture databases of the line agencies of the Ministry. At this time, the Ministry has an Internet web page (www.moac.go.th) with links to those line agencies that also have web pages.

The Government has initiated the development of on-farm and off-farm programmes to collect and record indigenous knowledge.

Indicators are currently being developed in Thailand.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives is implementing a comprehensive sustainable agricultural development program to implement integrated farm management technologies and practices.

Financing 

The Department’s investment budget for the rehabilitation of degraded lands between 1993 and 1997 was approximately US$183 million.

Cooperation

Since no early warning systems are in place to monitor food supply nor any national or regional institutions exist for an early warning system, the Thai Government is cooperating with ASEAN Member Countries to develop a regional system for monitoring the food security situation.

Support is being made available from the following multilateral and bilateral agencies:

* * * 

This information was provided by the Government of Thailand to the fifth and eighth sessions of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last Update: February 2000.

Click here to link to Country and Sub-regional Information on Plant Genetic Resources of the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.
To access the FAOSTAT Data Base for information by country, item, element and year, click here:

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ATMOSPHERE

Decision-Making: Coordinating Bodies  

The Office of Environment Policy & Planning (OEPP) of the Ministry of Science, Technology & Environment (MOSTE) is primarily responsible for the protection of the atmosphere. It is a full-fledged member of the National Coordination Mechanism for Sustainable Development and serves as the Secretariat to the National Environment Board (NEB). National legislation has been reviewed partly in light of Agenda 21. Air pollution standards are reviewed continuously and are revised occasionally by the Pollution Control Department and the Ministry of Science Technology and Environment. The Hazardous Substances Control Division of the Department of Industrial Work of the Ministry of Industry is responsible for the control of chlorofluorcarbons (CFCs).  The other offices involved in decision-making for protecting the atmosphere are: Department of Energy Development and Promotion of MOSTE, National Energy Policy Office and Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board under the Office of the Prime Minister.

The NESDB supervises the work of the Office of the NESDB, and recommends suitable economic and social development strategies to the Thai Cabinet. The Board also has responsibility for screening and deliberating on various plans, programs, projects and policies submitted by the Office of the NESDB, and for making recommendations to the Thai Cabinet.  The Office of the NESDB is responsible for supplying data and submitting draft five-year national plans to the Board for consideration.  From time-to-time, the Thai Cabinet will assign work directly to the Office of the NESDB, through the Secretary-General, who is invited to participate in Cabinet meetings.   

The Prime Minister chairs the NEB. Vice-chairmen include a deputy prime minister and the Minister of Science, Technology and Environment.  The NEB is comprised of twenty additional members, including members of the private sector. The NEB submits policies and plans for environmental enhancement, protection, and conservation to the Thai Cabinet for approval; prescribes environmental quality standards; approves environmental quality management plans; recommends financial, fiscal, tax and investment promotion related to the environment; proposes amendments to laws and regulations related to the environment; supervises the Thai Environment Fund; and, submits annual reports on national environmental quality.

Article 60 of the 1997 Thai Constitution states that an individual retains the right to participate in the decision-making process of State officials in the performance of administrative functions which affect his or her rights and liberties, as provided by law.

 Articles 78 and 79 of the Thai Constitution call for the State to decentralize power to localities for the purpose of independence and self-determination of local affairs, as well as to promote public participation in the use and quality of natural resources and the environment.

Decision-Making: Legislation and Regulations

The Montreal Protocol and its Amendments were ratified by Thailand July 7, 1989. The London Amendment (1990) and Copenhagen Amendment (1992) were ratified by Thailand on June 25, 1992 and December 1, 1995 respectively. The latest report to the Montreal Protocol Secretariat were prepared in mid-1996.

According to the Thai Constitution of 1997, every person has a duty to conserve natural resources and the environment, as provide by law.

 The Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act of 1992 stipulates provisions for several aspects of air pollution control, namely:  

•  Chapter III (Environmental Protection) gives the NEB authority to establish environmental quality standards, including atmospheric ambient air standards, based upon scientific knowledge, principles, criteria, and other related evidence.  

• Chapter IV (Pollution Control), establishes a Pollution Control Committee that includes the directors-general of important departments and agencies in the transport, energy, industry, and agriculture sectors, which advises the NEB and the Minister of Science, Technology, and Environment on the setting of emission standards and the issuing of ministerial regulations related to air and noise pollution. This chapter also has a section that deals with monitoring, inspecting, and controlling pollution, including the treatment of polluted air, and equipment or instruments for controlling the discharge of polluted air.

Regulations for protection of the atmosphere: Ministerial Orders, Ministerial Decrees, and regulations include the following:

2.1 ATMOSPHERIC AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS 

1) Notification of the National Environment Board No.10, 2538 (1995) 

issued under the National Environmental Quality Act B.E. 2535 (1992) Re: Atmospheric Ambient Air Quality Standards

2) Notification of the National Environment Board No.12, 2539 (1996) 

issued under the National Environmental Quality Act B.E. 2535 (1992) Re: Acceptable Concentration of Carbon dioxide in Atmospheric Ambient Air Quality in One Hour

2.2 AIR QUALITY STANDARDS AT POINTED-SOURCE

2.2.1 Industrial Emission Standards

1) Notification of the Ministry of Industry No.2, E.B. 2536 (1993)

issued under the Factory Act issued under the Factory Act B.E. 2535 (1992) Re: Substance Limits in Industrial Emission

2) Notification of Science, Technology, and Environment

issued under the National Environmental Quality Act B.E. 2535 (1992) Re: Emission Standards for Electricity Plant

2.2.2 Motor Vehicle Emission Standards

1) Notification of Science, Technology and Environment

issued under the National Environmental Quality Act B.E. 2535 (1992) Re: Allowable Concentration Black Smoke and Carbon dioxide in Motor Vehicle emission

2) Notification of Science, Technology and Environment

issued under the National Environmental Quality Act B.E. 2535 (1992) Re: Allowable Concentration of Carbon dioxide in Motorcycle Emission

2.2.3  Boat/Ship/Vessel Emission Standards

1) Notification of the Harbor Department No. 177/2527 (1984)

Re: Usage of Fume and Noise Level Motors for Boats/Ships/Vessel

Fiscal and financial measures related to promoting protection of the atmosphere have been developed and implemented by the National Energy Policy Office. Specific measures successfully implemented have included the following:

i)      Abolition of leaded gasoline: Distribution of unleaded premium gasoline in the country since May 1991. The distribution of leaded gasoline was abolished by 1 January 1996, earlier than originally targeted.

ii)      Gasoline quality improvement:

-                                 Increase the octane of regular gasoline from 83 to 87 RON

-                                 Lower the lead content from no more than 0.40 grams/liter to no more than 0.15 grams/liter

-                                 Reduce the quantity of benzene from no more than 5 percent volume to no more than 3.5 percent volume

-                                 Classify premium gasoline into that mixed with oxygenate compounds on a compulsory basis and that mixed
             with oxygenate compounds on a voluntary basis

-                                 Enforce the mixture of additives in premium and regular gasoline

-                                 Limit the quantity of aromatic compounds to no more than 50 percent volume

iii)                 High speed diesel quality improvement in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region:

-    Lower the 90 percent distillation point from no higher than 370? C to no higher than 357?C.

-    Lower the sulfur content from no more than 1 percent to no more than 0.50 percent by weight, effective as of September 1993.

-          Lower the sulfur content from no more than 0.50 percent to no more than 0.25 percent by weight, effective           as of 1 January 1996.

-          Lower the sulfur content from no more than 0.25 percent to no more than 0.05 percent by weight, effective as of 1 January 1999.

-          Enforce the mixture of additives.

iv)                    Improvement of fuel oil available to the general public as follows :

-         Reduce the minimum viscosity of fuel oil, grades 2-4, from not lower than 81, 181, and 231, respectively to not lower than 7 centi-stokes, which is the same as that of grade 1 fuel oil.

-          Improve the quality of fuel oil distributed in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region by reducing the sulfur                     content from no more than 2.5-3.2 % by weight, to no more than 2.0 percent by weight.

-         Improve the quality of fuel oil distributed to other provinces by reducing the sulfur content from no more           than 2.5-3.2 % by weight, to no more than 2.0 % by weight, with the effective date of 1 January'98.

-         Improve the quality of fuel used by the Electric Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT) at its Bangkok           area plants, as of early 1994.

v)        Installation of a Flue Gas Desulfurization system at EGAT’s Mae Moh Thermal Power Plant in Lampang                    Province, northern Thailand, to control the level of sulfur dioxide concentration; reduced to an acceptable 1,300 micrograms/cubic meter.

Decision-Making: Strategies, Policies and Plans 

The “Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016,” provides goals, policies, and implementation guidelines for addressing air pollution.

Effective policy mechanisms exist in the form of the principal elements of the 1985 Statement of Forest Policy (based on the Thai Cabinet resolution of 1985 and still in  effect) includes the following: 

·        Forest management for environmental protection;

·        Formulation of a forest development plan for inclusion in each five year national development plan;

·        Conservation and protection of the natural environment through city planning and designating zones for forests, communities, and agriculture in each province

·        Creation of a National Forestry Policy Committee

·        Execution of extension programs to raise the level of public awareness, instill positive attitudes, and introduce proper skills on the wise use of  forest resources;

·        Promotion of reforestation;

·        Promotion of integrated wood industries;

·        Revision of the legal framework to support efficient forest resources conservation and utilization;

·        Promotion of wood energy from plantation sources as a substitute  for fossil fuels;

·        Designation of sloped land greater than 35 percent as forest land;

·        Formulation and implementation of guidelines for dealing forest degradation problems;

·        Introduction of an incentive system to promote reforestation and forest plantations by the private sector; and,

·        Human resources development and rural settlement planning in conformity with national natural resources management and conservation plans.       

Strategies related to greenhouse gas emissions are stated in the following: 

    From. the “Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016

-         Continuously monitor, check, analyze, and construct databases of overall ambient air quality and emission of air pollutants from its sources.

-         Prepare reports on the efficiency of systems or facilities and equipment for controlling designated air pollutants emissions from industries.

-        Promote and support improvement and upgrading of fuel standards to meet international standards, including promotion of ending the use of polluting fuels.

-          Formulate and improve air quality standards, both overall standards and emission standards, including designating methods to check and measure pollution, to be the same as international standards, and strictly enforce these laws against offenders.

-         Establish categories of sources of air pollution discharge that must be controlled and discharged into the atmosphere, including formulating appropriate standards for controlling air pollution from sources.

-         Designate all categories and ages of vehicles to undertake annual inspections of fuel combustion discharge systems, using an inspection system based on the service center model.

-         Support and collaborate with the private sector, associations, independent groups and all categories of mass media to participate in public relations efforts and campaigns to educate and increase understanding and awareness of hazardous threats from pollutants in the air, and be informed of enforcement of laws against all categories of polluters.

From “Thailand’s Action Plan for Sustainable Development,” March 1997, greenhouse gases are being reduced through the following:

-         Switching from fossil fuels to gases

-          Improving mass transit systems in urban areas

-          Implementing demand-side management in power use

-         Accelerating reforestation of degraded forest lands

-        Protecting conservation forests and watershed areas

From “Final Report: Environmental Quality Management Plan, Vol. 1,” December 1997: 

-         A Management Plan for Environmental Quality Enhancement (1999-2006) has been formulated in accordance with the “Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016,” based on a strategic management concept that the important natural resources and environmental problems are to be analyzed and given priorities; targeted environmental priorities to be achieved during the 8 years of operation period are to be set; policy guidelines and measures as a frame to formulate relevant programs and projects are to be determined; programs/projects and associated manpower and budgetary requirements are to be analyzed and proposed for improvements of both a physical and natural environment and quality of institutions simultaneously. Six natural resource and environmental issues are set for high priorities and emphasis:  soils and land use, water resources, natural forests and mangrove areas, air pollution, water pollution, and solid waste and sewage disposal. 

 Strategies include:

-       Rehabilitation and development of existing degraded natural resources including the atmosphere;

-        Improvement of organizations dealing with administration and management of natural resources and of the coordination structure for agencies concerned for more efficiency and unity in management

-        Amendment of laws and regulations that hinder the advancement of natural resources and environmental development and conservation

-        Launching of relevant programs to change the attitude of the Thai people on the importance of natural resources and environmental quality enhancement and conservation.

        -           Implement the Management Plan for Environmental Quality Enhancement (1999-2006) over an 
         8 year period, in two phases.

        -           Air pollutants will be maintained within the standard value in 1997, particularly for carbon monoxide.      

-        Industrial areas and communities will be require to keep their air pollutants within the standard limits   especially for sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide.

From “Thailand Environment Monitor 2000,” (World Bank, January 2000):

Policy responses by Thailand for air quality management include:

-        Comprehensive program in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region to reduce air pollution.

-         Phase-out of leaded gasoline and improvements in fuel quality to reduce emissions. Improvements in transportation planning and traffic management systems.

-          Emission standards for new and in-use motor vehicles tightened.

         -          Power plants equipped with flue gas desulfurization technology and low sulfur fuel oil used since 1992.

From “Thailand Environment Monitor 2000,” (World Bank, January 2000):

        -             Policy responses by Thailand for air quality management include:

-          Comprehensive program in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region to reduce air pollution.

-          Phase-out of leaded gasoline and improvements in fuel quality to reduce emissions. Improvements in       transportation planning and traffic management systems.

-          Emission standards for new and in-use motor vehicles tightened.

         -           Power plants equipped with flue gas desulfurization technology and low sulfur fuel oil used since 1992.

Strategies related to terrestrial and marine resource development for greenhouse gas sinks are stated in the following:

From the “Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016”

-               Promote the use of economic incentives to promote solutions to air pollution.  

-            Accelerate reforestation and rehabilitation of degraded watersheds by re-establishing natural healthy forests    using native species.

-            Formulate a legal framework to protect watersheds.

-           Promote economic incentives for reforestation on privately owned land and support participation of the private sector, NGOs, communities, and local people in development of community forests, urban forestry and fast growing tree plantations.

-            Promote development of local awareness of forest conservation.

-          Increase capacity and efficiency for forest protection and rehabilitation and conserve forest resources in national reserve forests, while monitoring the situation and changes in the integrity of the forest.

-         Preserve remaining healthy forests, those without encroachment, and prevent any other utilization of these forested areas.

-         Strengthen capacities to manage protected areas for conservation of biodiversity and establish a trust fund for protected areas management, as well as crate transboundary reserves.

Strategies related to substances that deplete the ozone layer  are stated in the following:;

From the “Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016”

-         Promote collaboration among government agencies, state enterprises, and the private sector to control and prevent air pollution, and support efficient and safe energy utilization.

-          Control and reduce utilization of substances that are a danger for atmospheric ozone layer.

-         Support study, research, and training in technologies for control and eradication of polluted air, including improving and maintaining machinery to decrease air pollution.

-         Support and collaborate with the private sector, associations, independent groups and all categories of mass media to participate in public relations efforts and campaigns to educate and increase understanding and awareness of hazardous threats from pollutants in the air, and be informed of enforcement of laws against all categories of polluters.

-         Promote the use of economic incentives to promote solutions to air pollution.

From the “Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016”

-         Promote collaboration among government agencies, state enterprises, and the private sector to control and prevent air pollution, and support efficient and safe energy utilization.

-          Control and reduce utilization of substances that are a danger for atmospheric ozone layer.

-         Support study, research, and training in technologies for control and eradication of polluted air, including improving and maintaining machinery to decrease air pollution.

-          Support and collaborate with the private sector, associations, independent groups and all categories of mass media to participate in public relations efforts and campaigns to educate and increase understanding and awareness of hazardous threats from pollutants in the air, and be informed of enforcement of laws against all categories of polluters.

-         Promote the use of economic incentives to promote solutions to air pollution.  

From “Thailand’s Action Plan for Sustainable Development,” March 1997:

-       Provide support the use of substitutes for the following:  

Notes:     ODS = ozone depleting substances

Source:  Ministry of Science, Technology, and Environment, March 1997

Strategies related to transboundary air pollution are stated in the following: 

From the “Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016”

-         Formulate prevention measures and prepare emergency plans for protection, mitigation, suppression, or abatement of emergency situations, or accidents from air pollution.

-         Strengthen capacities to manage protected areas for conservation of biodiversity and establish a trust fund for protected areas management, as well as crate transboundary reserves.

The strategies proposed for sustainable management of the forestry sector include: 

(i)                  preserve and enrich forestry resources;

(ii)                protect ecological balance;

(iii)               protect the environment to maintain the quality of life and a solid foundation for development;

(iv)              establish forestry management systems for the efficient utilization and protection of forestry resources and forest ecology for the benefit of society and local communities; and,

(v)                protect against and provide relief from natural disasters.

Short-term Goals concerning reduction of green house gas emissions include

Within the scope of the Eighth National Economic and Social Development Plan (1997-2001), the National Energy Policy Office has set the following targets to prevent and solve environmental problems resulting from energy development and utilization, namely:

-    Expand the designated areas, where the distribution of fuel oil shall have no more than 2.0 percent of sulfur content for grades 1-4 and no more than 0.5 percent for grade 5, to cover more provinces than the Bangkok Metropolitan Region.

-    Speed up the distribution of non-corrosive (low sulfur) diesel 0.05 percent by weight, by 1 January 1999, and consider improving quality specifications of high speed diesel in order to further reduce pollution (e.g., the increase of cetane number and the decrease of density).

-        Control and monitor the storage and demolition of lube oil residue and used lube oil together with promoting investment in recycling used lube oil according to an appropriate basis.

-        Enforce that oil depots, oil tank trucks, and petroleum service stations in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region and major urban centers are installed with oil vapor traps.

-        Intensify the expansion of natural gas application to commercial vehicles in order to reduce air pollution, especially in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region.

-        Encourage solid waste disposal yielding energy as a by-product to reduce problems of environmental pollution in urban areas.

-         Switching from fossil fuels to gases: Thailand now purchase electricity from Laos, has agreed to purchase gas from Myanmar, and strengthened the power agreement with Malaysia, reducing emission of CO₂ from the power sector by between 15 and 30 percent.

-         Improving mass transit systems in urban areas: Thailand is operating its first elevated train system. The expressway system, allowing more rapid flow of vehicles, is already in its third state of development. Mass transit systems in Thailand can reduce CO₂ emissions by as much as 20 to 100 thousand tons annually.

-         Implementing demand side management in power use: DSM Pilot Programs (1992-1997) saved energy and reduced GHG. By 1995, an estimated 50 MW was saved, with a reduction of 180 thousand tons of CO₂.

-          Accelerating reforestation of degraded forest lands: Since 1995, various companies and public groups have reforested more than 120 thousand hectares of land, providing carbon sinks for millions of tons of carbon per year.

Short-term Goals concerning conserving and increasing greenhouse gas sinks, are as follows: 

        Short-term Goals concerning mitigating ozone depletion are as follows:             

          With regards to mitigating transboundary air pollution, Thailand strongly supports global efforts to protect the atmosphere.  Thailand is in the process of developing policies and measures to mitigate climate change policies.  Thailand also encourages all parties to strengthen the effort to reduce GHGs. 

            Long-term (1997-2016) Goals concerning reduction of green house gas emissions include:   

-          Pollutants in ambient air will remain within designated standards, particularly carbon monoxide, beginning in the year 1997.

-         The concentration of air pollutants in industrial zones and general communities, particularly sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, will be within designated standards.

  Long-term (1997-2016) Goals concerning conserving and increasing greenhouse gas sinks are as follows:

-         Preserve at least 0.16 million hectares of mangrove forests.

-         Conserve and rehabilitate all types of coastal resources for the protection of the balance of coastal ecosystems.

-          Forests will cover 50 percent of the country, with at least 30 percent designated as conservation forest and the remaining 20 percent designated as economic forest.

  Long-term (1997-2016) Goals concerning mitigating ozone depletion are:

-          Pollutants in ambient air will remain within designated standards, particularly carbon monoxide, beginning in the year 1997.

-         The concentration of air pollutants in industrial zones and general communities, particularly sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, will be within designated standards. 

  Long-term (1997-2016) Goals concerning mitigating transboundary air pollution:

Air quality in pollution control zones and urban areas, particularly dust, will be within designated Ambient Air Quality Standards. In particular, dust contamination in general areas will have an annual average of not more than 0.1 mg/m³, and dust contamination in roadside areas will have a maximum 24-hour average concentration of not more than 0.3 mg/m³.

Decision-Making: Major Groups involvement 

NGOs have carried out studies on the negative health effects resulting from air pollution. NGOs and the private sector have participated in efforts to strengthen the scientific basis for decision-making, promote sustainable development, and prevent stratospheric ozone depletion. Agencies involved include the Department of Industrial Works, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and the World Bank.

Among the nine major groups, the groups involved in decision-making are as follows:

 The major groups which are most affected by atmospheric pollution and climate change and the ways in which they are protected from or compensated for the adverse effects of atmospheric pollution are as follows:

Programmes and Projects 

Thailand has been a party to the Montreal Protocol since 1989 and has ratified subsequent Amendments to the Protocol. Thailand, as an Article 5 country under the Protocol, is eligible for assistance from the Multilateral Fund. Two implementing agencies, the World Bank and UNDP, work in Thailand to channel funds and equipment from the Multilateral Fund to industries in Thailand. As of December 1996, under UNEP, two projects have been completed, and under the World Bank, four solvent cleaning projects have received funding. Phase II of the domestic refrigerator projects have been submitted recently for consideration by the 21st Executive Committee.

Implementation of high priority environmental projects to address air pollution include:

-          Project for the Preparation of Measures and Directions in Prevention and Resolution of Air and  Noise Pollution

-          Project for the Inspection and Monitoring of Air and Noise Pollution

-          Prescription and Improvement of Air and Noise Pollution Control Standards Project

-           Preparation and Improvement of Air and Noise Pollution Data Base System Project  

Introduced to Industrial Activities: 

Introduced to Agricultural Activities

Measures or changes that have been introduced to land-use practices in Thailand, with the aim of protecting the atmosphere, include the following:

•  In 1992, the Thai Government classified forest reserves totaling 23.5 million ha into 3 distinct zones: conservation zone, economic zone (commercial or productive forests), & agricultural zone.
•  The Thai Government intends to increase the coverage of the protected areas from 16 to19 percent of the total land area, through the addition of 50 terrestrial national parks, 15 wildlife sanctuaries, and 3 non-hunting areas.
•  Long-term sustainable development of land is being stressed through crop diversification and other programs, including organic farming and other appropriate farming systems.
• Distribution of vetiver grass and other crops by the Department of Land Development totaling 41.8 million plants, between1994 and 1996.
• Diversified agriculture is now given priority over extensive mono cropping of cash crops.
•  Policies adopted related to promoting environmentally friendly land use practices.
•  Effective use of land resources for various activities, based on their capacity and environmental conditions throughout the country.
• Conserve, rehabilitate, and develop degraded soils, and land, to be a resource base for sustainable development, by accelerating rehabilitation of infertile soils, and by mitigating soil erosion in coastal areas.
•  Conserve and utilize areas containing unique ecosystems and geology. 
•  Plans for the expansion of human settlements are reviewed by provincial level land use and provincial development committees and municipal authorities, as well as town and country planning officials, for their impacts on landscape (open space); forest lands; wetlands; and, biological diversity in coastal areas.  Provincial land use plans are reviewed and revised every 5 years by the Department of Town and Country Planning working in collaboration with provincial, district, sub-district, municipal, and sanitary district authorities, with the participation of provincial and sub-district administrative organizations and district councils.
• The Office of Environmental Policy and Planning has developed policies and guidelines for the effective use of land resources for various activities, based on their capacity and environmental conditions. The “Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016” was approved by the Thai Cabinet in 1997. Among these policies are included the following:
  •   Protect soils from degradation and loss and rehabilitate soil quality;
  •  Increase effective land use practices that are relevant to soil capacity;
  • Conserve and protect areas that are suitable for agriculture; at least 35 percent of the country’s total area, with 25 percent designated for farming and 10 percent for pasture, through the use of legal and fiscal measures to preserve and protect fertile agricultural areas;
  •    Promote and support suitable agricultural land use practices through providing incentives for agricultural development that supports natural resources and environmental conservation;
  • Through the Eighth National Economic and Social Development Plan, the Thai Government is supporting the adoption of natural agricultural systems. Biological and ecological controls are the main tools to improve productivity and assure sustainable land use. The target is for at least 20 percent of planted area to be under natural farming systems by the end of the plan period in 2001.

 Measures or changes that have been introduced to prevent further depletion of the ozone layer are: 

•   Thailand’s ratification of global conventions: i.e.

  • Vienna Convention -  1989 

  • Montreal Protocol – 1989

  • London Amendment – 1992

  • Copenhagen Amendment – 1995

  • UNFCCC – 1994

  • Basel Convention - 1998

• Formulation and Authorization by the Thai Cabinet of the Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016.

•  Formulation and Authorization by the Thai Cabinet of the Eighth National Economic and Social Development Plan, 1997-2001, with a focus on the sustainable management of natural resources and the environment for the benefit of future generations. 

• Thailand’s consumption of ozone depleting substances (ODS) per capita is less tan 0.3 kg/year

• Thailand has made significant progress in phasing out ODS; between 1992 and 1997, imports dropped by more than half to 4,514 metric tons ODP (or 5,186 metric tons). This amount will be reduced further in line with the targets established by the Montreal Protocol.

•   In 1993, a country program on ODS phase-out was prepared and approved by the Montreal Protocol.

•   The Thai Government has issued a regulation to control the import of ODS through a quota system. ODS consumption in the manufacturing sector ahs been almost completely eliminated.

Measures or changes that have been  taken to increase greenhouse gas sinks (e.g. forests, marine resources, etc.) are as follows:  

Thailand’s 8th National Economic and Social Development Plan (1997-2001) places a strong emphasis on sustainable development through strengthening the capacity of human resources for sustainable forest management.  The principal objectives of the Eighth Plan include: 

(i)    To preserve and rehabilitate conservation forests to cover at least 25 percent of land area, and to maintain mangrove forests to be not less than 160,000 hectares; and,

(ii)                (ii) To promote and expand total forest cover to 40 percent of land area.

Status 

The general impact of atmospheric changes in Thailand on human health, settlements, ecosystems, and economic activities has been minimal. No major impacts have been reported.

Thailand's government has remained active in its efforts to curb the import of various ozone depleting substances (ODSs), such as CFCs and halon, according to the provisions of its Country Programme (an official phase out schedule for the country) as well as working to motivate industries to cooperate in the phasing out process. The Department of Industrial Works (DIW) has set quotas for each of these substances (CFC quotas began in 1993 and Halon quotas began in 1996) in order to control the ODSs entering Thailand. From 1994 to 1995, the amount of CFCs imported into Thailand decreased by approximately 1800 MT and the amount of halon imported into Thailand decreased by 60 MT. Thailand has also made strides towards increasing public awareness among industries. During Ozone Day, 16 September 1996, DlW organized a seminar in which industries were given the opportunity to learn about new alternatives to ODSs as well as share their experiences of changing to non-ODS technology.

Most recently, DIW has sent to Cabinet a new regulation which bans CFCs in the production of new domestic refrigerators beginning 1 January 1997. This landmark regulation represents a conclusion to the close cooperation between DIW, the Ministry of International Trade and Industry, and the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) to improve standards for the new R-134a compressor which domestic refrigerator manufacturers in Thailand will be using in the future.

At the national level, the early detection system and the capacity to predict climate changes and fluctuations are rated as "poor" and national level capacity-building and training to perform systematic observations and assessments is rated " adequate." The Government has provided training opportunities in the area of transboundary atmospheric pollution control. The DIW, the Pollution Control Department (PCD) and the Industrial Estates Authority of Thailand (IEAT) share responsibility for improving environmental practices, including pollution control, waste minimization, wastewater treatment, and toxic waste practices in all plants, especially those with ten or more workers. In terms of transboundary atmospheric pollution, the country's capacity for observation, assessment, and research is rated as "poor," while its rating on information exchange is "good." Seminars have been held in the Aerosol and Haitian sectors, as well as on Ozone Day. These seminars discussed alternatives to ozone depleting substances.

The National Energy Policy Office has achieved the following targets to prevent and solve environmental problems resulting from energy development and utilization, namely:

-        The distribution of fuel oil has no more than 2.0 percent of sulfur content for grades 1-4 and no more than 0.5 percent for grade 5, in additional provinces including the Bangkok Metropolitan Region.

-           The distribution of non-corrosive (low sulfur) diesel 0.05 percent by weight has been available nationwide since 1 January 1999

-         Switching from fossil fuels to gases: Thailand now purchases electricity from Laos, gas from Myanmar, and strengthened the power agreement with Malaysia, reducing emission of CO₂ from the power sector by between 15 and 30 percent.

-         Improved mass transit systems in urban areas: Thailand is operating its first elevated train system. The expressway system, allowing more rapid flow of vehicles, is already in its third state of development. Mass transit systems in Thailand can reduce CO₂ emissions by as much as 20 to 100 thousand tons annually.

-         Implementing demand side management in power use: DSM Pilot Programs (1992-1997) saved energy and reduced GHG. By 1995, an estimated 50 MW was saved, with a reduction of 180 thousand tons of CO₂.

-        Accelerating reforestation of degraded forest lands: Since 1995, various companies and public groups have reforested more than 120 thousand hectares of land, providing carbon sinks for millions of tons of carbon per year.  

The Pollution Control Department reports the following:

-         Ambient led levels have dropped sharply since the phase-out of leaded gasoline. . Average curbside concentration in 1998 was 0.08 ug/m³ – almost twenty-times less than the 1991 levels of 1.5 ug/m³ 

-         The annual mean total suspended particles (TSP) at curbside averaged 480ug/m³ – from 1988-1997, exceeding the annual average standard of 330 ug/m³. In 1998, the annual mean TSP curbside concentration was 370 ug/m³, while the TSP in non-traffic dominated sites was 100 ug/m³.

-          Sulfur dioxide emissions begin to decline: In Mae Moh, 13 lignite power plants with an installed capacity of 2,626 megawatts are responsible for excessive levels of sulfur dioxide. The Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT) introduced a comprehensive policy for environmental protection. Environmental compliance of EGAT’s power generating plants has improved and emissions have begun to decline.

-         Growing number of Thai firms actively complying with ISO 14000 standards: 121 enterprises currently certified ISO 14000 compliant; 41 in the electronics sector. 

At this time, an estimated 16 to 19 percent of the land area of Thailand is covered by the protected area system, totaling approximately 14.4 million hectares (90 million rai).

According to the Department of Energy Development and Promotion, the use of ozone depleting substances (ODS) in Thailand is declining. Consumption of ODS per capita is lass than 0.3kg/year. Based on the import data, ODS consumption trebeled from 2,812 MT ODP (or 14,330 metric tons) in 1986, to 8,863 metric tons ODP (or 15,468 metric tons) in 1991.  

Thailand has made significant progress in phasing out ODS – between 1992 and 1997, imports dropped by more than half to 4,527 metric tons ODP (or 5,186 metric tons). 

Carbon dioxide emissions in Thailand have nearly doubled from 125 million tons in 1990 to about 232 million tons in 1996.

In order to conserve forest and protect biological diversity, Thailand has established a comprehensive protected areas system covering a total area of 10.6 million hectares or 20.6 percent of the land area, that is comprised of the following divisions:

To achieve reforestation and forest rehabilitation targets, all logging concessions have banned since 1989, and the following actions have been undertaken:  

To accelerate reforestation and forest rehabilitation, the Government initiated a Reforestation Campaign to Commemorate the Royal Golden Jubilee of the Coronation of the King of Thailand that was celebrated beginning in 1994.  The target for reforestation was 80,000 hectares at various sites including: along 50,000 km of roads and highways; schools; government offices; religious compounds; parks; recreation areas; riversides; around dams and reservoirs; and in degraded forests.  

Challenges

Air pollution in Thailand is most severe in Bangkok Metropolitan Region. Particulates smaller than 10 microns (PM₁₀) are now considered the priority air pollutant. The annual mean total suspended particles (TSP) at curbside averaged 480ug/m³ – from 1988-1997, exceeding the annual average standard of 330 ug/m³. In 1998, the annual mean TSP curbside concentration was 370 ug/m³, while the TSP in non-traffic dominated sites was 100 ug/m³.  

Maximum PM₁₀ levels remain above the standard of 120 ug/m³. In 1998, the daily standard forPM₁₀ was exceeded 12 percent of the time at the curbside monitors and 6 percent at non-traffic dominated sites. The major sources of PM₁₀ are industrial boilers (29 percent), motor vehicles (23 percent), and re-entrained dust from roads (33 percent). The one and eight-hour average concentrations of curbside ambient CO only occasionally exceed the standards (less than 1 percent).  

A number of recent studies have shown that air pollutants have increased mortality and mobidity, most notably in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region. One study[1] reports that the Bangkok populations has been adversely affected by increases in particulate matter – with an estimated 5,000 premature deaths annually. 

The Mae Moh valley has recorded an unusual number of deaths from heart failure and a high incidence of chronic respiratory problems. In one 1998 incident, 400 villagers were hospitalized as local SO₂ levels of 2,200 ug/m³ per hour were reported (compared to standards of 1,300 ug/m3). 

Capacity building is an integral part of technology transfer and is very important in enabling Thailand to participate effectively in the climate change convention. Climate change issues are relatively recent and very dynamic and complex. New technical issues are constantly emerging. The dynamic nature of the issues and their technical complexity require that national experts be updated continuously to ensure the latest developments are closely followed. Capacity building for national staff is vital if Thailand is to play its proper role in the global efforts to address climate change. Specific technology required to enhance the capacity of local institutions in Thailand include the following: 

·        development of local emission factors for inventory assessment in different sectors

·        skills in comprehensive vulnerability assessment

·        skills in choosing suitable mitigation and adaptation options

·        skills in dealing with CDM related issues

·        skills in operating transferred technologies 

Property rights or patent issues are a serious constraint to technology transfer, and unless these issues are resolved favorably, technology transfer could result in the erosion of financial resources of recipient countries. Capacity building also could be limited only to operations and could stifle innovation. The capacity of recipients to develop their own technology or to adapt imported technology utilizing local resources must therefore be supported.  

Among the potential barriers to technology transfer in Thailand are the recent economic crisis and the lack of information networks. The economic crisis, for instance, has forced the government to cut the budgets of public agencies, thereby seriously constraining their proposed action plans or development programs. Another potential barrier to technology transfer in Thailand is the insufficient flow of technical and financial information related to climate change technology. There is a need to regularly update and disseminate the technical and financial information available to the related agencies as well as to the general public. The regular and up-to-date information flow requires not only sufficient human resources, but also good information systems and strong international support.

From Thailand’s Action Plan for Sustainable Development, 1997:

 Problems that have arisen from the rapid expansion of conservation forest areas include:

-         Declaration of protected areas lack satisfactory demarcation; hens, the boundaries are unclear to local communities;

-         The extended boundaries often include deforested land occupied by farmers, an this has created social conflicts; and,

-         The rapid expansion of conservation forest areas was not complemented by an increase in human resources and administrative support, so protection remains inadequate.

The recent expansion of protected areas was not sufficiently supported with ground-truth surveys, and the declaration of new protected area frequently contradicts actual land use and occupation.  

From Thailand’s Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality, 1997-2016:

-        Current reforestation efforts do not compensate for deforestation; and, reforestation is undertaken using mainly using a single species.

-        The degradation and encroachment of forests is occurring for many reasons, including: 

Capacity-building, Education, Training and Awareness-raising     

On the issue of natural resources and environmental conservation, Thailand’s approach to education and public awareness comes in various ways. At the most fundamental level, there are government agencies that disseminate information on the issues to the public through different media including newspapers, radio, television, posters, and other means. Campaigns are launched intensively on appropriate occasions and public participation is solicited to the greatest extent possible. A basic knowledge of natural resources and environmental issues is emphasized in the educational system. 

Public awareness on environmental issues such as climate change is raised through a systematic dissemination of information. In addition, public awareness is enhanced through direct participation in natural resources conservation and environmental protection activities. Thailand encourages different parties, public and private, to actively participate in natural resources and environmental management, as well as in discussions and activities related to climate change. 

Since the early 1990s, Thailand has strongly supported the role of NGOs in natural resources and environmental management. Workshops and on-the-job training were organized by NGOs in many areas. Increasing concern over the rapid deterioration of the environment in recent years have also induced the private sector to actively participate in environmental conservation activities. Thus, public awareness and actions to promote environmental protection have become an interactive process. 

Since UNCED in 1992, Thailand has been in the forefront of developing countries in climate change research. Since the early 1990, studies related to climate change impacts and greenhouse gases have been conducted by various research and academic institutes. Collaborative research has been organized to exchange knowledge and experience on climate change issues.

 In 1990, a National Committee on Climate Change was established to advise on matters concerning the UNFCCC and to recommend a national policy on climate change issues, comprised of representatives from relevant government agencies, experts from academic institutes and NGO representatives.

 Greenhouse gases are being reduced through the following:

-                                 Switching from fossil fuels to gases

-                                 Improving mass transit systems in urban areas

-                                 Implementing demand-side management in power use

-                                 Accelerating reforestation of degraded forest lands

-                                 Protecting conservation forests and watershed areas

-                                 Public campaigns on global environment protection

In Thailand, NGOs that are registered with the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment are eligible for financial support from the Environment Fund to pursue development activities. The Thai government has continuously encouraged NGOs to apply for support from the Fund to carry out natural resource and environmental development projects and activities. Although there are more than 200 NGOs working in the field of natural resources and environment, only about one-half of them have been registered. These NGOs are actively coordinating with local communities and related government agencies in promoting sustainable development. 

Public awareness on natural resources conservation and environment protection also has increased through the efforts of the private sector. In cooperation with the Royal Forest Department and local communities, the private sector participated actively in the reforestation/afforestation program to celebrate the King’s 50^th year of accession to the throne. Likewise, voluntary private sector programs on green labeling and clean technology have contributed indirectly to public education and awareness of natural resources and environmental issues.

 Specific education and other awareness efforts include: 

-         The Ministry of Science, Technology, and Environment is presently cooperating with the Ministry of Education to further expand natural resources and environmental studies in the educational curricula at all levels. Twenty-one regional centers for environmental education have been established across the country to promote environmental education system.

-         Additionally, NEPO, in cooperation with the Ministry of Education, has launched programs for conserving energy and natural resources in schools to integrate energy saving and natural resources preservation awareness in the educational curricula. For instance, a 5-year Dawn Project was launched in 1997 with a total budget of nearly 300 million baht to promote education in energy and natural resources conservation at the schools.

-        The Royal Thai Government has encouraged students to exchange experiences and information through an Internet website called SchoolNet. Managed by the NECTEC. SchoolNet, the first online educational resource in Asia, was launched in Thailand in 1995 to support human resource development under the 8^th Plan. The project provided Internet access to 2,500 secondary schools across the country by 1999, and aims to cover an additional 5,000 primary and the vocational schools by 2000. The project has received strong support from private companies and public enterprises. There are currently more than 1,300 schools registered as the members of the network.

During the 7^th Plan period, Thailand concentrated on strengthening local manpower in science and technology to support national development. The country also promoted the use of new technologies to increase industrial and agricultural productivity and used fiscal policy measures to promote environmentally friendly technologies. Total investment in the direct procurement of technology, machines, and equipment under the 7^th National Plan was several billion baht[2]. 

Technology transfer in the context of climate change must be viewed differently from the process of technology transfer that occurs in normal trading and commercial activities. Technology transfer in the climate change context must be perceived within the principle of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol. Serious consideration must therefore be given to equity issues that could arise from climate change impacts or mitigation measures. The developed countries that are mainly responsible for the present accumulation of GHGs in the atmosphere and that are highly capable of adapting to climate change must assist less developed ones like Thailand to cope with the phenomena. Thus the transfer of technology through market mechanisms alone will not be sufficient, and some form of market intervention is necessary. In particular, barriers to technology transfer should be eliminated to enhance favorable conditions. 

In fact, cooperation in climate change research is accompanied by technological transfer and exchange of knowledge to a certain extent. Countries that participate in climate change research, in one way or another, gain certain knowledge and skills. While undertaking climate change research and development, Thailand has been able to access “soft technologies” in terms of improved research methodologies. Thailand also has accumulated knowledge and experience in the Activities Implemented Jointly (AIJ) pilot phase. 

Thailand has participated actively in the climate change convention process and has established basic institutional structures, such as a national focal point and a national committee, to handle climate change issues. The institutional setting in Thailand is therefore generally supportive of participation in climate change activities, including the transfer of technology. The domestic political environment is also conducive to international co-operation.

During the 7^th Plan period, Thailand concentrated on strengthening local manpower in science and technology to support national development. The country also promoted the use of new technologies to increase industrial and agricultural productivity and used fiscal policy measures to promote environmentally friendly technologies. Total investment in the direct procurement of technology, machines, and equipment under the 7^th National Plan was several billion baht[3]. 

Technology transfer in the context of climate change must be viewed differently from the process of technology transfer that occurs in normal trading and commercial activities. Technology transfer in the climate change context must be perceived within the principle of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol. Serious consideration must therefore be given to equity issues that could arise from climate change impacts or mitigation measures. The developed countries that are mainly responsible for the present accumulation of GHGs in the atmosphere and that are highly capable of adapting to climate change must assist less developed ones like Thailand to cope with the phenomena. Thus the transfer of technology through market mechanisms alone will not be sufficient, and some form of market intervention is necessary. In particular, barriers to technology transfer should be eliminated to enhance favorable conditions. 

In fact, cooperation in climate change research is accompanied by technological transfer and exchange of knowledge to a certain extent. Countries that participate in climate change research, in one way or another, gain certain knowledge and skills. While undertaking climate change research and development, Thailand has been able to access “soft technologies” in terms of improved research methodologies. Thailand also has accumulated knowledge and experience in the Activities Implemented Jointly (AIJ) pilot phase. 

 The institutional setting in Thailand is therefore generally supportive of participation in climate change activities, including the transfer of technology. The domestic political environment is also conducive to international co-operation.

Information 

The 1994 national inventory of greenhouse gasses (GHGs) represents the second official inventory of GHGs in Thailand. The first official inventory was undertaken for 1990 and was prepared in 1997. Prior to the 1990 inventory, however, the Thai government commissioned a study to assist in its preparation for the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in June 1992. The study was conducted jointly by the Thailand Development Research Institute (TDRI) and the Thailand Environment Institute (TEI). Besides presenting a 1989 inventory of GHGs, the joint TDRI/TEI study evaluated some of the potential impacts of global warming on Thailand and identified various options to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

 Thailand’s 1994 inventory of greenhouse gases (GHGs) is the result of recent studies conducted by various researchers throughout the country. In estimating the 1994 GHG inventory, the researchers used the 1996 IPCC Revised Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (IPCC, 1997). To the extent possible, the researchers used local activity data to substitute for the default data recommended by the IPCC, thus making the latest estimates more accurate and relevant to the country. 

In the agriculture sector, despite the use of local values for emission factors, cropping periods and harvesting area, the uncertainty of methane estimates remains high. This is due mainly to the extreme spatial and temporal variability of methane fluxes throughout the cropping season; soil characteristics; water and crop management practices; organic matter amendments; and, fertilizer application. Actual measurements of methane emissions conducted in four provinces in different regions of Thailand indicate a wide divergence in results. 

The measurement of enteric methane emitted could have been conducted directly through use of a facemask or respiratory chamber. But in the absence of special facilities and instrumentation, the amount of methane gas produced was indirectly calculated by using emission factors that estimate the amount of energy intake that is converted into methane. The disposal of wastes and the processes employed to treat wastes also give rise to methane, which is produced via anaerobic decomposition of organic matter. The amount of methane emitted therefore depends mainly on the physical characteristics of waste and the anaerobic activities in the waste disposal system and treatment process. Earlier estimates of the amount of CH₄ emissions from solid waste disposal indicated much higher figures than is currently estimated. This is due to earlier estimates used to develop theoretical gas yields based on the mass balance approach. These estimates did not incorporate any time factor into the methodology and did not take into account various categories and ages of disposal sites. Present estimates, on the other hand, use the theoretical first-order kinetics method that take into consideration the long period of release, rather than the instantaneous emissions, of methane.  

The estimate of methane emissions from solid waste disposal and wastewater handling has benefited greatly from the availability of more accurate statistics and expanding coverage. The latest estimates of emissions from wastewater treatment, for example, are based on the actual number of factories that use anaerobic wastewater treatment facilities. Moreover, the latest methodology for estimating CH₄ emissions from industrial wastewater treatment facilities distinguishes between wastewater and sludge handling systems, thus eliminating the previously substanstial emissions from sludge.  It also indicates the degradable organic component and identifies the fraction of organic sludge handled by drying and composting, a method that eliminates the emissions from sludge handling.

 The amounts of CO₂ emitted and sequestered from forests are very difficult to estimate because of complex biological factors and the lack of reliable data, especially with regard to the rate of change of land use, the use of converted forest land, and the biomass density of forests. The amounts of GHGs emitted and sequestered in Thailand during 1994 were estimated using the currently available methodologies developed by the IPCC. Local activity data were used to the maximum extent possible. The IPCC methodology was modified, under specific assumptions, in order to improve the accuracy of estimates and to ensure an accurate reflection of conditions prevailing in local forests. Apart from the difficulty of estimating the area of abandoned land due to lack of inventory data on land use in the past, assumptions were made regarding the amount of carbon uptake from trees or crops planted on abandoned land. Biomass accumulation was also assumed to be faster during the first 20 years and slower thereafter, so that forests are restored to 20 percent of original forest biomass during the first twenty years and reach 80 percent in 100 years.  

Due to the currently limited use of Internet facilities in Thailand, scientific data and information on the protection of the atmosphere and issues concerning climate changes are made available to potential users and decision makers at the national level through annual reports prepared by line agencies of the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Environment in document form. Inter-active database systems being developed that will make data available on the Internet. In addition, periodic evaluations and research reports are produced by concerned agencies and are made available to the public and relevant individuals at the national level.  

Data on Ambient Air Quality Standards and other related information for Thailand are available on the World Wide Web Site of the Department of Environmental Quality Promotion: http://www.deqp.go.th/english/greendata/index_greendata.htm.

Due to the currently limited use of Internet facilities in Thailand, scientific data and information on the protection of the atmosphere and issues concerning climate changes are made available to potential users and decision makers at the national level through annual reports prepared by line agencies of the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Environment in document form. Inter-active database systems being developed that will make data available on the Internet. In addition, periodic evaluations and research reports are produced by concerned agencies and are made available to the public and relevant individuals at the national level.  

Data on Ambient Air Quality Standards and other related information for Thailand are available on the World Wide Web Site of the Department of Environmental Quality Promotion: http://www.deqp.go.th/english/greendata/index_greendata.htm.

Research and Technologies 

Several Thai research and development organizations are supporting technology transfer and capacity building. The National Science and Technology Development Agency is an important promoter of research and development in the areas of engineering, science and technology that are critical to the country’s development. The Environmental Research and Training Center of the Department of Environmental Quality Promotion provides support for environmental training and promotes research related to climate change related. Other governmental and non-government research and development institutes concerned with various aspects of climate change issues include: the National Research Council, the National Research Fund, the Thailand Productivity Center, and the Thailand Institute for Scientific and Technological Research.      

Thailand is funding the following research programs aimed at promoting a better understanding of the processes and consequences of changes in the atmosphere: 

-                                 Development Project for Appropriate Technology for Treatment and Control of Air Pollution, being implemented by the following organizations: 

•              National Research Council of Thailand

•          Department of Environmental Quality Promotion

•          Pollution Control Department

•         Department of land Transport

•         Royal Thai Police Department

•         Thai Industrial Standards Institute

•         National Energy Policy Office

•         Department of Commercial Registration

-                                 Development Project for Clean Technology for Factories, being implemented by the following organizations:

•  Department of Industrial Works

•   Pollution Control Department

•  Department of Environmental Quality Promotion

-                                 Project for the Development of Economic Measures to Reduce Pollution, being implemented by the following organizations:

•  Department of Industrial Works

• Pollution Control Department

• Ministry of University Affairs

• Private Sector

-                                 Project for Readiness in the Application of Economic Principles in the Management of Industrial Pollution, being implemented by the Department of Industrial Works 

-                                 Project for the Preparation of Measures and Directions in Prevention and Resolution of Air and Noise Pollution, being implemented by the following organizations:

 -                                 Project for Inspection and Monitoring Air and Noise Pollution, being implemented by the following organizations:

  -   Project for Prescription and Improvement of Air and Noise Pollution Control Standards, being implemented by the following organizations:

-           Project for the Preparation and Improvement of Air and Noise Pollution Database, being implemented by thefollowing organizations:

•  Pollution Control Department

•  Department of Land Transport

•  Harbor Department

•  Department of Aviation

•  Department of Environmental Quality Promotion

Various types of greenhouse gases are emitted from industrial production processes other than energy combustion activities. These processes involve the chemical or physical transformation of raw materials into intermediate or final products. Thus the amounts and types of GHGs emitted depend on the quantities of raw materials used as well as the nature and conversion efficiency of the manufacturing process. 

Using the mass balance approach to estimating the emission factors for different types of manufacturing processes, GHG emissions were estimated for seven major industries, namely, cement, lime, glass, pulp and paper, iron and steel, petrochemicals, and food and beverage industries. 

In addition, many Thai researchers have examined possible mitigation measures to reduce GHG emissions. Some were able to quantify the potential for GHG emissions reduction, while others were limited only to identifying mitigation options and did not estimate the amount that could be reduced through each measure. In several cases, the suggested mitigation measures were based on studies conducted elsewhere. Hence, their suitability, acceptability and effectiveness to local conditions have yet to be proven. 

The potential mitigation options identified ranged from the generation of electricity from landfills to the chemical treatment of feeds for ruminants. Some were technology based, while others, like the shift from the transplanting of rice seedlings to the direct seeding method in rice cultivation, involved a change in cultural practices. Some estimates showed that GHG emissions could be reduced by as much as 70-80 percent. The potential for reduction was even much larger when the options were combined. Related to rice cultivation, for instance, improved water management and the use of pre-fermented organic matter instead of green manure could reduce total methane emissions by up to 30 percent.

Thailand has tried all means available to promote international co-operation and technology transfer. To support environmental protection, Thailand is now critically evaluating the use of fiscal mechanisms, i.e., environmental taxes through the application of “Polluter Pays Principle” and “User Pays Principle” in the management of natural resources and the environment. At the regional level, Thailand fully supports ASEAN initiatives on climate change.  

The continued development of research and conduct of policy studies pave the way for national initiatives in setting the agenda for research and development related to climate change. Through capacity building and technological transfer, developing countries like Thailand is attempting to meaningfully identify priorities and needs with respect to sustainable development. In this way, the mitigation or adaptation options identified could easily be integrated into the national economic and social development process. 

As domestic development initiatives tend to encounter less resistance than those originating externally, the maximum utilization of local expertise is underway.  

Thailand promoting the use of well-regulated and modern technology to establish databases showing the spread of pollution and to standarize environmental management. 

Research on the development and use of ethanol is taking place among a consortium of academic institutions in Thailand.

The main constraints to developing a more accurate and reliable inventory of greenhouse gases in Thailand are the absence of local emission factors for the key sectors such as agriculture, energy and forests, and the lack of sufficient data for inventory estimation. Thailand also has encountered a problem of identifying people to undertake inventory work on a regular basis. The more complex the inventory methodology, the more difficult it is to find researchers to undertake the work. 

The determination of local emission factors requires intensive research work. While Thailand has conducted extensive research work on emission factors for the rice sector, there is a need to develop local emission factors for other sectors, including livestock, energy, and wastes. The setting up of an international network for information and technological exchange could facilitate this work. Building the capacity of the staff of relevant agencies to update the GHG inventory on regular basis also is vital to enhancing national inventory work.

The national greenhouse gases inventory shows the status of emissions and provides the background for development of mitigation options. In the case of Thailand, mitigation options were identified mainly based on their technical potential, and the so-called “no-regrets” options were used to specify the more practical alternatives for Thailand. The choice of “no-regrets” options has long been adopted as Thailand’s main strategy for climate change. These options do not add higher costs to a particular activity but contribute to climate change benefits. They also conform to Thailand’s sustainable development goals.  

Assessment of vulnerability to climate change and adaptation measures in Thailand is at an early stage of development. Still, technological improvement is critically needed. Experience suggests that the development of regional or sub-regional climate models that reduce the level of uncertainty is vital for reliable vulnerability analysis. Specific models to analyze the vulnerability of major areas such as rice, water resources, forests, coastal resources and health also must be developed to make reasonable scenario assessments. The critical absence of technology in these areas highlights the importance of transferring soft technology. 

Technology transfer is required at all stages of research and development of climate change issues. Thailand has yet to develop experience, knowledge, skills and capacity not only to inventory greenhouse gases, but also to design methods for vulnerability assessment as well as in the conduct of vulnerability assessment itself. Many of the issues cut across several sectors and demand experts in various fields. The implementation of a climate change agreement also requires building different aspects of institutional capacity.

Financing 

Funds and equipment from the multilateral fund of the Montreal Protocol are channeled through implementing agencies such as the World Bank and UNDP. These funds and equipment are used to assist industries in Thailand to change to non-ODS technology.

The percentage of the Thai Government’s budget for the Eighth National Economic and Social Development Plan (1997-2001) allocated to protection of the atmosphere is approximately three percent.

 -                     Sources from outside the country.

 Bilateral and multilateral technical cooperation for climate change in Thailand began in the early 1990s. Most of the assistance was in the form of so-called “soft technologies” to enable Thailand to calculate GHG emissions, and to inventory and identify mitigation options. Some assistance also was used to increase the capacity of local institutions to assess climate change impacts and adaptation options. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is the principal source of multilateral funding used to address problems arising from climate change. The GEF has channeled financial support through the ADB, UNDP, UNEP or the World Bank. The amount of assistance, however, has been relatively small compared to the needs and the number of interested ODA.

 Total Assistance to Thailand by Donor Governments, 1993-1997 (US$ thousand) 

Source:  National Communication to the UNFCCC, 2000

 The Seventh and Eighth National Economic and Social Development Plans aimed at strengthening human resources in science and technology to support national development, at promoting the adoption of new technology to increase industrial and agricultural productivity, and at increasing the budget for science and technological development.   

In 1991, the National Science and Technology Department Authority (NSTDA) was established with the mission of supporting research, development, and engineering in scientific and technological spheres. The NSTDA has three main goals:  (i) to support public sector research, development and engineering projects; (ii) to support technological strengthening in the private sector, and (iii) to offer scholarships in the fields of science and technology for study abroad and locally. More than one billion baht was allocated to the NSTDA in 1996. 

In addition to NSTDA, the Chulabhorn Research Institute, an autonomous, multidisciplinary institute, which was established in 1987, has been in the forefront in basic as well as applied scientific research development in Thailand.  

To develop capacity building for small and medium scale industries, the Ministry of Industry and the Board of Investment Unit for Industrial Linkage Development organised training workshops in 18 provinces to strengthen the capacity of local entrepreneurs. The industrial development linkage project also established to facilitate technological linkages between industries. Support has been provided to the industries to obtain access to technologies from the international market. 

Cooperation

The Thai Government has not taken any initiative within the framework of the United Nations and its regional commissions to convene a regional conference on transportation and the environment, except for participating in a few seminars on "Vehicle Emission Control", sponsored by the World Bank. In the area of transboundary atmospheric pollution, regional, multilateral and bilateral agreements are being approved and discussed. United Nations bodies and intergovernmental organizations have participated in efforts to strengthen the scientific basis for decision making, promote sustainable development, prevent stratospheric ozone depletion, and reduce transboundary atmospheric pollution. There was a Trilateral Conference between the Department of Industrial Works (Thailand), the United States Environmental Protection Agency, and the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry on CFCs.

Thailand has participated actively in the climate change convention process and has established basic institutional structures, such as a national focal point and a national committee, to handle climate change issues.

Bilateral and multilateral technical cooperation for climate change in Thailand began in the early 1990s. Most of the assistance was in the form of so-called “soft technologies” to enable Thailand to calculate GHG emissions, and to inventory and identify mitigation options. Some assistance also was used to increase the capacity of local institutions to assess climate change impacts and adaptation options. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is the principal source of multilateral funding used to address problems arising from climate change. The GEF has channeled financial support through the ADB, UNDP, UNEP or the World Bank. The amount of assistance, however, has been relatively small compared to the needs and the number of interested ODA.

Total Assistance to Thailand by Donor Governments, 1993-1997 (US$ thousand)

Source:  National Communication to the UNFCCC, 2000

The progress Thailand has made in ratifying international treaties related to the protection of the atmosphere is as follo

    The 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change:

- Thailand ratified in 1994.

    1997 Kyoto Protocol:   

                        - Under consideration. 

    1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, as amended: