Agenda 21 - South Africa

This information is based on South Africa's submission to the 5th Session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, April 1997. Last update: 1 April 1997

TRADE

Institutional responsibility in this area lies within three ministries: that for the Southern African Development Community (SADC), Foreign Affairs, and Trade and Industry.

Generally, exports in certain sectors have increased over the past 10 years, as have environmental policy and regulatory initiatives from the Government. Examples include the National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998, development of a policy on Integrated Pollution Control and Waste Management, a policy on Conservation and Sustainable Utilisation of South Africa's Biological Diversity and the National Water Act 36 of 1998, amongst others.

Environmental Impact Assessment addresses environmental issues associated with specific development proposals. Regulations passed under the Environment Conservation Act 73 of 1989 require identified activities to go through an EIA process. The recently adopted National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998 makes it a requirement that an environmental assessment be carried out in relation to any activity, which requires legal authorisation if it may significantly impact on the environment.

The establishment and expansion of many export-induced industrial activities will require EIAs to be completed. For example, for the Maputo Development Corridor linking Gauteng and Maputo, EIAs were undertaken to evaluate the conveyance of magnetite, the location of the plant processing and industrial processes. EIAs are also applicable to various petrochemical projects, which will add substantially to the petrochemical cluster in the Highveld Ridge area of Mpumalanga and increase the range of upstream and downstream opportunities.

Concerning possible negative impacts of trade on environment, it is to be noted that environmental legislation is undergoing significant reform in South Africa. The driving force behind this, tough, is the need to support the overall national objective of sustainable development which has the primary goal of alleviation poverty and fulfillment of basic human needs.

Environmental legislative reform is thus geared towards supporting the primary objective. At the same time, export orientated sectors are becoming increasingly aware of the potential barriers which inadequate environmental standards present to trade and are seeking to improve environmental performance.

Policies have been developed in a wide range of areas but have yet to be translated into legislative reform. Changes are intended to uphold constitutional rights, to promote principles of sustainable development, and to ensure meaningful involvement of civil society. The changes signify a shift to a more holistic and co-ordinated approach to environmental issues. South Africa's commitment to international treaties (e.g. CITES) has also had a direct bearing on some of the changes in the legislation.

Legislation specific to natural resources management are designed to ameliorate possible negative effects of trade based on the resources. Examples include:

South Africa has not agreed to the derogation of any specific environmental legislation or regulation as an inducement to foreign direct investment.

In the past 10 years, exports as a percentage of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and imports as a percentage of Gross Domestic Expenditure (GDE) have both increased. In 1996, the Government adopted a Macroeconomic strategy titled the Growth, Employment and Redistribution Development Programme (GEAR). This strategy reinforced government policy to open up the economy to international competition and promote exports.

South Africa is developing a pro-active strategic approach to planning development within a sustainable development framework. The approach is known as Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA). Such assessment seeks to identify opportunities and constraints for development provided by the natural and social environments as well as mechanisms to mitigate negative impacts. SEAs are not legally required but are being carried out on a voluntary basis by national, provincial and local government and other organisations to assist with development planning and environmental management.

The decision not to award mining concessions in St Lucia in Zululand, north of Durban, is viewed as a boost to ecotourism in that part of the country. The conservation of the Greater St Lucia Lake, forested sand dunes and wetland plays an important role in the attraction of tourists to the area. This will, in turn, stimulate job creation, which will ultimately result in economic growth, provided ecotourism is developed and managed in a sustainable development way.

There is a number of industrial-led initiatives. The South African industry is responding to international trends towards environmental responsibility. Initiatives include:

Investment in infrastructure to provide electricity, water and sanitation services is an important factor in poverty alleviation. For example, access to electricity extends the potential for income generating activity, and access to water increase the time women have to devote to activities other than fetching water from long distances.

In response to the urgent need for decent housing, approximately 400 000 subsidised houses for low-income earners were built or under construction between 1994 and 1997, while another 700 000 subsidies were allocated by end of 1998. This will contribute to the provision of adequate housing under formal urban controls and reduce the negative effects of land invasions and informal settlement on the natural environment.

Investments by the Development Bank of South Africa in 1998/9, include various projects such as the upgrade of stormwater drainage systems and electrification. A project by the DBSA, providing access to potable water, included training of local manpower, creating employment during the execution of the project. Prepaid meters are being installed and consumers will pay R4/kl of water, as opposed to R100/kl for potable water normally supplied by donkey cart.

Eskom is also investing R50 million per year in the electrification of schools, clinics and community development activities. The provision of electricity leads to job creation and a subsequent rise in disposable income in a community. Electrification of schools and houses may lead to increased education levels and increased productivity levels.

The 1998 Presidential Jobs Summit and other job creation initiatives gave rise to a number of programmes to reduce unemployment. For example, the tourism industry has been targeted to create additional 450,000 jobs by 2005. This will be achieved through a combination of public and private investment in tourism. Government, business and the trade unions have separate and joint programmes to create jobs while possible restrictive labour laws are under review. This will contribute to a reduction in poverty, and its associated demands on natural resources. The launch of a R1 billion fund for job creation by the private sector should also go a long way in improving trade and investment and alleviating poverty.

In response to the occurrence of customs fraud, the Ministry of Safety and Security has adopted the Border Control Project, managed by the South African Revenue Services (SARS) and the Department of Home Affairs. Their action is aimed at combating escalating cross-border criminal and trade abuses.

Due to environmental monitoring systems at national level still being developed, no conclusive statement regarding linkages between environmental hot spots and export-induced production can be made.

The changes in exports and the consequent changes in domestic production for South Africa's main economic sectors are shown in Table 1. While the information on changes in exports and production patterns is readily available, information between them and specific environmental 'hot-spots' is difficult to obtain.

Although no direct institutional mechanism exists to identify "Hot spots" particularly in relation to trade and investment, a number of initiatives to collect environmental information exists or have recently been initiated.

Inequality, skewed distribution of economic resources and mass unemployment are major causes of poverty in South Africa. Since 1993, positive economic growth rates have not led to formal employment generation in the non-agricultural sectors. Formal non-agricultural employment was 7% lower in 1996 than in 1990. These recent trends in employment mark a change from historical patterns, where employment tended to increase as production increased, although by smaller proportions. The tendency for formal employment to decline in years where GDP is growing, has led some to conclude that South Africa is experiencing jobless growth. It might be more accurate to say that job creation in some sectors has been more than outweighed by job losses in others. There is also some evidence of job creation that has not been captured in the statistics, including jobs in the informal sector.

Changes in employment, compared to the yearly investment, as well as annual production changes, are reflected in the table below.

From this table it can be seen that employment in most sectors has decreased from 1991 to 1996.

Increases of more than 1% in domestic production as a result of increases in trade for the 1991-1996 period were experienced by the following sectors:

Decreases of more than 1% in domestic production as a result of decreases in trade for the 1991-1996 period were experienced by the following sector:

Investment is one of the key factors in economic growth. As a percentage of GDP, gross domestic fixed investment (GDFI) fell from an average of 27% during the 1970s to an average of around 17% during the first half of the 1990s. Investment levels have increased over the past two years, especially in manufacturing. Although investment has risen as a proportion of GDP, it remains far below the levels experienced in the mid-1980s.

Sectors that have experienced increases in investment during the 1991-1996 period are:

Primary sector contribution to GDP has fallen from 11.5 percent to 10.1 percent in the last decade. Secondary sector contribution has also fallen from 26.5 percent to 24.5 percent over the same period. The contribution of the tertiary sector, in contrast, has increased from 53.4 percent to 56.6 percent.

The table below illustrates the contribution of the various sectors to the South African economy (R million, at constant 1995 prices) and annualised percentage change

Strongest growth sectors over the last decade include electricity (2.9 % per annum), transport (4.0 percent per annum) and financial and related services (2.7 % per annum).

Agriculture: Agriculture has indicated growth in all aspects during the 1991 to 1996 period. The conversion of natural vegetation to agricultural crops has shown a sharp increase per year between 1930 and 1970 due to the widespread availability of tractors, fertiliser and pest control, national land policies, and supported prices for farm produce. South Africa has a limited area of high-quality agricultural land (only 12 % is economically cultivatable under current circumstances) and since the 1970s there has been a small net conversion (stabilised at around 10 500 thousand hectares).

Mining: Trends in production can also be seen in the mining sector, which had declined in each of the four quarters of 1998, declined further at an annualised rate of 2 % in the first quarter of 1999. Gold production, in particular, declined as producers reacted to sustained cost pressures and a relatively static gold price. Production volumes in the other branches of the mining sector, especially diamond, platinum and coal mining, rose slightly as these mines benefited from more stable international commodity prices and uncertain supplies of diamonds and platinum from the Russian Federation.

A decline in the real value added by the secondary sectors of the economy during the middle quarters of 1998 was followed by modest increases in the fourth quarter of 1998 and in the first quarter of 1999. The manufacturing sector roughly maintained its slight growth momentum of the fourth quarter of 1998, but output growth in the utilities sector (i.e. the sector supplying electricity, gas and water) accelerated somewhat in the first quarter of 1999. This small acceleration arose because domestic activity became slightly less subdued than before and because the demand for electricity from neighboring countries picked up somewhat. Real value added by the construction sector responded in delayed fashion to the third-quarter rise in home mortgage rates and declined in the first quarter of 1999.

The dual nature of the South African economy implies a diverse demand for food from the middle to upper income levels there is increasingly a demand for healthier, convenient quality foods, whilst the poorer sections of the population still demand staple foods to be provided at low prices. These divergent trends have important implications for each of the food processing sub-sectors.

Almost 60% of the grain milling industry's output is sold to private households. Maize and wheat, which are the country's staple crops, are consumed in the form of bread and maize meal, respectively. As consumer income rises, the demand for maize meal tends to decline whilst other grains gain preference. Besides personal consumption, 29% of sales are made to food processing sub-sectors.

The signing of the Trade Protocol between SADC countries could create a large export market for food processors as trade between these countries is freed and non-tariff barriers are removed.

Activity in the tertiary sector slowed down perceptibly from an annualised growth of 2.5 % in the second quarter of 1998 to 0.5 % in the fourth quarter and 1 % in the first quarter of 1999. The growth in real value added by the sector finance, insurance, real-estate and business services slowed down from an annualised rate of 2 % in the fourth quarter of 1998 to 1.5 % in the first quarter of 1999, most notably because of a decline in the number of real-estate transactions concluded. The rapid expansion of telecommunication services decelerated in the first quarter of 1999 and the real value added by the transportation and communication sector rose at an annualised rate of 3 %, compared with a growth of 3.5 % in the fourth quarter of 1998.

Agriculture contributes the most to carbon dioxide, nitric oxide and volatile organic carbon, while agricultural activities contribute the most to methane (48% of the national total) and nitrous oxide (78% of the national total) emissions. The main sources of the farmer are cattle and sheep. The main source of the nitrous oxide is the use of nitrogen fertilisers.

The possibility exists that the use of genetically engineered crop types could lead to unanticipated impacts in agriculture and water use.

Mining: Trends in oil and coal consumption (fossil fuel burning) is the main source of carbon dioxide, which is currently responsible for more than 60%, compared to methane which is responsible for 20% and nitrous oxide together with chlorofluorocarbons and ozone for the remaining 20% of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Water vapour is the largest contributor to the natural greenhouse effect in South Africa. The values are expressed in energy terms for easy comparison. Note that during the 1980s, due to the international oil embargo against South Africa, coal was substituted for oil as an energy source. After 1994 this trend reversed itself. The current growth rate in energy consumption, which relates directly to the emissions of the gases in question is approximately 5% per annum as is the trend in other developing countries.

The total emissions of sulphur dioxide from the energy sector were fairly stable during the 1990s and remained at about 1.7 kilotons from 1989 to 1993, despite the overall rise in energy production. This is due to management of coal quality and a small degree of sulphur dioxide removal from the stack emissions.

The current gold sales by Britain have negative effects on gold producing countries, especially those in southern Africa. It was noted that 30 out of the 41 countries that have been designated highly indebted are either gold producers or have a big portion of their workforce dependent on income from gold producing countries (such as Mozambique and Lesotho). These will have major impacts on the environment as retrenched workers move back to rural areas, having to make a living from the land.

A recent phenomena in the South African economy since 1994 is the increasing average year-on-year growth recorded in secondary sector activities, most notably manufacturing and construction, where average year-on-year growth has passed the long held first place of tertiary activities. This underlines the conclusion that manufacturing-related pollution and waste is likely to increase if uncontrolled.

Much of the production in the manufacturing sector depends on the import of intermediate goods and services. Negative trade relations will therefore have a detrimental impact on this sector. Increases in exports in the manufacturing sector over the last 9 years (% annual growth) were the most in the furniture sector, followed by the electrical sector, with the petroleum sector being ranked third. The electricity-generating sector contributes about 47 percent of total CO emissions and 41 percent of NOx emissions. The petroleum sector will also have environmental impacts as a result of wastes being generated from this sector.

The food-processing sector is driven by a number of factors, including climatic conditions, overall economic growth, private consumption expenditure and the continued deregulation and liberalisation of the agricultural sector. This process of deregulation and liberation has raised competitive pressures, which, in turn, have accelerated the restructuring of the food processing industries. Import control on almost all agricultural products has now been lifted and replaced by import tariffs, whilst the new Agriculture Marketing Act, which was promulgated early in 1997, resulted in the dismantling of agricultural marketing boards. The food sector's strong backward linkages with the agricultural sector imply that agricultural output and prices will have a direct impact on its own competitiveness.

The transport sector, which experienced a growth of 4% per annum over the last decade, contributes about 44 percent of total NOx emissions, 48 percent of CO emissions and 45 percent of total national volatile organic emissions (VOC). The building of new roads and the maintenance of existing roads naturally place great pressure on the environment and can lead to the disturbance of sensitive ecosystems. Emphasis on road transport also depends heavily on petrol, diesel, and oil, and contributes to pollution. Countries in the Northern Hemisphere have launched initiatives to encourage the use of rail transport. Road vehicles, rather than trains or aircraft, contribute the most to the total carbon dioxide, nitric oxide and volatile organic carbon emissions from the transport sector (94%, 53% and 89% respectively). Motor traffic also contributes to lead emissions, especially in urban areas. The introduction of compulsory environmental impact studies for new road developments, however, is regarded as an important attempt towards sustainable development

A rise in income and standard of living of the poor may lead to increased pressure on the environment in other ways, as it may lead to increased demand for consumer goods. The production of consumer goods not only utilises material directly or indirectly taken from the environment, but the production process itself generates waste and pollutants. Certain consumer goods, such as motor cars and electrical appliances, utilise energy sources that contribute to greenhouse gases. Illustrative of this point is the increase in the number of motor cars on South African roads. Although the overall sales of new cars have dropped in recent years, the number of cars on South Africa's roads has increased because older cars are not being taken off the roads. Currently, 6.55 million vehicles are registered, of which 3.8 million are passenger vehicles. Ten years ago, there were about 5 million motor vehicles registered, of which 3.3 million were passenger cars. More cars on the roads mean an increase in fuel emissions into the atmosphere. As the average age of South African motor vehicles is estimated to be around 12 years, the country does not share in the benefits of the greater fuel efficiency of new motor vehicles. The sale of fuel has increased steadily from 1994-1998. Petrol sales have increased from 9 629 millions of litres to 10 883 millions of litres, while the sales of diesel have increased from 5 110 millions of litres to 5 959 millions of litres.

Although the depreciation works in the favour of domestic producers (by making imports expensive relative to exports, and by making South African exports cheap relative to other producers), the higher rand prices of imported goods have an impact on inflation. This is because key inputs (including machinery, parts and oil) are imported.

On an international scale, South Africa has a low score on the United Nations human development index (HDI), which provides a composite measure of human development and includes income, life expectancy and adult literacy. According to this measure, in 1993 (latest date for which data are available) South Africa occupied the 100th place out of a total of 174 countries, largely because of the relatively poor performance with regard to both adult literacy and life expectancy. As a result, South Africa falls within the group of countries classified by the United Nations as having medium human development (with an HDI in the range 0,500-0,799). By comparison, countries with a similar level of per capita income have almost all achieved a substantially higher level of human development and are classified by the UN in the higher human development category, with an HDI of above 0,799.

Concerning other issues that are of importance, and that constitute challenges or constraints in trade related activities, the role of organised labour is to be noted: protracted periods of labour-disputes lead to massive loss in investor confidence. The disputes stem from different views by labour and business (employers) over a range of issues. Job creation and security, safety at workplace, workman compensation and inclusivity in industrial restructuring are of importance to labour unions, while the management considers restructuring as critical in ensuring sustained productivity in the industry.

The role of NGOs needs to be expanded, particularly in regards to links with rural communities who often lose out on potential benefits of development. NGOs act as a watchdog in ensuring balance between development and conservation needs. The contribution of environmental groups in resource management is now being realised and there is a need to enhance their participation in promoting sustainable development.

The need to improve/expand links with SADC neighbours to ensure greater balance in the development process within southern Africa. One of the issues that have been identified as a key to the economic developmental growth of the region is to create a free market for the member states.

Another constraint is the potential loss of key human resources through HIV/AIDS and other notifiable diseases. Although most people have access to formal health services, many find it prohibitively expensive, and seek the services of traditional healers. The most important notifiable disease is Tuberculosis, accounting for nearly 4% of all deaths. The extent of HIV infection and AIDS is not accurately known at this time, but the disease could have devastating consequences on the population structure, potentially having the greatest impact on the economically active section of the population. This could reduce growth in GDP by 2-3% by 2010.

The strong and sustained fall in international commodity prices since 1994, as well as the emerging market financial turmoil over an extended period of more than 18 months recently, have impacted on capital flow to South Africa, putting pressure on the exchange rate and interest rates. The economic and social pains of several policy actions, including the reduction of the budget deficit from 10% to 4% and inflation from double digits to 5%, as well as large reductions in import tariffs, will not have to be inflicted again. The benefits from these earlier difficult policy decisions should start to flow in the years ahead.

Important structural changes are currently feeding into the South African economy as it adapts to the dictates of the global economy. These are reflected in fiscal and monetary policy adjustments, whilst in the real economy the quest for international competitiveness forces industries to achieve efficiency gains of an exceptional nature. An important outcome of these structural changes is the increased emphasis on productivity, especially labour productivity, as companies endeavour to conform to standards set by international competition.

The occurrence of customs fraud is another important trade and economic issue in South Africa. Customs fraud results in an estimated R3 billion per annum loss of tax revenue, undermines local industry and, hence, South Africa's industrial policy and job creation objectives. The consequences of fraud are strongly felt in various sectors, including clothing and textiles, footwear and electronics - where thousands of jobs have been lost. Customs and VAT fraud includes the under-valuation of imported goods, forged documentation, the abuse of the import permit system, the removal of imported goods in transit, the incorrect description of goods, false claims on VAT refunds and the redirection of imports. Please see the 'Challenges and Constraints' section in this chapter for action taken to combat customs fraud.

The Public Service fulfils an important role in South Africa and needs to maintain integrity and accountability in performing its duties at all times, while executing policies aimed at advancing the delivery of services. A Code of Conduct, setting ethical standards for public servants, was launched in June 1997. One of its main objectives is stamping out corruption, which has a major effect on the economy and economic growth. Officials will in the course of their duties be expected to report to the appropriate authorities fraud, corruption, nepotism, maladministration and any other act that constitutes an offence or which is prejudicial to public interest.

The lack of trained employees is a major issue in South Africa, having an indirect impact on trade and economic growth.

The implementation of the Convention on International Trade in Rare and Endangered Species (CITES) requires the use of permit controls, regulations and training of nature conservators in the General Investigations, Special Investigations, and in particular, the Import Export Sections which enforce the requirements of the international convention. Special Investigations make provision for the execution of covert investigations as a proactive means to curb the mercenary trade in illegal wildlife products. It also provides for a monitoring function at major airports to regulate the in and outflow of wildlife products.

Industrial pollution is regulated by both liquid and effluent discharge and atmospheric emission permits. Both of these require data to be submitted to the government. A holistic approach to the management of this data still needs to be developed and there is no link between this and trade and investment data.

Environmental inventories take stock of factors influencing the environment, providing the information base for the management of these factors. Examples are:

Web sites and other sources where information related to trade, investment and economic growth can be found, are listed in the table below.

Table: List of web sites listing information related to trade, investment and economic growth.

Considerable economic and other co-operation takes places through SADC, including in areas such as health, education, mining, geology, mineral resources, environment, mineral processing, mineral markets and information systems. In the area of energy, an important project investigation is underway regarding a regional hydropower network (Powerpool) involving Zaire and other Southern African Countries.

Regular formal and informal communication is conducted between the Gauteng Province (Directorate of Environment) and the Canadian, United States of America and the Danish Trade Offices in Johannesburg and Pretoria. Visits by prominent environmentalists looking for trade opportunities in the environmental area are encouraged, particularly those offering technology, which have the potential for improving the quality of life in the Gauteng Province. The Western Cape Province (Department of Education) encourages guides and co-ordinates school activities that are orientated towards the promotion of sustainable development through trade liberalisation. (See "Education")

International Trade Fairs have been attended which serve to improve reactions, highlight products and processes that contribute towards sustainable living and encourage investment in South Africa. However, to date, few domestic policies have been formulated which are designed to accelerate sustainable development through trade. Continuous discussions are taking place to integrate trade and environmental affairs and concrete proposals are expected.

South Africa has signed the Convention on International Trade in Rare and Endangered Species (CITES) It has also signed the Trade Protocol between the countries of the SADC (Southern African Development Community).

This information is based on South Africa's submission to the fifth and eighth Sessions of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last update: October 2000.

CHANGING CONSUMPTION PATTERNS

The following national bodies deal with different aspects of sustainable consumption and production: Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), Department of Minerals and Energy (DME), Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEA&T), Department of Transport, Department of Land Affairs, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF), Department of Agriculture, Department of Welfare, and Department of Defence (DoD).

The following provincial departments are responsible for the administration of consumption and production patterns at the provincial level: Mpumalanga Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Eastern Cape Department of Economic Affairs, Environment and Tourism, Free State Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Free State Directorate of Housing and Specialised Services (water supply and sanitation), KwaZulu Natal Department of Traditional and Environmental Affairs, Northern Province Department of Agriculture, Land and Environment, North West Parks Board, North West Department of Environmental Affairs, Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment, Western Cape Department of Environmental and Cultural Affairs, and Northern Cape Department of Health, Welfare and Environmental Affairs.

The following regulations seek to promote sustainable consumption and production:

The Water Services Act (1997) sets requirements for local government tariff structures and other water related issues in local government. Some of the objectives of the Act are to: set out the rights and duties of consumers and those who are responsible for providing services; promote, support and strengthen the capacity and authority of local government while creating mechanisms that will allow national and provincial governments as well as consumers to monitor its performance; and promote the effective and sustainable use of financial and natural resources.

The Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act (1965) establishes a structure for the control of atmospheric emissions. Four categories are addressed: the control of noxious or offensive gases, where the requirement is that activities stated in the Act may only be executed if a registration certificate authorising the process had been issued by the chief air pollution control officer; the control of smoke which focuses mainly on the control of fuel burning appliances; the control of dust where the offender can be required to avoid dust migration through whatever best practicable means can be used; and the control of fumes emitted by vehicles.

The Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act (1983) deals with a wide variety of agriculturally related sustainable use aspects such as the protections of wetlands, soil conservation, control of weeds and invader plants and ensuring that the carrying capacity of land is not abused.

Nuclear Energy Act (1993) established a control structure for radioactive emissions.

Hazardous Substances Act (1973) deals with and controls the importation, manufacture, sale, use and disposal of hazardous substances.

Fertiliser, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act (1947) deals with the use, disposal, registration and other aspects of the substances.

Occupational Health and Safety Act (1993) controls the operation of machinery which includes the control of noise pollution in the work place and aspects relating to the manufacture, storage, use and exposure of employees to hazardous substances.

Marine Living Resources Act (1998) aims to provide for the conservation of the marine ecosystem, the long-term utilisation of marine living resources and the protection and orderly access to exploitation of such resources. A strict conservation policy in a fishing zone of 200 square nautical miles is followed by the Government. It is enforced by marine conservation inspectors along the Cape Coast and in fishing harbours. Licenced South African boats include: 2844 fishing boats (excluding deep sea and Natal Trawlers), 97 deep sea and Natal Trawlers, 33 inshore trawlers, 2634 handline boats, 325 squid boats and 68 purse seiners. The only foreign vessels fishing off the South African coast are 86 Japanese and 26 Taiwanese tuna boats.

The Environmental Impact Assessment regulations underpin legal procedures to ensure rational decision making regarding sustainable land use against the realities of growing population and economic needs. Prescribed procedures involve communities and NGOs as stakeholders and are administered by provincial authorities. The emergence of EIA regulations in South Africa has had a notable positive effect on the promotion of energy and material efficiency.

A variety of legislation deals with waste management. Waste disposal is mainly administered in terms of Section 20 of the Environment Conservation Act (1989) which deals with the permitting of waste disposal sites. Littering is also addressed in the Act. There are several other Acts that also deal with waste management, for example the Abattoir Hygiene Act (1992), the Advertising of Roads and Ribbon Development Act (1983) and other legislation dealing with aspects of waste disposal from their specific perspective.

The National Forests Bill (1998) focuses on the principle of sustainable forest management. The Minister of Water Affairs and Forestry is given power to set criteria, indicators and standards for assessing and enforcing sustainable forest management and creating incentives to manage forests in a sustainable way. Principles guiding decision- making state that forests must be developed and managed so as to sustain the potential yield of their economic, social and environmental benefits, and to conserve natural resources, especially soil and water. Special measures are included to protect indigenous forests and trees. Regulations may be made to control the collection, removal, transport, and various other activities relating to parts of or products from protected trees.

The Water Services Act (1997) provides for the phasing in of a tariff structure designed to promote water conservation by all stakeholders, including consumers. In addition, this act requires that water services activities have a duty to progressively ensure efficient economical and sustainable access to water services, noting the duty to conserve water resources. Water Boards are required to take measures to promote water conservation and water demand management, and to promote public awareness.

Legislated Codes of Practice, Standards and Guidelines, aligned with international practice, are mandatory and were established by government. Voluntary Codes of Practice, Standards and Guidelines originate from a variety of sources, including industry itself, driven by the need to be on par with international practice.

Monetary measures are embodied in the DEA&T’s national Integrated Waste and Pollution Management Regulations and its matching strategies and programmes, intended to systematically encourage waste minimisation, and reuse and recycling of products and resources. The waste minimisation team of the National Waste Management Strategy (NWMS) is developing a proposed incentive scheme to be incorporated in the strategy.

There is no specific National Strategy, Policy or multi-year Work Programme dealing with sustainable Development.

The Growth, Employment and Redistribution Policy (GEAR) and DTI’s environmental policy process mandates the DTI to contribute to accelerated economic growth, ensuring stronger employment creation and improved standards of living for all South Africans, by implementing a set of integrated trade and industrial policies. These policies are generally aimed at improving industrial competitiveness, facilitating South Africa’s re-integration in the world economy, restructuring state enterprises, expanding trade and investment flows in Southern Africa and attracting foreign direct investment in particular. The increased export and inward investment flows are expected to stimulate employment creation which, in its turn, provides a powerful vehicle for redistribution and poverty alleviation. DTI’s environmental policy process addresses DTI’s conformance with its legal sustainable development obligations and the need for enabling measures to allow industry, and small enterprises in particular, to conform to environmental and social legislation in a feasible way.

The White Paper on Integrated Pollution and Waste Management Policy for South Africa acts as a statement of intent by the government on minimisation and management of South Africa's diverse pollution and waste streams, in a manner which is environmentally, socially and economically sustainable, as well as politically acceptable. The fundamental approach of this Policy is the prevention of pollution and minimisation of waste at source, efficient management of inevitable waste, control of impacts and remediation of affected environments. The policy promotes efficiency, re-use, recycling, treatment, measuring, testing and reporting.

The Code of Practice for Mine Residue Deposits of the South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) covers management of mine residue deposits and its environmental impacts. One of the major concerns in this regard is coal discards, amounting to close to 60 million tonnes annually. The Code of Practice will be referenced in the revised Minerals Act and as a guideline to the Mine Health and Safety Act 1996 requirements.

The White Paper on Agriculture (1995) promotes maintaining and developing an economically viable, market-directed and competitive farming sector with the family farm as basis. It promotes a production approach based on the sustainable use of natural agricultural land and water resources. The White Paper on Agriculture includes policies for sustainable production and consumption.

The White Paper on Land Policy (1997) addresses issues regarding the allocation and utilisation of land and measures to enhance the effectiveness of administration of public land.

The White Paper on Mineral and Mining Policy for South Africa (1998) contains a section on participation in ownership and management, which examines imbalances in industry. It also addresses issues which look at health and safety, housing needs, migrant labour, industrial relations, management of down-scaling of production and ownership of mineral rights.

The Draft White Paper on Energy Policy for South Africa (1998) promotes energy efficiency and the use of renewable sources of energy.

The White Paper on Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity (1997) identifies, as a national priority, the necessity for the sustainable use of biological resources and emphasises the need to restore degraded ecosystems and integrate biological diversity considerations into land-use planning and environmental assessments.

The White Paper on Marine Fisheries Policy for South Africa (1997) aims at uplifting impoverished coastal communities through improved access to marine resources and the sustainable management of those resources (including sustainable utilisation and the replenishment of living resources).

The White Paper on Population Policy for South Africa (1998) is a multi-year national action plan scheduled for development in 1999. Major population concerns that link directly with consumption and production patterns are the pressure of the interaction of population, production and consumption patterns on the environment; the high incidence and severity of poverty in both rural and urban areas; inequities in access to resources, infrastructure and social services, particularly in rural areas; and implications for redistribution and growth and the alleviation of poverty. Major strategies of the policy are reducing poverty and socio-economic inequalities through meeting people’s basic needs for social security, employment, education, training and housing; providing infrastructure and social facilities and services; and ensuring environmental sustainability through comprehensive and integrated strategies which address population, production and consumption patters independently as well as in their interactions.

The voluntary implementation of ISO 14000 and SABS ISO 14000 standards, obtained from the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) and adapted for South African conditions by the SABS, plays a major role in encouraging sustainable consumption and production patterns. It is envisaged that the SABS will establish sectoral advisory committees to facilitate more interaction with industry and inform industrial cluster studies.

Voluntary SABS ISO codes of practice include: a series of Environmental management systems, Guidelines for environmental auditing, and the Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - principles and framework.

The DME, (in collaboration with the US Department of Energy), embarked on a project to provide a framework of technical and performance standards for non-residential buildings in South Africa. The policy document, consisting of five modules, will be published as a guideline to be reviewed for a period of one year and commented on and will then be introduced as a voluntary SABS standard.

The National Water Act (Act 36 of 1998) endorses the concept of tradable rights for water use, including the use of effluent discharge.

Unleaded petrol is made available to motorists cheaper than leaded petrol in order to promote use of unleaded petrol.

A number of public and commercial recycling initiatives, supported by original manufacturers, have achieved results on par with other parts of the world. Materials recycled include glass, paper, plastics, metals and oil. Paper recycling is encouraged by a regular collecting service in selected residential areas.

A number of local governments implement Local Agenda 21 programmes. They play a key role in promoting the principles of sustainable development at the local level, encouraging the people of South Africa to work towards a society where all people have sufficient food, clean air and water, decent homes and green space in their neighborhoods, providing for spiritual, cultural and physical harmony with their natural surroundings. In addition, it addresses the maintenance of natural life sustaining processes by ensuring that the carrying capacity of the environment is not exceeded.

An encouraging number of industries have, on a voluntary basis, adopted environmental management measures and systems. It is, however, not necessarily the norm yet. Responding to international trends, trade requirements and sustainable development legislation, industries are increasing their efforts towards energy and resource efficiency and waste and pollution minimisation.

A number of Industry Associations have developed their own codes of conduct, such as the Mining Industry Code of Conduct and the Code of Conduct of the International Chamber of Commerce, adopted by affiliated members. Responsible Care, an international environmental management programme for the chemicals industry, which calls on chemical companies to demonstrate their commitment to continuously improving their performance in the protection of health, safety and the environment, is co-ordinated in South Africa by the Chemical and Allied Industries Association.

South Africa’s National Forestry Action Programme (1997) is designed to facilitate implementation of the National Forests Bill. The programme seeks to establish an agreed and effective system to maximise the benefits of industrial forestry while managing the impacts on the environment in general and impacts on water resources in particular. Another priority is the establishment of a system of national resource accounts for the forest sector, adequate systems for valuing the resources and an effective system of monitoring and evaluation of management practice, especially for natural forests and woodlands.

The Committee on Environmentally Sound Management of Hazardous Materials is assigned with the task to look into the management of hazardous waste and chemicals in general and to focus on baseline studies, harmonisation, chemical registration and regulation of imports and exports of hazardous substances.

The DME is currently supporting various programmes on energy efficiency. It launched the Low Smoke Fuel Programme in 1994 to promote the provision of cleaner and affordable energy to disadvantaged communities. The programme was enhanced by the Macro-Scale Experiment (MSE), which was conducted on potential low smoke fuels at a rural site in July 1997. The results indicated that by using low-smoke fuels, air pollution levels in the study area abated by 56 %. This experiment demonstrated what could be achieved when the State, community and contractors work together to address a problem. The results of the experiment will be used to calibrate an Integrated Decision Support Model, which will assist in the policy-formulating process.

The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF), in consultation with stakeholders, including industry, NGOs and others, drives a variety of programmes and projects regarding the management of water resources. These programmes and projects cover a spectrum ranging from mining, industry, and agriculture to urban usage. A variety of guidelines, procedures and strategies are available or under development.

In 1996, the Department of Local Government and Housing (DLGH) of KwaZulu-Natal embarked on a strategy to initiate a Local Agenda 21 (LA21) programme in KwaZulu-Natal. The first phase of the strategy involved the compilation and dissemination of an information package dealing with the principles and processes of LA21, and the convening of an LA21 conference. Phase two, conducted in 1998, entailed a user-friendly Guideline Document on the implementation of LA21.

Some programmes, such as the Low Smoke Fuels programme, focus more on social and environmental aspects, while others such as LA21 focus specifically on integration of social, economic and environmental aspects.

A number of local governments implement Local Agenda 21 programmes. They play a key role in promoting the principles of sustainable development at the local level.

Many individual industries have their own procurement programmes which include environmental and broader social development considerations, e,g,. favoring small contractors and specific environmental criteria. Programmes may, for example, include a requirement to subcontract to surrounding communities. The Gauteng Department of Environmental Affairs is in the process of formulating a green procurement programme.

The metals industry sector has introduced a number of incentives to encourage research, innovation and manufacturing partnerships that will enhance sustainable production. The Technology and Human Resources for Industry Programme, the Support Programme for Industrial Innovation, and the Sectoral Partnership Fund are co-funding programmes.

A cleaner production unit was established in the DEA & T to promote cleaner production, waste minimisation and pollution prevention. An international conference on Cleaner Production was held in May 1998 in South Africa. Cleaner Production programmes were launched in three industries e.g. fishing, textile and metal plating. The focus of these programmes are sustainable and efficient consumption and production.

The number of ISO 14000 and SABS ISO 14000 certificated industries are steadily growing. The implementation of Responsible Care programmes is common in formal chemical industries.

The Industrial Development Corporation of South Africa encourages sustainable production by means of a low-interest financing scheme for manufacturing projects with Cleaner Production as an essential element. A growing appreciation of the benefits of Cleaner Production in terms of reduced materials and operational costs, coupled with increased production efficiency, is apparent among private sector firms.

Mining and industry are the largest energy consumers, accounting for nearly half of total energy consumption in South Africa. Households, at 22 % and transport make up most of the other half while agriculture accounts for 3 % of energy consumption. In rural areas most household energy is obtained from fuel wood, with the remainder sourced from coal, illuminating paraffin, and a small amount from liquid petroleum gas. An extensive solar power programme, in combination with an accelerated electrification programme, is making a major contribution towards enhancement of the sustainability of rural energy consumption.

The accelerated electrification programme targets formal and informal households in urban as well as rural areas, with the objective of raising the percentage of electrified households from the 1992 level of 32 %, to more than 70 % by 2000. Despite the total number of homes approaching 8.5 million, more than 63 % have already been equipped with electricity.

Escom, South Africa’s electricity supplier, has used solar systems and micro-hydro schemes to bring electricity to more than 1500 schools and 300 clinics in rural areas. In addition, Escom, in a joint venture with Shell International Renewables, commenced with the first phase of a programme entailing electrification of 6000 homes, using solar technology. The second phase targets another 44,000 homes.

Year	Escom	Local Government
1991	30 000
1992	145 000
1993	208 000	70 000
1994	254 000	164 000
1995	313 000	150 000
1996	307 000	137 000
1997	285 000	166 000
1998	300 000(planned)	150 000
1999	290 000 (planned)	150 000
TOTAL	1 750 000	918 000

Escom conducts constant and ongoing research into alternative energy sources: solar, wind, hydro, nuclear, biomass, wave, geothermal.

A new type of nuclear technology, the Pebble Bed Nuclear Reactor, is very promising and feasible applications for South Africa are investigated.

Electricity and coal provide about three-quarters of energy consumed by the industry and mining sectors. The balance is made up largely of coke and blast furnace gases and small amounts of heating oils. Total primary energy supply for 1996 was 4.552 million TJ, compared to 4.527 million TJ in 1997. This included coal, crude oil, gas, nuclear, hydro and renewable energy.

The mining industry depends on electricity for 87 % of its energy use. Minerals and metal processing use large amounts of both electricity and coal, mostly in large scale minerals beneficiation processes, with base metals the largest single industrial energy consuming sub-sector.

The food sector shows both a high total use and relative high intensity, although, in terms of value-added, its energy requirements are very modest in comparison with the minerals and metals industries. The chemicals and pulp and paper industries consume large amounts of energy at high intensities.

Consumption of energy by sector was as follows (total energy consumption of 2.47 million TJ):

	1997 (%)	1996
Industry	35.9	35.4
Residential	24.4	24.9
Transport	23.6	23.6

Escom produces 98.3 % of the electricity in South Africa, using a low quality coal that would otherwise be discarded. A volume of 90 million tons was used by Escom in 1997 to generate 170,464 GWh of electricity as opposed to 85 million tons of coal to generate 163,541 GWh of electricity in 1996. Escom has reduced its total particulate emissions by 91 % over the last 15 years, despite increased electricity output. Short term total emissions decreased by 25 % and relative emissions by 30 % compared to 1996, despite a 5 % increase in energy production.

Total energy supply equaled total energy consumption (176,000 GWh) in 1997. In terms of total primary energy supply, coal contributed most (72.9 % for 1996 compared to 74 % in 1997). This was followed by crude oil (13.6 % in 1996 compared to 12.3 % in 1997).

The national approach to energy and material efficiency, waste reduction, recycling, public transport and quality of life comprises a mixture of quantified and quality indicators. There is scope for developing a general paradigm of interlinked quality of life and sustainable consumption and production targets.

In 1993, the Chief Air Pollution Control Officer (CAPCO) published new guidelines for particulate emissions for the petroleum industry, stating that within five years (i.e. by 1998), allowable concentrations have to be diminished from 500 mg/m³ to 120 mg/m³.

In 1994 the CAPCO introduced a new guideline for sulphur present in the fuel used in refinery heaters, to be reduced from 3.5 - 4%, to 2% by weight. Expressed in terms of tons of sulphur dioxide, this translates to a reduction from 60 tons to about 48 tons per day.

The irrigation sector has by far the largest water demand of all water sectors in South Africa at 54 % of the country’s total demand, including state regulated water schemes (9.8 % of total demand), irrigation regulated by irrigation boards (11.4 % of total demand) and private irrigation schemes (30.7 % of total country demand). Industry uses 11 % of the country’s demand and forestry 8 %. The major areas for demand growth are likely to be the domestic, urban and industrial sectors as a result of population growth, increasing levels of service provision, and increasing industrialisation.

Escom sustained specific water consumption at 1.2 R/kWh, and has probably achieved the lowest water consumption possible at power stations. Further reductions will only be possible with the development of new dry-cooled power stations.

Water demands in South Africa have been growing at 4 – 5 % per annum since the 1930’s, and it is estimated that within three decades, i.e. by 2030, the country’s water resources would be fully utilised under current growth and consumption patterns.

Total daily average sales of water by Rand Water increased as follows over the last ten years:

In terms of the National Water Act, the allocation of water depends on the principles of sustainability, along with a range of mechanisms for protection of natural water resources. The mechanisms include better management practices such as Cleaner Production, Cleaner Technologies, recycling of water and waste minimisation. Demand management through tariff and water pricing and water conservation measures is supported by the National Water Act (Act 36 of 1998), in which re-use and recycling of water is promoted.

The management programme for water quality relies on the SA Water Quality Guidelines issued by DWAF. The guidelines focus on establishing tailor made effluent standards for individual industries or other producers of waste water based on the policy of determining the needs of the receiving water body and structuring the standards with reference to the water quality required by downstream water users.

In a joint venture between DWAF and the mining industry, a sector specific management strategy in terms of water management for prospecting and mining activities has been initiated. One of the steps in this regard is the development of a set of the Best Practice Guidelines for water quality management in the mining industry. Research conducted by the mining industry has resulted in the wide-spread use of water-recovery technology, to the extent that many mines can report a 30% reduction in the use of raw water resources. In the Witbank Dam Catchment Management Programme, water quality objectives, achieved through the allocation of permissible waste loads per industry, were set by a multi-sectoral group.

Gold ore (average grade): The amount mined decreased from 496.9 tonnes in 1996 to 492.6 tonnes in 1997 (4.95 g of gold per t of ore).

The contribution of Agriculture to GDP was 4.2%, 4.7% and 4.5% in 1995, 1996 and 1997 respectively.

Production totaled 8,488 mt in 1997, compared to 9.69 mt in 1996. 1996 human consumption was approximately 3.1 mt, representing per capita consumption of 62 kg/person/year. Industrial processing of maize for animal feed comprised 1.2 mt.

The 1997/98 season yielded 2.3 mt of which 1.8 mt are designated for human consumption - per capita consumption of 57 kg/person/year.

Average annual production totals 55.1 million kg of greasy wool, 5.7 million kg from white wool breeds, other than Merino.

During 1996, South African consumers spent a total amount of R 77,694 million on food commodities.

In terms of South African Total Allowable Catches (TAC), quotas are adapted annually to allow for more sustainable consumption. For example, TAC of hake in 1995, 1996 and 1997 varied from 148,000; 151,000; and 151,700 tonnes nominal mass respectively. Pilchard TAC quotas have decreased over the 3-year period and were fixed at 117,000: 105,000; and 98,000 tons nominal mass respectively.

In 1997 plantations covered an area of 1,518,138 ha. Yields vary from an average of 15 m³ of per ha per annum for softwood to 20 m³ per ha per annum for eucalyptus and 9 m³ per ha per annum for wattle. The production from plantations in 1996 amounted to some 24.7 million m³. More than 10 million m³ of firewood is chopped annually.

Renewable energy sources other than biomass, have not yet been exploited to the full in South Africa. Research projects are, inter alia, investigating solar, wind and hydro energy. Current and envisaged main uses of solar energy include the use of solar power for water-pumping and for heating. Research is presently conducted to evaluate the feasibility of building a solar thermal power plant in the Northern Cape, and a wind farm in the Western Cape.

The National Waste Management Strategy will be completed by December 1998. As part of its implementation, priority pollutants will be identified and targets set for reduction.

The Pollution Research Group of the University of Natal has conducted a number of projects including ways of recycling water and using co-products of one process as input for others. The group also provides guidelines on water and waste management, especially for the Textile Industry.

A project was launched by the DEA&T with DANCED support in August 1997 with the aim of establishing a National Waste Management Strategy Project (NWMS) for South Africa. The baseline situation in South Africa with regard to cleaner production and waste minimisation was reviewed and targets for waste minimisation identified. The Situation Baseline Analysis Report comprised a synthesis of the findings of the four NWMS Task Groups i.e. Waste Minimisation, Non-Hazardous Waste, Hazardous and Related Wastes and Waste Information System.

Recycling operations exist for paper (including packaging), cans and glass. Consumers cooperate by using recycling bins placed at selected centres. Agencies related to paper manufacturing collect waste paper on arrangement. Labeled recycled paper is popular with "green-conscious" commercial and private consumers.

Examples of activities having impacts in changing unsustainable consumption and production patterns

After 20 years of flaring these gases to the atmosphere, Samancor's Manganese Alloy operation in Meyerton found a way to burn carbon monoxide and gases containing hydrogen. In the process, the company generates an average of 30 Megawatts of electricity every hour, about 10 % of the total plant demand. The benefits to both the atmospheric environment and the company are significant: About 275,000 MW hours of electricity are generated each year, with an average availability of 98 %, saving the company R28 million annually in power costs. The electricity saved would have been generated by Escom power stations burning 10 tons of coal each hour, or 87,600 tons per annum. Gases containing hydrogen are no longer released to the atmosphere. The plant made a giant leap in terms towards energy efficiency.

Sasol Fibres' acrylic fibre manufacturing process is unique in South Africa because the fibre is coloured during production as opposed to providing undyed fibre for dyeing by the garment manufacturer. This is cheaper and easier for the customer, allowing for a virtually effluent-free garment manufacturing operation. More important, the environmental benefits are exceptional. Dyeing the fibre early in the process is far more efficient - Sasol Fibres effluent contains only some 1 – 2 % of the dye left in the effluent of the more conventional processes, and only 0.1% to 0.02% of the amount of additives and chemicals. The effluent from Sasol Fibres' gel dyeing process contains only 0.06 kg of additives and 0.05kg of dye per tonne of acrylic fibre.

In December 1997 Polifin a member of the chemicals manufacturing industry completed a ZAR 100 million upgrade to eliminate mercury from its processes and effluent.

Caltex Oil installed two electrostatic precipitators. Caltex is the only South African refinery to date that has gone this route, which has proved completely successful - particulate emissions have dropped to less than 100 mg/m³. Caltex Oil has also made significant strides since 1994 in reducing SO₂ emissions even further than the regulatory maximum of 48-tons per day. The refinery is operating at, and often below, its stringent in-house target of 28-tons per day.

Escom's coal-fired Matimba Power Station reduced its ash emissions from 6,000 tons a month in 1990 to 3,400 tons per month in 1993 and 232 tons per month in 1998. In addition, defying the precipitator's reliance on good quality coal for top performance, Matimba achieved 15 % better performance in 1996 than 1995, using the same quality of coal. In 1997 Matimba's ash emissions were 75 % below the required limit for the year.

Significant progress has been made in the area of Clean Coal Technologies and in the reduction of dust from mine residue deposits through vegetation cover and the new approach of rock cover in combination with vegetation.

The Mondi sulphite pulp mill reduced sodium levels to a third (from about 2 500 mg/l to around 800 mg/l).

Saldanha Steel has installed a closed loop cooling system to reduce water consumption used for cooling. This was a result of water supply being identified as a key issue during the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and the limited water supply in the West Coast Region. Although the temperature reduction capacity of the closed loop cooling system was not high enough to allow it to be installed for all the processes, those processes that do use the system have resulted in a reduction in the consumption of fresh water from 18 000 m³ to 12 000m³/day.

The Aerosol Manufacturing Association, reports that the Aerosol industry, has totally phased out CFCs from their products over the past 10 years. Any aerosol manufactured in South Africa now contains either hydrocarbons, compressed air or compressed nitrogen as propellant.

The Foam Blowing industry, producers of both rigid and flexible foams, has to a major extent succeeded in moving from CFCs to HFCs, which are less destructive to the ozone layer - only 10% as destructive as CFCs. This is seen as an intermediate step, and the industry will be moving to cytopentane in the near future.

The Solvent industry has moved away from 1,1,1-TCE and is now using aqueous solutions. Companies have phased out all TCE from their production where possible.

The Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Industry both used CFC 12 in their cooling systems. The refrigeration industry has moved over to using HFC 134a. The Air Conditioning industry uses a multitude of substitution products (all ozone friendly) depending on the application. No new refrigeration or air conditioning units contain CFCs.

Fire fighting equipment previously based on halons, now use CO₂, water mists, argon or helium, all of which are ozone friendly.

The Gold Mining sector is replacing equipment that runs on CFCs with CFC-free machinery.

An interesting case study can be made out of the prepayment water metres installed in some peri-urban areas on behalf of Rand Water. Although these were installed to combat the problem of payment for services, they have resulted in major savings in water consumption.

Water restrictions in the Vaal River system are not uncommon, as this is probably the most exploited river system in South Africa. The river system supplies water to Gauteng Province and parts of the provinces of Eastern Transvaal, North West, Free State and Northern Cape, and shows the highest shortfall in available water. The first water restriction was announced in 1976. The longest continuous period was from 1983 to 1988. Restrictions in 1995 accomplished a saving of 40 % on water for agricultural purposes, 30 % on domestic use and 10 % on water used for mining, industry and commerce.

	Exporting 1996 R million	% share of total exports (1996)	Avg Annual % change, real 1991-1996
			Exports	Domestic production
Primary Sector
Agriculture, forestry and fishing	6 368	4.47	4.4	2.1
Mining: total	48 700	ND	ND	ND
Gold mining	23 770	16.7	(3)	(4.4)
Other mining - including coal, diamond mining	24 930	17.5	(2.1)	0.8
Secondary sector
Manufacturing: total	77 596	ND	ND	ND
Food processing	4 548	3.2	(1.3)	(0.7)
Beverages	1 245	0.87	18.8	(1.4)
Tobacco products	128	0.09	45.5	(3.3)
Textiles	1 876	1.32	(4.5)	(0.8)
Clothing	504	0.35	5.9	(0.1)
Leather products	617	0.43	13.2	0.8
Footwear	94	0.07	18.0	(5.8)
Wood and wood products	333	0.23	(4.9)	0.1
Furniture	568	0.4	11.9	0.7
Pulp, paper and paper products	4 179	2.93	(4.3)	(0.3)
Chemical products	10 725	7.53	8.6	2.7
Petroleum refineries and petroleum products	4 312	ND	3.0	1.2
Rubber products	506	0.35	20.7	(2.1)
Plastic products	374	0.26	17.0	2.1
Non-metallic mineral products	845	0.59	4.7	(1.6)
Iron and steel basic industries	12 876	9.04	1.9	(1.6)
Non-ferrous metal basic industries	9 200	6.46	12.6	9.5
Metal products	5 987	4.2	10.5	(0.5)
Non-electrical machinery	4 039	2.84	8.7	0.3
Electrical machinery	1455	1.02	18.6	(2.0)
Motor vehicles and vehicle parts	3094	2.17	18.1	0
Other transport equipment	638	0.45	3.0	(8.1)
Other manufacturing	4115	2.89	(1.1)	(2.2)
Electricity, gas and water	190	0.13	1.4	3.1
Construction	40	0.03	1.7	(2.3)
Tertiary section
Trade, catering and accommodation	8913	6.26	1.5	1.7
Transport, storage and communication	9479	6.66	1.2	2.3
Finance, property and business services	4505	3.16	1.5	2.0

	Avg Annual % change, real			Employment no (1000)
				1996	1997	1998
	Investment	Domestic production	Employment	1996	1997	1998
Primary sector
Agriculture, forestry and fishing	1.6	2.1	-0.8	852	ND	ND
Mining: total	ND	ND	ND	570	ND	ND
Gold mining Other mining - including coal and diamond mining	-12.3 -5.9	-4.4 0.8	-5.6 -2.5	339 231	ND ND	ND ND
Secondary sector
Manufacturing: total	ND	ND	ND	ND	1396	1347
Food processing	5.5	-0.7	-2.3	183	172	170
Beverages	-12	-1.4	-3.3	32	30	30
Tobacco products	-9.1	-3.3	-6.5	3	ND	ND
Textiles	24.5	-0.8	-6.3	80	76	57
Clothing	7.6	-0.1	ND	125	140	131
Leather products	-3.7	0.8	-7.1	8	7.5	6.6
Footwear	7	-5.8	-4.4	26	23.7	22.4
Wood and wood products	-2	0.1	-0.1	62	66	75.8
Furniture	9.4	0.7	1.9	50	ND	45.9
Pulp, paper and paper products	6.5	-0.3	-0.6	50	47.1	45.1
Printing and publishing	22.9	-0.5	0.1	54	51.5	54.8
Chemical products	-5.4	2.7	-1.1	117	90.2	96.2
Industrial	ND	ND	ND	16	27.5	28.3
Other	ND	ND	ND	17	62.7	67.9
Petroleum refineries and petroleum products	ND	1.2	-3	17	17.4	16.7
Rubber products	4.9	-2.1	-0.9	18	16.1	15
Plastic products	9.2	2.1	0.7	48	48.4	58

PRIMARY	1989	1998	% change p.a.
PRIMARY
Agriculture, forestry and fishing	25559	24304	-0.6
Mining	35451	34892	-0.2
SECONDARY
Manufacturing	107828	108258	0.04
Electricity	14881	19296	2.9
Construction	17611	16839	-0.5
TERTIARY
Wholesale and retail trade	68031	73791	0.9
Transport, storage and communication	37732	53573	3.97
Financial and related services	74546	94565	2.7
Community, social and personal services	99344	111000	1.2

Type of information	Source	Potential users	Source
Socio-economic statistics	HSRC IDC	Academic researchers; public	http://www.hsrc.org.za Monthly brochure
Financing	DTI	Business sector	http://www.dti.gov.za
Export/Import	DTI	Business sector	http://www.dti.gov.za
Small business ventures	DTI	Small business	http://www.dti.gov.za
Foreign Investment Guides	DTI	Foreign Investors	http://www.dti.gov.za
Social and economic developments	NEDLAC	Nedlac constituencies, public in general	http://www.nedlac.org.za
Infrastructure funding	INCA	Potential funders	Annual reports
National State of the environment	DEAT	Wide variety of users	will be web-based - currently under review
Cities State of the Environment			http://www/deat/issues/transprt/index.htm
Census data	Statistics SA	Wide variety of users	http://www.statssa.gov.za/
Economic data	Statistics SA	Wide variety of users	http://www.statssa.gov.za/
	SA Reserve Bank	Wide variety of users	http://www.resbank.co.za/
Information on products, services, imports, exports and business opportunities in South Africa	Trade Page	Everyone wanting to do business on the Internet	http://www.tradepage.co.za/
Guide to potential investors in SA	Bowman Gilfillan Inc, Attorneys - Johannesburg	Potential foreign investors to SA	http://www.hg.org/guide-southafrica.html
Broad overview of the considerations and procedures involved in making an investment in South Africa	Bowman Gilfillan Inc, Attorneys - Johannesburg	Potential foreign investors to SA	http://www.bowman.co.za/publications/Foreign.asp
Information on SDIs, IDZs	SDI initiative	Potential investors, general public	http://www.sdi.org.za/Index.htm
Trade enquiries for the sourcing of products from SA	Cape Business News	National and international business people	http://www.cbn.co.za/busenq.htm
Regular updates on certain key indicators, economic information	Financial Mail, Economist, Finance week, 'Finansies en Tegniek', Business Day	wide variety of users	www.fm.co.za www.economist.co.uk
Economic information and forecasts	Bureau for Market Research (BMR), Bureau for Economic Research(Standard Bank) and private companies such as SANLAM, Mutual	Wide variety of users	Some in brochures, some available on the web
Initiative for economic empowerment (IEE) -	Business Skills SA. (NGO responsible for training small business people)	(those already in business or intending to start)	drawing up of business plans, aiding in securing financial assistance from banks, informative brochi and after care (follow-ups).
Loans from banks and general information Training, loans (from government funds).	Independent Business Enrichment Centre (IBEC) (NGO) Small Business Development Corporation (SBDC) (parastatal)	Business people People involved in small business	Local media (TV and newspapers)

ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

TRADE

CHANGING CONSUMPTION PATTERNS