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Decision-Making: Coordinating Bodies
Israel established a Ministry of Environment in 1992, largely in response to the recognition that more than fifty percent of the land area of Israel would become among the most densely populated in the world. The Ministry of the Environment, in collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture, is responsible for issues related to agriculture and sustainable development, including long-term strategies at the national level; medium-term tactics at regional and district levels; and short-term operatives at regional, community and private levels.
Decision-Making: Legislation and Regulations
Pesticide control is governed by several legislative tools under the responsibility of different enforcement authorities:
The Plant Protection Law, 1956, grants the Minister of Agriculture authority, following consultation with an advisory interdisciplinary committee, to regulate the import, sale, distribution and packaging of pesticides, fertilizers and other materials. The law authorizes the Minister of Agriculture to regulate the use of pesticides, to require a permit for their use, to promulgate regulations on the safe use of pesticides and to forbid or limit the use of pesticides deemed dangerous to human health and the environment.
The Animal Diseases Ordinance, designed to prevent the spread of animal diseases, is under the responsibility of the Minister of Agriculture. Regulations dealing with chemical preparations for the control of animal diseases were promulgated under this law in 1982 while regulations stipulating prohibitions and means of treating abattoir waste and carcasses were promulgated in 1981.
Public Health Regulations dealing with pesticide residues in food were promulgated in 1991. The regulations, under the responsibility of the Minister of Health, establish standards for maximum permissible levels of pesticides in food products.
The Hazardous Substances Law, 1993, which establishes, inter alia, Poison Permit requirements for all businesses dealing with hazardous materials, has paved the way for more efficient supervision of pesticide storehouses throughout the country.
Water Regulations promulgated in 1991 prohibit the rinsing of sprayers of chemical and/or biological substances into water sources and forbid aerial spraying of such substances for agricultural purposes near a water source.
The Public Health Ordinance of 1940, which authorizes the Ministry of the Environment to eliminate nuisances from the confines of a local authority, and Licensing of Businesses regulations, which incorporate conditions on the environmentally-sound operations of dairy farms and rendering plants, provide additional legislative tools in the control of pollution arising from improper agricultural practices.
Decision-Making: Strategies, Policies and Plans
The State of Israel has established a national policy on sustainable agriculture and rural development (SARD). This policy aims to deal with:
Minimizing the land areas which will be transferred from agriculture to the urban sector and to maximize the area left for agriculture. The problem is especially acute in the center of the country and in the vicinity of major cities where the preservation of orchards and field crops is an important means of safeguarding essential "green lungs." Agriculture can significantly contribute to environmental conservation and the prevention of urban sprawl in the center of the country.
Integrated pest management and control in agriculture
As a world leader in agriculture, Israel depends on irrigation and fertilization to increase its crop yields. The country meets most of its food requirements through domestic production, using about 1.25 million cubic meters of water and over 100,000 tons of fertilizers annually. The result: about 5 million tons of field crops, 1.2 billion liters of milk, 1.6 billion eggs, and 1.2 billion flowers.
The Ministry of the Environment's Agro-Ecology Division deals with the prevention of environmental degradation arising from improper agricultural practices in Israel's rural sector. By means of monitoring, legislation, enforcement, education and guidance, and in cooperation with the farming community, agricultural organizations, research institutes, regional councils and government ministries, the ministry is helping to address the challenge of cultivating high-quality produce which meets both agricultural and environmental and health standards.
Israel's policy calls for the reduction of pesticides and fertilizers in agriculture. Means of achieving this target were compiled and summarized by a steering committee on pesticide reduction which presented its report to the Chief Scientist of the Ministry of Agriculture in 1990.
The State of Israel adopted several policies regarding the use of pesticides in agriculture:
The Plant Protection and Inspection Services in the Ministry of Agriculture are in charge of the registration, regulation and supervision of pesticides. Pesticide use is monitored by three bodies: the Ministries of Agriculture, Health and the Environment. There are 878 registered pesticides in Israel, of which 80 require a special permit along with registration. Of all licensed pesticides in Israel, about 30% are insecticides, 16% fungicides, 22% herbicides, and the remainder molluscicides, rodenticides, bird and mammal repellents, fumigants, materials for post-harvest treatments, wound sealing materials, plant growth regulators, micronutrients, pesticides for home gardens and adjuvants.
The Pesticide Division of the Plant Protection and Inspection Services has established criteria for submitting a toxicology file to the inter-ministerial committee for coordination of pesticide use. The registration of new formulations requires a wide array of toxicity tests. Impact on humans and the environment, for example, is tested in relation to the material's behavior in soil and air and its effect on birds, aquatic organisms, and additional non-target organisms. In recent years, Israel has placed special emphasis on restricting or banning chemicals that were previously authorized for use. Today, all substances included in the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure are banned or severely restricted in Israel.
National Maximum Residue Limits have been established for all pesticides in Israel that are based, wherever appropriate, on the Codex Alimentarious Limits. The Ministry of Agriculture supervises and regulates quality and health requirements of exported agricultural produce and cooperates with international bodies on standardization of pesticide tolerance regulations.
The Ministry of the Environment places special importance on reducing the risks of pesticides to the environment. Inspectors play a vital role in both supervising and instructing farmers on environmentally-sound use and storage of pesticides and respond to complaints on improper use and storage. Inspectors integrate enforcement with instruction and supervise pesticide use in several areas: aerial and ground spraying, pesticide warehouses and investigation of citizen complaints.
Land conservation and rehabilitation
At the present, the Division for Land Conservation at the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development is the main governmental factor dealing with land rehabilitation and conservation. Israel’s primary objective in this issue is to reduce land mining. In order to do so, the Division of Land Conservation is currently drafting guidelines for land-use that will serve as a basis for future regulations and land mining permits.
Agricultural Wastes
Dairy and beef herds account for over 17% of the country's total agricultural production. Dairy farms are located mainly on kibbutzim (collective settlements) where herds average about 300-500 cows, and moshavim (cooperative settlements) where herds consist of about 30-50 cows. While Israel's milk production per cow is the highest in the world, dairy farms are major polluters of the environment. Livestock farms produce substantial amounts of animal sewage which usually finds its way to cesspools and from there to groundwater. Proper treatment, disposal and recycling of the solid and liquid wastes which are generated by dairy and poultry farms require the establishment of appropriate facilities. Due to the severity of the problem, a professional inter-ministerial committee on treatment of animal sewage and waste was set up in 1994 to propose solutions to these problems and to formulate guidelines for planning, operating and maintaining livestock farms including cattle and sheep, water fowl, poultry, pigs and aquaculture. As a result, environmental guidelines were formulated which define the requirements of the Environment Ministry for each sector. These guidelines will form the basis for regulations under the Water Law and for business licensing conditions.
Attention is also being focused on poultry farms which generate more than a million tons of manure annually. Although poultry farms constitute a lesser environmental risk than dairy farms, they generate myriad nuisances which require solutions. A master plan on poultry waste treatment was published in 1996. It calls for the establishment of regional plants for the collection and treatment of this organic waste.
Plastic sheets are widely used in agriculture with some 20,000 tons of plastic sheet waste generated each year. The problem can be solved through recycling, use of degradable plastic and disposal to an authorized waste disposal site. To solve the problem, a master plan was prepared in cooperation with the Ministry of the Interior and the Local Government Center.
Decision-Making: Major Groups Involvement
The secret of Israel’s agricultural success lies in the close interaction between farmers and researches because, this strengthens their partnership in developing and applying sophisticated methods in all agricultural branches, as well as technological advancement, new irrigation techniques and innovative agro-mechanical equipment.
Following this principle, the Ministry of the Environment believes that public participation is crucial to the sound development of sustainable agriculture and cooperates not only with other governmental ministries (such as the Ministry of Agriculture, Interior, Industry and Commerce, and Health) but also with local authorities, the private sector, academic institutions and scientists.
In addition, in order to involve the public in the decision making process, people of the agricultural sector are taking an important and direct part in several country-wide projects. For example, in a project concerning the environmental nuisances caused by geese fattening, representatives from the dairy-farming sector have been actively involved.
Integrated pest management and control in agriculture
A welcome sign is growing citizen awareness and activism. Complaints from residents living in urban settlements interfacing with farmland and from residents of agricultural settlements themselves regarding pesticide inhalation or skin contact as a result of aerial and ground spraying are spurring action. A 1992 amendment to the Pharmacists Regulations prohibits aerial spraying at a distance of 120 meters from a dwelling or 12 meters from a road. It allows the Minister of the Environment, after consultation with the Ministers of Health and Agriculture, to establish areas in which aerial spraying is absolutely prohibited.
The development of organic agriculture promises further reductions in environmentally-harmful agricultural practices. In 1983, some twenty farmers banded together to form the Israel Bio-Organic Agriculture Association (IBOAA). Today the Association is some 300 growers strong and is a full-fledged member of the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement. Produce supplied by certified IBOAA growers is cultivated according to rigorous bio-organic principles: soil fertility is maintained through balanced organic nutrition and monitored plant rotation; insects, pests and disease are controlled solely by biological means, such as laboratory-bred natural enemies; produce is never treated after harvesting; and natural resources are carefully conserved. Furthermore, greenhouses are heated only by the sun's rays and water is strictly rationed, using Israel's advanced irrigation techniques.
Programmes and Projects
Several agriculture development projects have been carried out in Israel, one of them is dealing with a supervised collection and reuse of dairy-farming manure (on the Hula Valley).
Integrated pest management and control in agriculture
Some 200,000 hectares of land are sprayed from the air each year. The Ministry of the Environment's inspectors supervise the operations of Israel's four crop spraying companies to ensure that they do not pollute drainage canals, streams, roads and residential areas. Supervision of ground spraying is more difficult due to the sheer magnitude of ground spraying which encompasses both individual farmers and numerous companies throughout the country.
Supervision includes, inter alia, enforcement of water pollution prevention regulations on aerial and ground spraying which are designed to prevent water contamination by pesticides. Enforcement of a 1991 regulation, which forbids aerial spraying of biological and/or chemical substances for agricultural purposes near water sources, has led to investigations and legal actions against spraying companies which circumvented the regulations.
Another 1991 regulation prohibits the emptying or rinsing of pesticide application equipment into a water source, directly or indirectly, and requires the installation and operation of rinsing installations. Enforcement of the regulation has resulted in major improvements, especially in the Lake Kinneret watershed basin where the Kinneret Authority has established rinsing installations for some 20 kibbutzim in the area. A comprehensive program of enforcement and education is helping to change entrenched practices, including the rinsing of sprayers in structures adjacent to water wells.
Israel's airports and secondary landing strips are also subject to routine inspections to ensure that crop sprayers do not contaminate soil, groundwater and air. Landing strips must be properly constructed and equipped, crop spraying companies must rinse and perforate empty containers before transferring them to solid waste disposal sites, and rinsing installations and rinsing equipment must be operated according to the regulations. The regulations require rinsates to be discharged into evaporation ponds or to a rinsing container. In order to reduce the risks of transporting or accumulating rinsates in evaporation ponds, the Ministry of the Environment is promoting on-site treatment facilities which will allow the safe disposal of rinsates to the sewage network.
Biological control, largely pioneered in Kibbutz Sede Eliyahu in the Beit She'an Valley, is currently being implemented in several agricultural areas in Israel. The development and introduction of beneficial natural enemies (e.g., predatory mites, predatory beetles, parasitic wasps) is proving to be a superior alternative to conventional chemical pesticides in terms of long-term effectiveness, cost and safety. Projects include isolation and synthesis of pheromones secreted by insects to trap males and confuse pests in respect to their mating patterns; use of pheromone traps to monitor the number of males as well as the egg-laying period in order to pinpoint the ideal time for spraying; commercial production of the Bacillus t. israelensis (BTI) to control water-breeding insects; use of fungal products to control fungi that cause plant diseases; and release of barn owls to effectively control rodent populations in farming areas.
Agricultural Wastes
Poultry and cow manure, carcasses and abattoir waste, yard waste, plastic materials and crop residues--all constitute agricultural waste. While all are sources of groundwater, air, landscape and nature pollution, they can be converted into environmentally and economically profitable products provided regional collection, transport, compaction and disposal systems are set up.
The total quantity of carcasses and abattoir waste in Israel is estimated at 140,000 tons per year. Proper treatment of this waste is imperative in order to prevent air, soil and water pollution as well as the spread of diseases such as rabies. Today, only one plant is authorized to render both carcasses and slaughterhouse waste; the other eight handle slaughterhouse waste only. Most of the plants that handle slaughterhouse waste do not comply with environmental provisions. In view of the high economic value of this type of waste, an inter-ministerial committee is working on solutions to minimize the number of rendering plants to two or three, in different parts of the country, to make the treatment process more environmentally friendly and to implement recycling. Central plants are expected to replace or merge with existing plants which currently violate the law. As a first step, the rendering plant in the Jezreel Valley has been upgraded thus allowing it to treat a significant portion of the country's carcasses and slaughterhouse waste in an environmentally-friendly manner. Efforts are now being invested in promoting an additional plant for the south of the country.
Accumulated experience has demonstrated that regional systems are best suited to provide environmental infrastructures and services to farmers, on the one hand, and to help dispose of and treat agricultural wastes, on the other hand. Centralized manure collection and transport of agricultural sewage to regional treatment facilities are only some of the measures which are being promoted to deal with the problems generated by the agricultural sector. For this purpose, surveys and masterplans in different parts of the country are being initiated. A prominent example is the "Greener Upper Galilee Project" in which government ministries, local authorities and farmers themselves have banded together in order to tackle such issues as sewage and waste, pesticides and fertilizers, environment-friendly agriculture and education and information. Within this framework, a comprehensive survey of all sources of organic waste in the region was conducted and solutions were recommended for manure collection and recycling from dairy farms. The project received a special boost in 1997 when the European Union, within the framework of its LIFE II program, approved joint funding, in cooperation with the Ministries of the Environment and the Interior, for the establishment of a centralized site for the treatment of organic waste in the Galilee Panhandle.
Status
Agriculture plays an important part in Israel's economy, representing some 1.9% of the GNP and 7.5% of the country's total exports in 1996. Since Israel attained its independence in 1948, the total area under cultivation has increased from 165,000 hectares to approximately 437,000 hectares, and irrigated land has increased by a factor of 8 to 240,000 hectares. During the same period, agricultural production has expanded 16-fold, more than three times the population growth.
Approximately thirty percent of the total population in the rural areas is employed in agriculture. The general trend in rural areas includes a declining effective labor power working in agriculture and increasing non-agricultural entrepreneurship (from a low percentage to approximately 10% today, with projected increases for the future). The main activities that replace agricultural sustainable activities include tourism, commerce, and services.
The structure of production in Israel includes the "Moshave," which is a private community with cooperative activities; the "Kibutz," full cooperative farming; and a regular system of private farmers. There is a movement of the whole system towards privatization and the "profit centered concept".
Integrated pest management and control in agriculture
About 200 pesticide suppliers operate in Israel, and some 3000 pesticide warehouses are dispersed in kibbutzim and moshavim throughout the country. According to the Hazardous Substances Law, anyone dealing with poisons, including pesticide warehouses, is required to hold a Poisons Permit and to operate in accordance with specific instructions. The Ministry of the Environment has prepared detailed instructions on pesticide storage and warehouse maintenance. Permits for storage, marketing and use of pesticides are only granted if instructions are fully observed. Hundreds of pesticide warehouses are inspected each year to check compliance with environmental guidelines and laws.
About 3500 hectares of land are currently used for bio-organic production in Israel, and a number of high-quality organically-grown products, such as carrots, already account for a sizable portion of Israel's agricultural export.
Challenges
Agricultural planning from an environmental perspective must emphasize the sustainable use of non-renewable production factors which are in short supply in Israel: namely, water and soil. Water, as a production factor, will constrict agriculture and/or the composition of agricultural sectors if its price will rise. Extensive use of wastewater will have implications for future agricultural planning based on water quality rather than quantity. Land availability in the central region will be dependent on loss of agricultural land to development.
Integrated pest management and control in agriculture
While all pesticide containers in Israel are labeled with specific instructions on frequency and manner of spraying, these directions are inadequately enforced. Farmers often exceed recommended doses or ignore final dates for use before harvesting.
While pesticide residues in agricultural produce earmarked for export are regularly tested by the Ministry of Agriculture to ensure that export produce meets stringent environmental and health standards, lack of manpower and budget prevents the routine testing of produce designated for local consumption. The Food Service in the Ministry of Health is responsible for regular monitoring and testing of food quality for local consumption, but testing is sporadic, due to budgetary constraints and lack of manpower.
Water for sustainable food production and sustainable rural development
In the past year, Israel has suffered a drought. This fact caused for an increased use of purified wastewater for irrigation which contains a large quantity of metals and other toxic substances. Purified wastewater irrigation must be supervised and controlled in order to prevent its influence on food growths. The MoE is currently preparing guidelines for farmers on this matter.
Capacity-building, Education, Training and Awareness-raising
One of the most significant changes in raising awareness about agriculture and sustainable development is the introduction of periodical statistics, which attempt to cover and understand the major trends relating to change in the rural structure, particular as it relates to the shift beyond agriculture, from traditional farming to developed entrepreneurship.
There has been an impressive change in farmers and local entrepreneurs who are aware of the environmental problems they themselves create, although the lack of financial resources may limit their capacity to move forward. Two of the most relevant achievements in this area are Integrated Pest Management and Bio-organic crops, which are well advanced both on a scientific and practical commercial level.
Integrated pest management and control in agriculture
Awareness of the potentially grave repercussions of agricultural practices has only recently emerged and with it the new discipline of agro-ecology. Raising the environmental awareness of farmers, initiating research and development to find technological solutions to problems, and financial aid for environment-friendly projects are primary aims of the Environment Ministry. The Ministry operates according to a holistic approach which seeks to reduce the negative impacts of agriculture on the environment and advance sustainable agricultural development.
Information
Agricultural Wastes
Other projects are focusing on other parts of the country. Thus, for example, in the Beer Tuvia Regional Council, Israel's largest center for milk production, a comprehensive survey and master plan on treatment of solid and liquid waste originating in dairy farms was prepared in order to reduce environmental nuisances and protect precious groundwater sources in this sensitive region from contamination. These and other master plans will provide the foundation for a comprehensive database on pollution levels in the rural sector, in general, and on pollution from dairy farms, in particular. The integration of these data in a Geographical Information System will facilitate informed decision making on this important subject.
Research and Technologies
Agricultural Wastes
Livestock farms span large areas in Israel. There are about 125,000 milking cows in Israel dispersed in nearly 370 settlements. The pollution they cause equals the pollution generated by the entire human population of the country. It is estimated that livestock farms generate some 3 million tons of manure. Ill-advised practices such as the accumulation of cow manure and slurry on the ground and the improper disposal of waste from Israel's geese farms are especially problematic: they result in groundwater and soil contamination, stench, and visual blight. On the other hand, these nuisances are free of concentrated chemicals, and the waste may be reused and recycled.
Experts are hard at work finding innovative solutions--disposal into sealed pools and recycling and reuse technologies, utilizing additives along with the wastes themselves. The advantages of waste and wastewater recycling, when conducted according to strict environmental guidelines, are clear: agricultural irrigation, savings in the purchase and use of synthetic fertilizers, enrichment of the soil with organic material and a low-cost solution to environmental nuisances.
Financing
Finance is provided by the Ministries of Environment and Agriculture with the participation of various other institutes. There is a budget allocated annually for specific projects, ranging from research to semi-commercial projects. There is also a budget allocated for advertising, promotion, and public relations, mainly for meetings and symposia. Negotiations are now underway with the Ministry of Treasury in order to define the criteria for direct financing of preferred projects.
Integrated pest management and control in agriculture
The Ministry of the Environment has granted financial aid to a number of regional councils for setting up regional collection and disposal networks to monitor expired pesticides which are unsuitable for use, extremely toxic, and require disposal to the national site for disposal and treatment of hazardous waste at Ramat Hovav.
Financial assistance has been offered to farmers for purchasing rinsing facilities for empty pesticide containers which pose yet another hazard. In all cases, burning or burying options are prohibited. They are discarded throughout the country in fields, roadways, near wells and water sources, near irrigation outlets and in approved and illegal waste disposal sites. While label guidelines require disposal of empty pesticide containers to Ramat Hovav, farmers are loath to abide by the instructions. The Ministry of the Environment has therefore issued guidelines which require all empty pesticide containers to be repeatedly rinsed (3 times) and perforated before disposal to approved waste disposal sites.
Agricultural Wastes
The Ministry of the Environment initiated the establishment of an Administration on Environmental Investments in Agriculture, with the participation of the Ministries of the Environment and Agriculture, which provides financial grants at a rate of up to 30% of the environmental investment. Priorities for grants are based on the type of agricultural sector, geo-hydrological region, local sensitivity of the water source and proximity to residential areas. Initial funds have been allocated for environmental investments in dairy farms in the Kinneret watershed basin--the most problematic pollutant in the most sensitive area of the country. Requests for grants are reviewed in terms of environmental, agricultural, engineering and economic aspects. Grants are approved for investments in pollution prevention systems, transition to environment-friendly technologies and materials, and recycling projects for agricultural wastes--in line with the worldwide move from "end-of-pipe" treatment to pollution prevention at source. It is anticipated that the project will serve as a model for investments in geese and pig farms and for other agricultural sectors as well.
Both stick and carrot have been used to ensure the environmentally-safe operation of dairy, geese and pig farms. Where necessary, farmers have been prosecuted for contaminating water sources. However, side by side with enforcement and legal action, incentives have been introduced as well. To reduce nuisances and improve environmental quality, major investments are required--on the organizational, professional and financial levels. For example, more than $275,000 are needed to treat one dairy farm alone.
Cooperation
As for foreign trade, stringent global requirements for the export of agricultural produce haveled to the introduction of Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) procedures among more farmers than ever before. In light of the pollution potential of agricultural practices, the Ministry of the Environment has placed the subject high on its list of priorities. One of the first sectors to adopt and implement the principles of GAP and IPM is the flower sector. Hopefully, coming years will see the development of GAP in more and more agricultural sectors.
An example of integrated pest management project that is conducted in Israel with the support of the United States is the project launched in the Beit She'an Valley in the wake of the Middle East multilateral peace talks in 1994. The project, which includes representatives of Israel, Jordan, Egypt, the Palestinian Authority and the USA, aims to better define the extent of adverse effects of pesticides on health in the Middle East region, to promote the safe use of agricultural chemicals and to assure effective pesticide management practices. An important element of the project is the establishment of a sophisticated laboratory for monitoring pest resistance to pesticides.
* * *
This information is based on Israel's submission to the 5th and 8th Sessions of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last update: October 1999.
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regulatory issues in biotechnology.
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Decision-Making: Coordinating Bodies
The Ministry of the Environment is responsible for many of the decisions on the protection of the atmosphere. Its Air Quality Division is responsible for activities related to monitoring, drafting of legislation and standards, and enforcement. Protection of the atmosphere is coordinated by the Ministry of Environment in partnership with other government Ministries of:
National Infrastructures is responsible for energy production, and, as such, is an important actor in the protection of the atmosphere from energy-producing activities;
Health plays an important role in matters related to the impacts of atmospheric pollution on human health;
Housing plays a central role in matters related to energy conservation in the residential building sector;
Science has a central role in research programs on protection of the atmosphere;
Industry and Trade regulates the activities of the industrial sector;
Transport is
important in relation to protection of the atmosphere from pollution generated
by transportation systems.
The Jewish National Fund helps create greenhouse gas sinks through afforestation programs; and
Government bodies coordinate their work through inter-ministerial
committees. Decisions are taken
through a process of continuous review and revision until consensus is reached.
In addition, Israel has initiated a negotiated rulemaking procedure,
with the participation of representatives of government ministries and relevant
bodies, for the purpose of formulating environmental standards, including
emission and ambient standards. Guiding principles require that all relevant
considerations be taken into account in the standard setting process (including
environmental, economic, technological and legal considerations), that the
standards will be applicable and that they will take account of anticipated
benefits, costs, and best available technology under reasonable technological
and economic conditions. Guiding principles also relate to prevention at source,
transparency and open deliberations, and precaution.
Local authorities may enact bylaws on air pollution prevention. Several
Israeli towns have adopted such bylaws, including Petach Tikvah (in 1988) and
Carmiel (in 1993).
Local authorities may impose special environmental conditions within the
framework of the Business Licensing Law. This law permits local authorities to
refuse a license to a business if it does not comply with environmental
criteria.
The trend in environmental administration is toward greater cooperation
among local authorities in a variety of regional matters, including air
pollution. Numerous local authorities have banded together within the framework
of town associations for the environment. Dozens of municipal environmental
units, regional environmental units and associations of towns for the
environment operate throughout the country.
Decision-Making: Legislation and Regulations
Under the
Planning and Building Law, Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) are required
since 1982 for major projects enumerated in the law or required by planning
authorities. The EIA must include an assessment of anticipated environmental
impact and the means necessary to prevent or abate negative impacts, including
restrictions on emissions of air pollutants from planned installations as
dictated by emission standards based on Best Available Technology (BAT).
Projects for which EIAs have been prepared include the coal-fired power plants
in Hadera and Ashkelon, the crude oil refineries in Haifa and Ashdod and the
cement plants in Haifa, Beit Shemesh and Ramle.
The 1961
Abatement of Nuisances Law is the principal legislative instrument for
controlling air pollution. It
authorizes the Minister of the Environment to promulgate regulations defining
what constitutes considerable or unreasonable air pollution.
Israeli air quality standards were defined in a regulation first
promulgated in 1971 and revised in 1992 (see table below).
Personal
decrees, issued by the Minister of the Environment under the Abatement of
Nuisances Law, have been used extensively to control air pollution from existing
stationary sources and are currently being prepared for public bus cooperatives
as well.
The Traffic
Ordinance of 1961 authorizes traffic magistrates to enforce provisions of the
Abatement of Nuisances Law which relate to motor vehicles. Regulations prohibit the registration of a vehicle unless it
conforms with inspection standards for emissions, including European Union
standards.
Under the
Licensing of Business Law of 1968, local authorities may impose special
environmental conditions within the framework of business licenses.
Environmental restrictions and conditions may be based on USEPA regulations, on
emission standards issued by the Federal Government of Germany (e.g., TA-Luft),
or on other acceptable standards.
The Ministry
of the Environment has drafted emission standards for the following air
pollutants: gaseous inorganic substances, volatile organic compounds,
particulate matter, hazardous inorganic particulate matter, carcinogenic
substances, nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide.
Although these standards have not yet been published as regulations, a
Covenant on Implementation of Standards on Pollutant Emissions into the Air was
signed between the Ministry of the Environment and the Manufacturers Association
in 1997.
Emission
standards for power stations operated by the Israel Electric Corporation are
currently being finalized.
Current
Israel Ambient Air Quality Standards
|
Pollutant |
Chemical
Formula |
Concentration
(in micrograms per cubic meter) |
Time Period |
|
Sulfur
Dioxide |
SO2 |
1000 500 280
60 |
0.5 hour
(absolute) 0.5
(statistical)* 24 hours 1 year |
|
Ozone |
O3 |
230 160 |
0.5 hour 8 hours |
|
Nitrogen
Oxide (as NO2) |
NOx |
940 560 |
0.5 hour 24 hours |
|
Respirable
Particulate Material |
PM10 |
150 60 |
24 hours 1 year |
|
Carbon
Monoxide |
CO |
60 mg/m3 11 mg/m3 |
0.5 hour 8 hours |
·
45 exceedances are permitted annually
Fiscal and financial regulatory and incentive measures for promoting the protection of the atmosphere. is under review in Israel. The aim is to use subsidies as a means of promoting “clean” technologies, including technologies which will protect the atmosphere. Some projects have been launched in recent years to provide financial support to industrial plants wishing to invest in environmental technology or to promote economic efficiency.
Decision-Making: Strategies, Policies and Plans
The main sources of air pollution in Israel are energy production, transport and industry. Israel's air quality policy is based on the following elements: prevention of air pollution through the integration of environmental considerations and physical planning, monitoring and intermittent control systems, legislation and enforcement (including ambient and emission standards), the reduction of pollution sources, and the reduction of pollutant emissions from motor vehicles. According to this policy a new Programme for the control of air quality was completed in 1994.
Top priority is accorded to the creation and implementation of a
comprehensive legal infrastructure and guidelines for all sectors that may
adversely impact the atmosphere including transport, energy generation and
industry.
Reduction of vehicular pollution through the introduction of alternative and cleaner fuels, new and updated standards, more effective enforcement, and mass transport systems including railways;
Reduction of pollution from energy generating stations and
development of alternative, non-polluting sources of energy, especially solar
energy;
Reduction of pollution from industrial plants with the aid of
legislation, stringent supervision and enforcement, and introduction of cleaner
fuels;
Completion and operation of Israel’s national air monitoring network and wide publication of results through a variety of means including electronic signs, the media and the Internet;
Promotion of energy conservation to lower both consumption of energy and emission of pollutants;
Promotion of education and public awareness on issues related to protection of the atmosphere; and
Ratification
and implementation of international conventions and international cooperation.
Greenhouse gas emissions:
Israel
ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 1996 and
signed the Kyoto Protocol in 1998. It has prepared a policy document on the
reduction of greenhouse gas emissions which examines potential measures and
technologies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in different sectors: energy,
industry, private and commercial buildings, transport, agriculture, solid waste
and sewage. Alongside the formulation of technological mitigation options for
reducing greenhouse gases, Israel has prepared a preliminary estimation of the
economic costs and benefits of emissions reduction to 1996 levels under
different scenarios. On this basis, a national climate change action plan was
drafted which proposes solutions for overcoming legislative, bureaucratic and
political impediments by harnessing forces in the economy for the requisite
economic and environmental changes.
Terrestrial and marine resource development for greenhouse gas sinks:
Israel’s strategy is based on afforestation. From 4.5 million trees in 1948 spanning an area of 96,000 hectares, the country’s afforested area has grown to 200 million trees covering some 120,000 hectares. Israel’s forested area includes 80,000 hectares of plantations (including 57,000 hectares of conifers, 9,000 hectares of eucalyptus and 14,000 hectares of broad-leaved trees) and about 40,000 hectares of natural woodlands. Although most forests are composed of conifers and broad-leaved trees, the relatively small area planted with eucalyptuses contributes about 20% of the CO2 removals.
Substances that deplete the ozone layer:
Israel has been party to the Montreal Protocol since 1992 and has
ratified the London, Copenhagen and Vienna Amendments.
It complies with all provisions of the protocol and its amendments,
prohibits or severely restricts the import of ozone depleting materials, with
the exception of permitted recycled materials, and enforces the restrictions
placed on methyl bromide production in Israel. The strategy is to phase out
import, consumption and production of ozone depleting substances in accordance
with the timetables set in the protocol and amendments.
The sale of new equipment (e.g., refrigerators, air conditioners) making
use of controlled substances has already been prohibited, both in order to
reduce use and in order to protect consumers from future implications of the
purchase of such equipment.
Transboundary air pollution:
Israel is ready to cooperate with its neighbors to lower the level of
transboundary air pollution. Environmental cooperation on such issues as air
pollution is part of the peace agreement signed with Jordan in 1994.
Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions: Although not a developed country under the Climate Change Convention, Israel’s goal is to increase economic efficiency while reducing emissions. Recommendations have been made for the reduction of emissions to 1996 levels by 2010 and 2015, with a constant percent of reduction set for each year from 2000 until the target years. In the short term, the introduction of natural gas into the energy production sector, probably beginning in 2003, and methane treatment in landfills beginning in 2002 will bring about reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. To further reduce emissions in the long term, Israel will have to introduce technological improvements while reducing energy consumption by means of taxes, incentives for removal of market failures and cost-effective technological and market substitutes. Energy conservation methods, especially in residential and commercial buildings, introduction of cogeneration and combined cycle technologies, and further development of alternative energy sources, especially solar energy, will help reduce greenhouse emissions in the interim.
Conserving and increasing greenhouse gas sinks:
Israel expects to further develop its forests and to double their surface
within ten years. The National
Masterplan for Forests and Afforestation, approved in 1995, designates 160,000
hectares for the development and conservation of forested land.
Israel’s goal is to further limit the import of ozone depleting substances and the production of methyl bromide as per the requirements of the Montreal Protocol and the accompanying amendments. Although not required to do so, Israel has already begun to reduce the quantity of permitted recycled materials which are imported into the country through restrictions in import licenses. This is expected to increase prices and encourage a move to alternatives. In addition, draft regulations on implementation of the Montreal Protocol have been prepared. They are based on the provisions of the Montreal Protocol and relate to restrictions, inspection and control mechanisms for the import, production and consumption of substances that deplete or are likely to deplete the ozone layer. Initial steps have been made to formulate a policy on implementation of the protocol which will include, inter alia, accelerated phase-out of halons and CFCs in accordance with availability of alternatives. The Standards Institution of Israel has already approved alternative substances for use in fire extinguishing systems, which will gradually phase out the import of certain halons, including those which are recycled and permitted for use.
Mitigating transboundary air pollution:
Israel seeks to reach agreements with its neighbors on reduction of
transboundary pollution. In the short term, reduction of air pollution levels
within Israel will reduce transboundary air pollution in the region.
To date, measures to reduce greenhouse
gas emission have not been separated from measures to reduce pollution and
contamination from industrial and agricultural activities. Measures, however,
have been introduced which will, inter alia, reduce greenhouse gas
emissions. To lower the level of emissions from the industrial sector, the
Environment Ministry and the Manufacturers Association of Israel signed a
Covenant on Implementing Standards on Pollutant Emissions into the Air in
January 1998. In addition, changes in the technology of cement and lime plants
from a wet process to a dry process will bring about considerable savings in the
use of fuel, estimated at 53%. For an anticipated 7.6 tons of cement in 2010, a
switch to the dry process (which has already begun) will bring about savings in
CO2 emissions of about 2.3 million tons. Efforts are also focusing on
energy savings through cogeneration cooling systems and hybrid air conditioning.
Energy savings in large buildings may range between 25-40% through such
means as green building and more efficient heating and cooling systems.
In the agricultural sector, improved manure management and introduction
of controlled release fertilizers are expected to help reduce greenhouse gas
emissions.
Two main changes have been introduced to land use practice in Israel:
Promulgation
of Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations which relate to plans or
projects that may have negative impact on the environment, including the
atmosphere.
Promotion
of afforestation, under the leadership of the Jewish National Fund. One of
the aims of afforestation is to reduce the concentration of carbon dioxide
and other pollutants in the atmosphere.
The primary measures to increase greenhouse gas sinks relate to
afforestation. Some 200 million trees have been planted from the time of
independence of the State in 1948. This represents about 3.5% of the land area
of the country. These 800 square kilometers of forested areas absorb 400,000
tons of carbon dioxide each year (less than 1% of the greenhouse gas emissions
each year). Programs call for
planting another 200 million trees over the coming decade. This will double the
forested surface in Israel and thus also double the capacity of greenhouse gas
absorption as well.
Several government agencies as well as universities and private groups are involved in the development of methods or programs aimed at providing a better understanding of atmospheric changes. Following is a partial list:
Israeli researchers have developed a climate change scenario for Israel’s coastal area.
Decision-Making: Major Groups Involvement
The main groups involved in the decision-making are business and industry, the scientific and technological community, and NGOs. Industrialists are involved in the decision-making process by participating in advisory environment-related forums. In the framework of these forums, industrialists and such organizations as the Manufacturers Association of Israel present recommendations to government agencies and provide technical and factual support to decision-makers. NGOs play an advisory role in these forums, representing the concerns of consumers and environmentalists. The Israel Economic Forum on the Environment was established in 1991 with the aim of increasing environmental awareness of the business community, deepening industry’s involvement in the advancement of environmental quality and minimizing the environmental and atmospheric impacts of industrial operations.
The Forum encourages industry, agriculture, transport and other economic
sectors to incorporate environmental concerns into their socio-economic
development planning. in line with the principles of sustainable development.
The Forum includes over 250 leading economic and academic bodies in
Israel and has joined the International Network for Environmental Management (INEM).
The Israel Union for Environmental Defense, established in 1990, uses legal
means to tackle environmental problems. The organization has served as a
“watchdog” to ensure stringent implementation of environmental laws and has
initiated campaigns to further its aims. It has received legal standing under a
number of Israeli environmental laws to represent the public in court on
environmental issues. Its staff members serve as consultants in Knesset
committee hearings, government meetings and public commissions dealing with
environmental protection. Environmental grassroot organizations have been
created in many geographic areas of the country to deal with local issues,
including air pollution.Scientists play a central role by providing the
professional basis and the expertise necessary for decision-making.
Programmes and Projects
To date,
measures to reduce greenhouse gas emission have not been separated from measures
to reduce pollution and contamination from industrial and agricultural
activities. Measures, however, have been introduced which will, inter alia,
reduce greenhouse gas emissions. To lower the level of emissions from the
industrial sector, the Environment Ministry and the Manufacturers Association of
Israel signed a Covenant on Implementing Standards on Pollutant Emissions into
the Air in January 1998. In addition, changes in the technology of cement and
lime plants from a wet process to a dry process will bring about considerable
savings in the use of fuel, estimated at 53%. For an anticipated 7.6 tons of
cement in 2010, a switch to the dry process (which has already begun) will bring
about savings in CO2 emissions of about 2.3 million tons. Efforts are
also focusing on energy savings through cogeneration cooling systems and hybrid
air conditioning. Energy savings in
large buildings may range between 25-40% through such means as green building
and more efficient heating and cooling systems.
In the
agricultural sector, improved manure management and introduction of controlled
release fertilizers are expected to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Promotion of afforestation, under the leadership of the Jewish
National Fund. One of the aims of afforestation is to reduce the concentration
of carbon dioxide and other pollutants in the atmosphere.
The primary measures to increase greenhouse gas sinks relate to
afforestation. Some 200 million trees have been planted from the time of
independence of the State in 1948. This represents about 3.5% of the land area
of the country. These 800 square kilometers of forested areas absorb 400,000
tons of carbon dioxide each year (less than 1% of the greenhouse gas emissions
each year).
Several government
agencies as well as universities and private groups are involved in the
development of methods or programs aimed at providing a better understanding of
atmospheric changes. Following is a partial list:
The Ministry of the Environment has established a 24-station national monitoring network, composed of population and transportation stations, regional control centers and a national control center for data storage, analysis and display. The network, which monitors concentrations of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, ozone, carbon monoxide, particles smaller than 10 µm and hydrocarbons, provides real-time information about air quality throughout the country. In addition, dozens of air pollution monitoring systems exist in urban areas and in areas adjacent to power plants for the purpose of monitoring air quality on a continual basis.
Israeli researchers have developed a climate change scenario for Israel’s coastal area.
Scientists in Israel universities have analyzed temperature and precipitation changes and extreme weather events in Israel in recent decades.
The Israel Meteorological Service
is involved in programs related to understanding atmospheric processes.
The School of Chemistry at Tel Aviv University has developed a
novel portable air monitoring system for fast detection and identification of
organic air pollutants. It has also developed a system to understand pollutant
dispersion in the atmosphere.
The Faculty of Life Sciences at Tel Aviv University has developed
the use of lichens (a symbiotic association of a mushroom and an alga) as an air
pollution indicator.
The Internal Combustion Engines Laboratory at the Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering of the Technion - Israel Institute of Technology in
Haifa, has developed a system for the evaluation of exhaust emission from motor
vehicles by remote sensing technology.
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem has developed sophisticated
technologies for measuring extremely small concentrations of compounds in the
atmosphere which contribute to the study of atmospheric pollution transport and
processes and formation of photochemical smog.
The Weizmann Institute has developed tools for climate research
(isotopic tools for paleooceanography, study of El Nino).
Status
It is assessed that
over 1,500 people die each year as a result of air pollution. Furthermore,
epidemiological surveys conducted over the past two decades have been carried
out to assess the impact of major sources of air pollution, such as power plants
and industrial areas, on the health of the population in their vicinity. Health
impacts associated with air pollution have generally been related to an increase
in respiratory diseases and symptoms, aggravation of cardio-pulmonary
conditions, reduced lung function, and eye and respiratory irritation.
A preliminary attempt to assess how systems in Israel will react to
climate change has been completed. Given the level of medical care and standard
of life in Israel, it is unlikely that climate change will adversely impact
human health. Nevertheless, it is possible that climate change will facilitate
the spread of existing vectors and the establishment of invasive ones and will
increase the probability of water-related epidemics. It is also possible that
sandstorms and dust storms, which are expected to increase with climate change,
will exacerbate respiratory disorders. With regard to settlements, Israel’s
heavily populated coastal plain will be most vulnerable to coastal erosion. Sea
level rise may lead to the loss of valuable lands, buildings and tourist
facilities in close proximity to the sandstone coastal cliffs.
Climate change is also expected to impact on agriculture.
Greater rain intensities and flooding may destroy crops in the coastal
plain, on the one hand, while the drought effect may intensify, on the other.
Israel’s advantage in exporting early crops may be lost when the growing
season will be delayed due to the projected delay in winter rains. Furthermore,
climate change may create environmental conditions favorable to the
establishment of pests and pathogens. Climate change is also expected to
adversely impact biodiversity in Israel. Sensitive ecosystems in Israel include the coral reefs of the
Red Sea, the coastal wetlands and isolated mountain ecosystems.
The most dramatic changes in ecosystem structure and composition are
likely to occur in the semi-arid region of Israel, the desert/non-desert ecotone.
Moreover, climate change is expected to exacerbate desertification.
Israel has prepared
a national inventory of emissions and removals of greenhouse gases.
By far the largest source of CO2 emissions is the oxidation of
carbon when fossil fuels are burned to produce energy. In 1996, 51,863 thousand
tons of CO2 were emitted into the atmosphere, as a result of fuel
combustion and industrial processes (mainly cement production).
CO2 emissions from electricity production have grown steadily
in the 1990s, largely as a result of the dramatic increase in population and
economic activity in Israel (Israel’s population grew by nearly 30% over the
past decade with the influx of over 950,000 immigrants in the 1990s alone). The
increase in demand for electricity in the past decade was an unprecedented 6%
per year. As a result, CO2
emissions from electricity production alone increased from 16.66 million tons in
1990 to 44.21 million tons in 1999.
The contribution of
methane emissions from decomposition of solid waste is very significant.
It is second in importance only to the contribution of CO2
from energy production. Enteric fermentation contribution about 75% of the
methane emissions from domestic livestock, mostly from cattle.
Manure management contributes 25% of the emissions mainly due to cattle
and poultry manure. In all, some
425 thousand tons of methane were emitted in 1996.
The contribution of nitrous oxide emissions from agriculture is dominant,
but nitrous oxide contributes only 3% to total CO2 equivalent
emissions. Greenhouse gas emissions from N2O totaled just over 6
thousand tons in 1996. 3.7% of the land in Israel can be
considered a greenhouse gas sink. This represents 827 square kilometers of
forest, mostly planted by the Jewish National Fund.
Challenges
Sulfur dioxide concentrations have decreased significantly since the
1980s as a result of the growing use of low sulfur fuel. On the other hand,
nitrogen oxide concentrations have increased significantly, especially in urban
centers, with the Tel Aviv metropolitan area plagued by the highest
concentrations. A regional
analysis shows an annual average of 25 micrograms/cubic meters in Ashkelon, 33
in Haifa, 34 in Hadera, 57 in Ashdod, 60 in Jerusalem and over 121 in the Tel
Aviv metropolitan area.
Since ozone is a secondary pollutant, it is difficult to associate
concentrations measured in different parts of the country with specific emission
sources in the same region. As a
result, relatively high concentrations of ozone were measured in more remote
areas, including Jerusalem and the eastern parts of the country, rather than in
the Tel Aviv metropolitan area. Results
of monitoring reveal the severity of reparable particulate matter pollution.
The center to south of the country is
characterized by levels which approach and even exceed the annual standard. This
is attributed to the combination of desert dust and industrial and transport
emissions. Populations living
near transportation axes are most severely affected by pollution. An analysis of
pollutants emitted by transportation sources show that some 80% of nitrogen
oxide concentrations measured in transportation monitoring stations originated
in diesel vehicles.
With regard to greenhouse gases, it is necessary to create competitive conditions in the energy production sector through greater privatization and through internalization of the external costs of energy production. In addition, greater investments in research and development by government are required along with changes in the tax system, such as imposition of a carbon tax. The small area of the country precludes significant increases in greenhouse sinks.
Atmospheric pollution affects different parts of the country, but especially the population residing in congested urban areas. There is no mechanism of compensation or protection from damages caused by air pollution. Atmospheric pollution affects different parts of the country, but especially the population residing in congested urban areas. There is no mechanism of compensation or protection from damages caused by air pollution.
Capacity-building, Education, Training
and Awareness-raising
The Ministry of the Environment and NGOs are the major actors involved
in promoting public awareness of climate change and protection of the
atmosphere. They disseminate information by utilization of the media,
publications, demonstrations and school programs for students. Results of air
monitoring in Israel are published on the Internet site of the Ministry of the
Environment. Public information
campaigns focus on air quality and on enforcement of environmental legislation,
including laws related to pollution from motor vehicles.
Drivers whose cars do not comply with air quality standards are subject
to fines.
Since 1995 Israel has participated in the Global Learning and
Observations to Benefit the Environment (GLOBE) project, a worldwide network of
students, teachers and scientists working together to study and understand the
global environment. The three-year
program is implemented in 60 elementary, junior and senior high schools
throughout the country. Students
take part in scientific observations in a number of areas, including atmosphere
and climate. To assimilate
energy conservation principles, students are exposed to the subject at different
grade levels.
An energy conservation curriculum program is included in the educational
program for fifth to seventh grades. At higher levels, drawing competitions are held and a
national energy conservation contest is conducted.
In recent years, a new prize bearing competition for secondary schools
focusing on the environment has been launched.
Two prize categories are awarded: one for outstanding research projects
on the environment prepared by 11th and 12th graders and
one to high schools that promote environmental studies. In both cases,
protection of the atmosphere is included. About
30% of Israeli high schools currently offer programs dealing with environmental
protection. 1000 students conducted environmental projects in high school in
1997/1998, 1500 in 1998/1999 and about 2700 in the year 1999/2000. Such programs
exist in all Israeli universities. All universities have departments for
atmospheric studies.
Information
Israel has established and operates a computerized national air quality
monitoring network which generates real-time information about air quality
throughout the country. In addition, the Ministry of the Environment has begun
to develop indicators on air pollution which currently relate to nitrogen
oxides, sulfur dioxide and particulate matter. These indicators show the change
in pollutant emissions per capita over time and compare Israel’s emissions to
European Union levels. They also
predict future levels based on various development scenarios.
Scientific data and information, based on the results of the national air quality monitoring network, appears on the web site of the Ministry of the Environment: www.environment.gov.il Annual reports are published in Hebrew and in English. The Israel Space Agency – Middle East Interactive Data Archive was established in order to create and maintain an earth observing data center available through Internet to the research community and to the general public. It is one of the international data centers participating in NASA’s Earth Observing System Data Information System (EOSDIS). The regional center for NASA’s EOSDIS was officially inaugurated in 1999. Data will include detailed assessments and forecasts of atmospheric variables such as temperature, wind, humidity, clouds, dust, ozone, other aerosols and gases over the Middle East as well as earth surface fields such as land cover, moisture and vegetation. Such information is disseminated through written reports and through the Internet.
Israel's energy economy is based on fossil fuels, mainly oil and coal. Data on the amount of pollutants emitted into the atmosphere from fuel combustion show significant declines in the levels of sulfur oxides and lead, increased emissions of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons, and no significant change in concentrations of suspended particulate matter.
In 1994, 63 air monitoring stations were operating in Israel. All of them monitor sulfur dioxide. Nitrogen oxide and particulate matters are monitored in most of the stations, and ozone and/or carbon monoxide in a few. A new network monitors airborne chemicals at the hazardous waste disposal site. The limited information available indicates that sulfur dioxide levels are mostly below regulation limits; nitrogen dioxide is significantly above the limits in some areas; and ozone levels are mostly above the recommended limits.
The monitoring network, as it is today, is not comprehensive enough for formulating a national air quality management programme. Consequently Israel has recently prepared a preliminary programme for a multimillion-dollar national air monitoring system with a central data storage and display center. The national system will be based on three levels of activity: individual stations, regional control centers and a national data processing center. The types of station will vary according to the nature of the pollutants. Some 50 stations are planned, in addition to the 63 stations currently in operations. The project will be implemented over a three-year period.
Research and Technologies
The air monitoring network includes a national control center in Ramle, three
regional centers and 24 monitoring stations based on the following four
categories:
The analytical monitors in each station are fully automated and EPA approved. In addition to monitoring the pollutants noted above, each station contains an automatic calibration system, temperature and relative humidity sensors, data acquisition and transfer hardware, wind speed and direction measurement. Intermittent control systems provide for early detection of high pollution levels and dictate the use of very low sulfur fuel.
The technologies linked to reduction of greenhouse gas emissions are
largely related to development of non-polluting forms of energy. Solar heating
is widely used in Israel and wide-scale research on solar energy technology is
taking place in institutes of higher learning, especially the Weizmann Institute
of Science and Ben-Gurion University of the Negev. In the former, a
3000-kilowatt facility enables solar technologies to be tested on a large scale.
Major features include a field of 64 computer-controlled mirrors which
track the movement of the sun and are controlled by a computer that calculates
the sun’s position relative to the
earth for every second of the year. The light collected in the field is
redirected to a receiving tower at the field’s southern edge.
This 54-meter receiving tower contains five separate experimental
stations, allowing several experiments to be carried out simultaneously. The directions of research include high-temperature solar
thermal conversion; solar-driven chemistry for energy storage and synthetic fuel
production; advanced optics for high concentration; solar pumped laser;
split-spectrum multiple conversion systems; and solar enrichment of fuels.
At the National Solar Energy Center at Ben-Gurion University of the
Negev a wide array of solar-thermal facilities exist for testing purposes. The
Center is active in solar radiation studies, photovoltaic research,
solar-thermal research and advanced parabolic troughs research. Of special
interest is the use of a 25-m diameter parabolic dish to generate electric power
by concentrating solar energy onto a relatively small area of photovoltaic
cells. Some of the technologies developed in universities have formed the basis
for industrial scale application. An industrial consortium has been set up to develop
concentrated solar energy technologies aimed at future commercial applications.
Additional alternative energy technologies include the “energy
tower” developed at the Technion-Israel
Institute of Technology and wind energy. Several Israeli companies have
pioneered solar energy technologies that influence the international renewable
energy industry. One company has become a world leader in the design and
installation of electricity generating equipment for low temperature heat,
mainly geothermal and industrial waste heat.
An Israeli company has developed a system for bio-treatment of municipal
waste to produce clean energy and compost.
The process automatically separates recyclable matter such as metals,
plastics and glass from unsorted household waste and transforms the organic
fraction of the waste into biogas and soil conditioning compost. Israel
needs technologies targeted at reducing car emissions. These include
computerized fuel injection systems, carbon canisters, particulate traps for
fuel vapor absorption, and installation of oxidizing and catalytic converters.
Financing
The main sources of funding are public. At present, ideas are being discussed with respect to means
of increasing the volume of funding for protection of the atmosphere.
Cooperation
Israel has signed
bilateral agreements with several countries on environmental protection,
including cooperation on protection of the atmosphere. Agreements signed with
the United States Environmental Protection Agency and with Germany, for example,
include a framework for scientific and technical cooperation and for development
of more advanced standards.
Academic cooperation is an important element as well. Universities
cooperate to develop programs of monitoring and protection of the atmosphere.
Notable is the collaboration between Israel and Germany on the development of an
electric car.
Environmental research studies are also carried out within the framework of research and development agreements with North America, Europe and Asia as well as bilateral agreements with countries throughout the world. One notable example is the United States-Israel Science and Technology Commission, which includes a binational committee on environment. Also noteworthy are the European Union Fourth and Fifth Framework Programs. Within this program, several activities relate to quality of life, energy, environment and sustainable development.
In line with its obligations, Israel has prepared a national
greenhouse gas inventory and a policy document on mitigation options for
reducing emissions in various sectors. A
preliminary assessment of vulnerability and adaptation measures to climate
change has also been prepared. These
and other reports have been integrated into Israel’s First National
Communication to the Conference of the Parties to the Climate Change Convention
which was submitted in November 2000.
Israel ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in
1996 and signed the Kyoto Protocol in 1998. Israel established an inter-ministerial
committee on climate change in 1996 whose members include
representatives of relevant government ministries, industries and
non-governmental organizations. The
committee is charged with formulating national policy and strategy, while
closely following up on developments in the field.
With regard to policy on climate change, following the ratification of
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1996, the
government instructed the Environment Minister to establish an inter-ministerial
committee to formulate Israel’s policy on greenhouse gas reduction. The
committee includes representatives from the Ministries of the Environment,
Industry and Trade, Transport, Finance, National Infrastructures, Science, and
Agriculture. It also includes representatives of the Jewish National Fund, the
Israel Electric Corporation, the Manufacturers Association, and the academic
sector.
Israel ratified the Montreal Protocol in 1992 and has subsequently ratified the London, Copenhagen and Vienna Amendments. To comply with all provisions of the Montreal Protocol, Israel prohibits or restricts the import of ozone depleting materials with the exception of permitted recycled materials, enforces the restrictions placed on methyl bromide production in Israel, and invests major efforts in finding alternatives to methyl bromide.
Since ratification of the Montreal Protocol, Israel has made the required annual contribution to the Montreal Trust Fund (an amount of $US 465,885 for 1996). At the 1995 Conference of Parties to the Montreal Protocol (reiterated at the 8th Conference of the COP in Costa Rica), Israel committed itself to a 25% reduction in the production of methyl bromi