Agenda 21 - Iceland

The Ministry of Agriculture is primarily responsible for developing a sustainable agricultural policy in Iceland, in coordination with the Ministry for the Environment. The Government policy goal is that all Icelandic agriculture should meet the requirements of sustainable development, in particular with respect to soil erosion and other measures that prevent the deterioration of land condition, and soil, water and ground water pollution.

The Soil Conservation Service operates according to a Land Reclamation Programme, but is hampered by a legal environment that is in many ways obsolete. Currently, the legislation on land conservation and reclamation is being reviewed by a committee with the aim of introducing new legislation in the year 2000.

The 1997 Action Plan for Sustainable Development contains chapters on agriculture and regional development. The Action Plan was reviewed by an ad-hoc committee in 1999. The Government policy goal is that all Icelandic agriculture should meet the requirements of sustainable development, in particular with respect to soil erosion and other measures that prevent the deterioration of land condition, and soil, water and ground water pollution. International trade relations have been reviewed in the light of agricultural production.

The 1997 Action Plan's provisions on agriculture deal particularly with land use, grazing and soil erosion, afforestation, wetlands, exotic plant and animal species, organic waste and other waste from agriculture, hunting of wild species and aquaculture. In the 1999 review of the Action Plan, the following were cited as major steps towards implementing sustainable development in agriculture:

The 1997 Action Plan for Sustainable Development was developed in co-operation with interested groups, including farmers and local communities. The Soil Conservation Service has in recent years strengthened its cooperation with farmers in land reclamation and preventing soil erosion, especially by a programme called "Farmers Reclaiming the Land".

In Iceland, the level of crop production is extremely small, with agriculture being primarily concentrated on animal husbandry. The low level of crop production means that the use of fertilizers and pesticides is minimal, and pollution problems linked to agriculture are usually not serious.

Soil erosion and livestock grazing has been the overriding concern in ensuring the sustainability of agriculture in Iceland. During the last few years, cooperation between the authorities and farmers has had a positive effect on reducing grazing pressures. Overgrazing, however, still exists. While there has been a significant decrease in the number of sheep, the increasing number of horses causes concern in many areas. The solution will include a reduction in the number of horses by improving breed development strategies, awareness raising, management education and improved land use monitoring. Furthermore, areas of severe degradation will be protected from grazing and a better connection established between land condition and livestock grazing.

Land conservation and rehabilitation is a priority task for Iceland, given the extensive soil erosion that has occurred since settlement. The task of fighting and reversing soil erosion is led and coordinated by the Soil Conservation Service, a government agency under the Ministry of Agriculture.

Pesticide use in agriculture is very low in Iceland, due to the country's cool climate and limited crop production (total sales of pesticides amounted to about 5 kilograms per km2 in 1994, about 5% of the average for the Nordic countries). Chemical fertilizers with NPK are necessary to attain high sustainable crop production. In most areas there is a need for sulfur. Other micronutrients may be needed locally. Livestock’s manure is widely used, primarily for grass production, but also for horticulture. There is increased use of legumes for soil conservation purposes.

The Government has not prepared a water resource policy for food and agriculture. Freshwater is abundant in Iceland and water availability and water logging are not problems for agriculture. On a general scale, agriculture has very little effect on water quality in Iceland, although there can be local problems of a limited scale. A programme run by local authorities in the South of Iceland has surveyed water quality in rural areas in Iceland's main agricultural area, with the aim of locating and improving unsatisfactory water quality and runoff from farms.

There have been no major initiatives on behalf of the Icelandic Government to promote crop rotation and diversification or intensification of production.

Numerous initiatives have been launched to increase public awareness and participation for promoting sustainable agriculture practices. The Soil Conservation Service has been especially active in publishing information and guidelines for schools, farmers and the general public on the subject of soil erosion and "land literacy". Numerous volunteer projects for soil reclamation and afforestation exist, with NGOs devoted to afforestation being especially strong and active in Iceland.

Environmental education and training in land use management is being improved in the agricultural vocational schools. There has been a significant increase in public awareness and participation, and a clear progress in the effort to halt soil erosion, which has remained a serious problem in Iceland over a long time.

Information is widely available on sustainable agriculture in Iceland, especially on the subject of soil erosion and sustainable grazing. The Soil Conservation Service, in cooperation with the Agricultural Research Institute and others, has published several brochures and guidebooks, intended for farmers and the general public. Recent publications include "Land literacy", an illustrated guidebook on erosion sent to all secondary schools in Iceland, and "Horse Grazing Lands", a handbook for horse farmers on how to ensure responsible grazing by horses. The Agricultural Research Institute maintains a comprehensive web-site on soil erosion ( http://www.rala.is/kvasir). Information on sustainable agriculture is also available on the web-site of the Soil Conservation Service ( http://www.landgr.is ) and the Ministry of Agriculture (http://www.stjr.is/lan).

Environmentally sound energy transition in rural communities has been completed as well as the transfer of technology to increase input to rural households. All rural towns and virtually all farms by now have access to the national electric grid, which is powered by hydro and geothermal energy.

Major steps have been taken since 1992 in strengthening the scientific base of soil erosion research and land reclamation. A comprehensive survey and map of soil erosion was published in 1997, the first of its kind. A comprehensive land inventory will be developed in the coming years. This information will greatly enhance the possibility of managing livestock grazing in a sustainable way, according to the state and vulnerability of the vegetation cover. The Government launched a programme in 1995 to sequestrate carbon dioxide into biomass via afforestation and land reclamation. The aim is to sequestrate 100.000 tons more in biomass in the year 2000 than in 1990, a goal that seems certain to be reached.

Iceland is a participant in the Nordic Gene Bank and the Nordic Gene Bank for Livestock, sponsored by the Nordic Council of Ministers, which takes part in agricultural research in Iceland and conservation of genetic resources.

This information was provided by the Government of Iceland to the fifth and eighth sessions of the Untied Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last Update: January 2000.

ATMOSPHERE

The Ministry for the Environment is responsible for making decisions for protecting the atmosphere. The Environment and Food Agency is responsible for monitoring air pollution and emissions. Decision-making on protecting the atmosphere is generally a matter of the national government.

To formulate and implement the policy with regard to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and Iceland's programme to halt emissions of greenhouse gases and sequestrate carbon from the atmosphere, the government created a task force composed of secretary generals of eight government ministries. This Task Force is headed by the Ministry for the Environment, and other participating Ministries include: Finance; Foreign Affairs; Agriculture; Fisheries; Industry; Communications; and Office of the Prime Minister.

The main law addressing the protection of the atmosphere is the 1998 Law on Pollution Control and Hygiene. Numerous regulations exist on the basis of this law, aimed at specific emissions and emission sources. A reduction in tariffs for low- and zero-emissions vehicles (electric, hydrogen fuel cell, hybrid etc.) has recently been introduced. A law introducing a special fee on hazardous waste, including ozone-depleting substances, was adopted in 1996; it has helped spur greater recovery of ozone-depleting substances for recycling or safe disposal.

There is a government strategy to curb the emissions of greenhouse gases and to sequestrate carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. A new five-year strategy is under preparation.

Iceland's strategy in phasing out ozone-depleting substances is spelled out in regulations from 1993 and 1997. The import and sale of halons was banned in 1993 and that of methyl bromide in 1994. The sale of CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances was limited or halted completely in 1995-1996, with the exception of HFCs. The use of HFCs is now restricted and will be completely banned in 2015.

To protect the atmosphere, the Government of Iceland has designed programmes and policies on household energy efficiency, industrial pollution control, sound land-use practices, sound management of marine resources and management of toxic and other hazardous wastes. Policies for environmentally sound and efficient transportation are under consideration.

The government aim has been to halt net greenhouse gas emissions at 1990 levels until the year 2000, excluding new and expanded energy-intensive industry that uses non-polluting energy (hydro and geothermal). This goal now looks likely to be met. According to the Kyoto protocol, Iceland's emissions should not increase more than 10% in 2008-2012 compared to 1990 levels. A programme aimed at increasing carbon sequestration in forest and vegetation by 100.000 tons of CO2 a year has been in effect for some years. Iceland has phased out ozone depleting substances at a fast rate, according to provisions of the Montreal Protocol. Transboundary air pollution is a minimal problem in Iceland, due to its geographical location.

The Government, in accordance with the UNFCCC, has adopted a plan of action for reducing emissions of greenhouse gases in Iceland. Furthermore, comprehensive programmes for soil reclamation and reforestation have been adopted to support the conservation and enhancement of sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases.

Major Groups have been consulted in the preparation of legislation and regulation in this area.

Iceland has for decades aimed at reclaiming soil and vegetation lost to extensive soil erosion and to increase the amount of forest cover in the country. In 1997, the government adopted a programme aimed at increasing carbon sequestration by afforestation and revegetalisation by additional 100.000 tons a year until the year 2000.

It is very hard to assess the likely impact of atmospheric changes in Iceland, as natural fluctuations in climate in the North Atlantic are unusually large, and could therefore mitigate or exacerbate global climate changes. While a cooling in local climate is possible, some warming is the most likely outcome, according to a scientific assessment published in 2000. This could have a positive outcome for some economic activity, including fisheries and agriculture. The outcome for fisheries and the ecosystem in the waters around Iceland, is, however, very uncertain. It is believed that the effect of climate change on human health in Iceland would be minimal.

The latest official figures in greenhouse gas emissions are from 1998. In the period from 1990 to 1998 there has been a 16,2% increase in the emissions of CO2, a 5,0% reduction in CH4, a 4,0% increase in N2O, a 65,1% decrease in FC, no change in emissions of SF6 and a 38.000 ton (CO2-eq.) increase in emissions of HFC (up from zero). The total increase in greenhouse gas emissions in 1990-1998 was 6,2%, in CO2-equivalents.

	1990 '000 tons	1998 '000 tons	Change 1990-1998, %
CO₂	2.147	2.494	16,2%
CH₄	294	280	-5,0%
N₂O	126	131	4,0%
HFC	0	38
FC	304	106	-65,1%
SF₆	5	5	0,0%
Total	2.877	3.055	6,2%

Halons should have been phased out 100% in the year 2000. Emissions of CFCs have decreased more than 95%. Emissions of CCl4, metylbromide and HBFC are zero now. HCFC is still in use, to be phased out in 2015.

In some fish meal plants and other industrial sectors, secondary power has already replaced oil for steam reduction. A review of energy supply mixes shows that 64% of primary energy consumption is covered with hydro-energy and geothermal sources. Eighty-five per cent of oil is used for transport. Coal is only used as reduction material in aluminium and ferrosilicium production. So far, Iceland has not introduced energy- or emission-related taxes.

Since January 1995, the use of CFCs has only been permitted in medical dose inhalators (until December 31, 996). Halons (Me Br, HBFC, CCI and I.II trichloroetan) are no longer permitted, and HCFCs are allowed only until 2015.

Air pollution is generally a minor problem in Iceland, due to the country's sparse population, relative lack of polluting industry, clean energy sources (over 95% of stationary energy comes from clean and renewable sources) and distance from industrial centers in Europe and North America. An increase of cars and traffic has caused a minor air pollution problem in Reykjavik, Iceland's biggest urban area.

As for ozone-depleting substances, there are no major obstacles, and their phasing-out has been on schedule, usually ahead of required deadlines. As for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, Iceland faces major structural problems. Almost all (over 90%) of stationary energy in Iceland was provided for by clean and renewable energy sources already in 1990, leaving little room for emission reductions in that sector, where most reductions in other countries has taken place. There is room for reduced emissions in the transport and fisheries sector, but these would have to depend to great extent on technological advance. The last main source of greenhouse gas emissions in Iceland is from industrial processes in metal smelting. This industry, however, uses Iceland's clean and renewable hydro- and geothermal energy, and thus ensures minimum possible emissions on a global scale, provided that best available technology is in use.

Iceland has vast possibilities for greenhouse gas sinks in soil and vegetation, as much of its territory has suffered from serious soil erosion, which can be reversed by revegtalization and reforestation.

The government published and disseminated a report on climate change and Iceland's effort to curb it in 1997. Another report on the possible consequences of climate change for Iceland was published in 2000.

Methane gas is now extracted from a Reykjavik landfill and used as fuels for cars and buses. A joint venture has been established to introduce buses and other vehicles running on hydrogen fuel cells in Iceland. Emissions of fluorocarbons from the aluminum industry have decreased significantly due to better technology and an agreement between the industry and the government. There has been some decrease in emissions from fishmeal factories, due to a switch from oil heating to electricity.

A number of studies on health effects resulting from air pollution and ozone layer depletion have been conducted by the government, for example, on the impact of ultraviolet radiation on eyes and skin. Legislation has also been revised, for instance, to reduce the use of ozone depleting substances. Based on the results of the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in 1998, the government established a committee composed of scientists and specialists to assess and evaluate possible consequences of climate change for Iceland and the results of the committee were published in fall 2000.

With regard to different means the government can use in the energy, transport and industry sectors to protect the atmosphere, Iceland prefers the use and development of safe technologies, research and development relating to appropriate methodologies, modernization and rehabilitation of power systems, development of new and renewable energy systems, use of endogenous technologies and raising public awareness and participation, i.e. through environmental impact assessment and product labeling aimed at informing the public about energy and fuel efficiency. Product life-cycle analysis and eco-audits are already under preparation.

Iceland ratified and implemented the Montreal Protocol (1987), its London Amendment (1990) and its Copenhagen Amendment (1992) in 1994. The latest report to the Montreal Protocol Secretariat was prepared in 1996 for the year 1995. Iceland signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 1993. The latest report to the UNFCCC Secretariat was submitted in 1996. Iceland has also ratified the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and has a national plan to implement it. Iceland has signed and ratified the Convention on Long-Range Tran boundary Air Pollution. The participates in the Global Observing System. In 1995, there were five local observation stations in Iceland. Transport emissions observation are comprehensive and systematic. Iceland has not yet signed the Kyoto Protocol.

In 1996 Iceland had contributed US$200,000 to the Vienna/Montreal Trust Fund. Bilateral assistance for the substitution of ozone-depleting substances in developing countries has not been made available.

This information was provided by the Government of Iceland to the 5th and 9th Sessions of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last Update: February 2001.

BIODIVERSITY

The Ministry of the Environment, supported by the National Institute of Natural History and the Food and Environment Agency, is responsible for bio-diversity and genetic resources in Iceland.

Legislation concerning the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity is being strengthened. A special steering group for biodiversity is in the process of being established. With regard to economic instruments, agricultural subsidization for drainage of wetlands has been abolished. Measures were also planned to be taken to enable the Nature Conservation Council to lease the management of protected areas to private organizations on condition that such organizations provide the required services and surveillance, and all developments in the area are approved by the Nature Conservation Council.

Iceland was prepared a national strategy on the conservation of biological diversity in 1996. For the sustainable management of marine and terrestrial resources, measures will be taken to restore and strengthen depleted fish stocks and to bring soil erosion under control. More national parks and protected areas will be established, especially in the wetlands, coastal areas, the central highlands and in other uninhabited areas having important ecological, scientific, educational and recreational values. Also new types of parks will be established, for instance, aquatic parks in the coastal areas. In 1990, 9% (9,264 km2) of the total land area was protected. A plan will be introduced to improve the management of these areas. Legislation is also being amended in order to better meet the provisions of the international conventions on biological diversity. For example, all populations of wild terrestrial mammals and birds are to be conserved, except where specifically indicated.

Local populations of fauna and flora in Iceland are generally in good condition, therefore, Iceland is not a party to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. There are no threatened mammal species. Iceland is particularly rich in bird life. The latest comprehensive baseline survey concerning biodiversity was conducted in 1995-1996.

Still, there are a few serious problems. Since the settlement of the country in the 9th century, approx. 80% of the country's vegetation and soil resources have been lost due to erosion and deterioration of the vegetative cover. Today, continuous vegetation covers only some 25% of the total land area, and birch forests and bushes only about 1%. As a result of major drainage and cultivation of wetlands during the past forty years, there are only a few undisturbed wetlands left in the lowlands, affecting the flora and fauna in these areas.

The flora and fauna are also endangered by genetic mixing with imported and cultivated species. This applies, in particular, to freshwater fisheries and, to a less extent, to some imported tree species and the seeding of land with lupins to combat erosion. In addition, habitat destruction, over-harvesting and inappropriate introduction of animals cause moderate fauna loss. The role of pollution is insignificant. Over-harvesting has caused serious losses to flora, while the impact of habitat destruction and inappropriate introduction of foreign plants is moderate. Pollution is not a significant factor. A red list for plants has been issued by the Institute of Natural History, and a red list for animals is under preparation.

Three Icelandic wetlands, Lake Myvatn, Lake Thjórsárver and Grunnafjórdur Bay, have been selected to be sites of international importance in terms of ecology and zoology in accordance with the Ramsar Convention. The biodiversity of Lake Myvatn is threatened by diatomite mining, and the other Ramsar site, Thjórsárver, by energy development (dam building in river Thjórsá).

Since 1992, public spending on the conservation of biological diversity has increased 5% and private financing by 10%.

Iceland signed the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1992 and ratified it on 12 September 1994. No report has been submitted. Iceland participates in two important regional monitoring systems: Monitoring of marine pollution in the North East Atlantic under the Oslo and Paris Conventions, and monitoring of the flora and fauna and pollution of the Arctic region within the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy.

This information was provided by the Government of Iceland to the fifth session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last Update: April 1997.

DESERTIFICATION AND DROUGHT

The Soil Conservation Service, under the co-ordination of the Ministry of Agriculture, is mainly responsible for anti-desertification measures. The Soil Conservation Law (1965) grants authorities the means to combat desertification. Furthermore, the Ministry of Agriculture has prepared a national Soil Conservation Strategy (1991). The Soil Conservation Law is being revised, and the revision is expected to be completed in 1997-8.

BGOs participate in anti-desertification activities on ad hoc basis. Women and youth participate in specific projects at all levels (national, district and field).

The Government aims at bringing soil erosion under control and achieving sustainable land use as soon as possible. Landowners, institutions and enterprises, as well as the society as a whole, share the responsibility for implementation. The soil conservation authorities, mainly the Soil Conservation Service, will be given stronger capacities to manage and monitor grazing practices, protected areas threaten by erosion and to restore denuded land.

According to a survey completed in 1996, about 40% of Iceland, or 40.000 km2, falls under the definition of desertification contained in the convention, despite ample rain. Desertification is mainly caused by the interaction of grazing effects, both past and present, with sensitive soils and vegetation. Grazing has in some cases been identified as having serious consequences. Measures are being planned to restrict livestock grazing to areas where it does not cause deterioration in the quality of the land. The government has encouraged a more conservative use of land by providing financial assistance and guidance. Other governmental activities include afforestation and the use of indigenous know-how and technology transfer.

In general, there is a lack of trained staff in Iceland. In 1980, the number of professional staff in the Soil Conversation Service was 2; in 1990, 4; and in 1996, the number of professional staff was still only 12. This is not considered adequate. At the grass roots level, the number of trained staff is insufficient.

In addition to policy and legal instruments, efforts to improve environmental knowledge and education at all levels of the school system have begun. Special emphasis has been put on land care. Media has been an important means to increase public awareness on this issue.

In 1980, the budget of the Soil Conservation Service was US$ 3.4 million. Despite the increase in the number of staff, the budget was decreased to US$ 3 million in 1990 and remained the same in 1996. In general, public spending in this sector has increased by 5% since 1992. Approximately US$ 10 million of local funding and US$ 3 million of external funding is needed to implement the national Soil Conservation Strategy by the year 2000.

Ratification of the International Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Drought and/or Desertification Particularly in Africa was expected to be completed in 1997.

This information was provided by the Government of Iceland to the 5th Session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last Update: April 1997.

ENERGY

The Ministry of Industry is responsible for energy issues in general. It also deals with energy-related aspects of atmosphere, in coordination with the Ministry for the Environment. The Ministry of Communications is responsible for energy-related aspects of transport.

Iceland's policy is to further use its abundant domestic energy resources for economic development, diversification of the economy, regional development and environmental benefits derived from using clean and renewable energy. This utilization of hydro, geothermal and other energy sources should be made by taking into account nature conservation concerns, which limit their overall utilization and call for modification of specific projects. Iceland aims to be the first or one of the first countries in the world to account for all its energy use from clean and renewable energy sources.

Iceland has developed transportation technologies and considered the relative cost-effectiveness of alternative energy systems. The Government Working Group addressing this issue has submitted policy proposals which will be included in the National Agenda 21 (National Programme of Action).

A task force composed of the secretary generals of eight government ministries is in charge of formulating and implementing policy with regard to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and Iceland's national programme to halt emissions of greenhouse gases and sequestrate carbon from the atmosphere. Among single projects that have been undertaken to combat climate change are: The reduction of fluorocarbons emissions from the main aluminum smelter, the provision of electricity to ships in harbours, a change from oil to electricity as an energy source for fishmeal factories, a further expansion of geothermal heating for houses, the collection of methane from landfills, and a project aimed at increasing carbon sequestration in trees and vegetation.

Import tariffs have been lowered on non- and low-polluting engines and vehicles. Icelandic authorities have sponsored a joint venture, which will explore possibilities for using hydrogen as a fuel for vehicles and fishing ships. Another programme, sponsored by local authorities in Reykjavik, runs vehicles on methane gas collected from a landfill.

Iceland has an abundance of hydro and geothermal energy. It is estimated that less than 10% of the potential energy potential is currently harnessed. Practically all Icelanders enjoy access to the electrical grid. In some fish meal plants and other industrial sectors, secondary power has already replaced oil for steam production. A review of energy supply mixes shows that 64% of primary energy consumption is covered with hydro-energy and geothermal sources. Eighty-five per cent of oil is used for transport. Coal is only used as reduction material in aluminum and ferrosilicium production. So far, Iceland has not introduced energy- or emission-related taxes.

Only a fraction of the hydro- and geothermal energy potential in Iceland has been harnessed. Through an extensive effort it has been possible to supply 85 percent of households with geo-thermal heating and close to 100 per cent of stationary energy in Iceland is based on clean and renewable sources. This achievement stands out as an example of a successful implementation of sustainable development policies in the past.

As almost all stationary energy in Iceland is produced from clean and renewable energy sources (hydro and geothermal), pollution from energy production is minimal. Fossil fuels account for almost all energy used in transport, but pollution from cars is not considered a serious problem in Iceland, thanks mainly to a sparse population and absence of other kinds of air pollution. Local air pollution can, however, be a problem in the Reykjavik area, especially on still winter days. Hydro energy does have some adverse environmental effects, as dams take up land (sometimes vegetated land, although dams in Iceland are mostly in highland areas with sparse vegetation), and dams and power lines are highly visible in Iceland's open wilderness. The utilization of hydro energy (and, to a lesser extent, geothermal energy) has been the subject of debate in Iceland because of nature conservation concerns.

The utilization of renewable hydro and geothermal energy sources faces some opposition in Iceland because of nature conservation concerns. Paradoxically, the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol could also be a barrier to the utilization of Iceland's renewable energy sources. Further utilization of these energy sources would be mainly used by metal smelting or other energy-intensive industries, which emit greenhouse gases in industrial processes. The Icelandic economy's small size means that such industrial emissions from even a single project could significantly increase national emissions. Iceland has argued that the utilization of the country's clean energy for industry can bring a global benefit for the atmosphere, as most of the emissions in metal smelting usually comes from the energy production, not industrial emissions. The Icelandic government has suggested provisions to account for this problem in post-Kyoto negotiations, and is confident that a solution can be found on the basis of existing proposals.

The Ministry for the Environment, in cooperation with car importers and the Car Owners Association, sponsors a programme to publish and disseminate information on car mileage and pollution, that is available at car sales.

The National Energy Authority, an agency under the auspices of the Ministry of Industry, is responsible for this task.

Iceland has continued to utilize its hydro and geothermal energy resources. Projects have been set up to use methane from landfills and hydrogen as fuel for vehicles. Hydrogen has great possibilities to be used as fuel in Iceland. The abundant and relatively cheap hydro and geothermal energy in Iceland could be used to produce hydrogen in a non-polluting way. Hydrogen technology (fuels cells) is currently too expensive to be a commercially viable alternative to engines using fossil fuels, but this could change in coming years and decades.

In industry, especially new energy-intensive industry, there has been an emphasis on demanding the Best Available Technology (BAT) with regard to pollution control. There have also been government programmes on integrating "Cleaner Production" methods in industry, especially in the fish and food industries.

The United Nations University's Geothermal Training Programme (UNU GTP) has operated in Iceland since 1979, under the auspices of the National Energy Authority. Its goal is to assist developing countries with significant geothermal potential to build up or strengthen groups of specialists that cover most aspects of geothermal exploration and development. This is done by offering six months specialized courses for professionals who have minimum of one year's practical experience in geothermal work in their home countries.

Iceland has a programme to implement the Montreal Protocol and has to date conducted the planned phase-out of ozone-depleting substances within the deadlines set in the Protocol. Iceland has an Action programme to implement the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, and has to date undertaken several measures to curb emissions of greenhouse gases and to increase sequestration of carbon in sinks. Iceland has not yet signed the Kyoto Protocol.

This information was provided by the Government of Iceland to the 5th, 6th, and 9th Sessions of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last Update: February 2001.

FORESTS

The body primarily responsible for the forestry sector is the Iceland Forest Service, an agency under the auspices of the Ministry of Agriculture. It implements, monitors and evaluates the decisions made at the governmental level. The Ministry for the Environment has a role in the conservation of native birch forests, especially through the Nature Conservation Agency, which is in charge in the management of protected areas.

There are three forestry laws in effect in Iceland: the Forestry Law (1955) the Farm Afforestation Law (1991) and the Southland Afforestation Law (1997). Forestry policy and laws are currently being reviewed.

The Southland Afforestation Law of 1997 has launched a programme of afforestation in the south of Iceland, that is primarily executed by individual farmers. The law recognizes explicitly non-market benefits to society by afforestation, such as soil regeneration and shelter from wind.

The Iceland Forest Service is currently preparing a comprehensive afforestation plan for all of Iceland, as a part of Iceland's sustainable development strategy and in response to a request by the parliament.

Effective mechanisms exist to harmonize forestry policy to Iceland's environmental goals. A programme to afforest denuded or severely eroded land has resulted in the planting of about a million trees in 70 areas subject to soil erosion. Another programme to sequestrate carbon dioxide was launched in 1997 as a part of Iceland's strategy to fulfill it's obligations under the UN Framework Convention of Climate Change.

There are also efforts to harmonize policies in forestry and agriculture. Over one hundred farmers receive grants to plant trees for sheltering crop fields in a programme that was launched in 1995. Most of the tree-planting for sequestration of carbon is contracted to farmers. A large state-supported forestry project has been initiated in east Iceland, where, during the next four decades, 80 landowners propose to establish some 15,000 hectares of productive forests.

Forests in Iceland consist mainly of small areas of birch woodlands or plantations of native or exotic species, covering only 1.4% of the total land area. It is thought that about 95% of the original forest cover at the time of Iceland's settlement has been lost. Attempts to reforest the land date back a century, and the first law on afforestation was passed in 1907. Efforts by the government and non-governmental afforestation associations have succeeded in halting the destruction of the main remaining forests and in planting new forests all over Iceland, but the scale of deforestation means that large-scale reafforestation is still a distant goal. Efforts to conserve and increase the area covered by native woodlands are hampered by the fact that the majority of woodlands are subject to grazing, mainly by sheep, so the total area covered by birch woodlands appears not to have changed much in recent decades. Recently, a government programme to sequestrate carbon dioxide has increased afforestation efforts. About 4,5 million trees are now planted annually in Iceland and about 11 km² are afforested annually.

Issues that still need to be addressed or improved include: establishment of concrete long-term afforestation goals, education in forestry, remote sensing, establishment of information exchange linkages, investment analysis and feasibility studies, promotion of small scale forest based industries and integration of the social, economic and ecological values of forests in the national economic accounting systems.

Information on sustainable forest management is available at the web-site of the Iceland Forest Service (http://www.simnet.is/SKOGRAEKTIN ) and the Icelandic Forest Research Station ( http://www.simnet.is/RSr ). Information about the forestry project in east Iceland is available at http://www.simnet.is/HERADSSKOGAR and many local forestry associations also have information on afforestation available on the World Wide Web.

Many actions have been taken to improve the effectiveness of afforestation, forest productivity and tolerance to environmental stress. These include research in tree improvement, forest pathology and ecology, establishment of seed procurement networks, improvements in plant production technology, increased forestry planning and establishment of specific afforestation programs.

This information was provided by the Government of Iceland to the fifth and eighth session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last update: January 2000.

FRESHWATER

The Environment and Food Agency is responsible at the national level for coordinating water resource management and development. Its mandate is to ensure that water for consumption in household and industries complies with health regulations. At the local level, Local Health Inspection Boards conduct on-site measurements of water supplies and enforce health regulations and standards. The general practice in policy-formulation is to provide for participation of all major stakeholders.

The Hygiene and Public Health Act (No. 81/1988, as amended, provides the general legislative and regulatory framework in this area. In addition, a new health act bill has been presented to the Minister for the Environment at the Icelandic parliament, which would further strengthen the monitoring of water purity and hygiene. Also relevant is Regulation No. 319/1995 on freshwater for consumption, in accordance with the following European Union directives: 75/440/EBE, 79/869/EBE and 80/778/EBE.

Despite the generally healthy state of Icelandic freshwater resources, concerns are increasing because of the rapidly increasing demand of the food industry, growing urban settlement, increasing tourism, changing land-use practices in rural areas, increasing hydro and geothermal energy harnessing, and various infrastructure developments. To meet these concerns, several measures have been taken: With regard to legal instruments, a new Law on Freshwater Protection has been prepared to ensure access to clean freshwater resources for human consumption and for use in industry.

Rules regulating aquaculture have also been revised with the aim of improving the planning practices and the issuance of licenses for such operations. The establishment and operation of aquaculture stations is allowed on the condition that they will not have an adverse impact on the ecosystem and biota of the water basin. Also, pollution control regulations have been tightened to meet European water quality standards.

Protection of extraction sites has been intensified, for example, through fencing. Demarcation of water protection areas has been integrated into regional physical planning. There is no comprehensive master plan for the conservation and utilization of groundwater resources, rivers, lakes and geothermal areas in Iceland. In general, Iceland has pure freshwater in abundance and does not need a specific policy to allocate water to different regions and sectors.

Primary treatment of waste water is undertaken in the Reykjavik area. This comprises the major technological needs, since over 50% of the population resides in this area. Water purification is not an issue, since groundwater supplies over 96% of the total abstraction. Filtration and UV-treatment are used for surface water, which is less than 4% of the total use. Over 95% of water in Iceland is not treated for drinking purposes, as this is not needed for groundwater supplies. There is no recycling of waste water. Universal coverage of adequate sewage-disposal systems throughout Iceland is expected to cost USD 140 million over the next ten years.

Iceland conducts monitoring of rivers and sub-glacial volcanoes that have triggered big floods. There are evacuation plans for the main areas that are thought to be in danger in the event of such a flood (although most such areas are uninhabited glacial sands, in which case there are plans to close roads that cross them).

The greater part of Iceland's freshwater resources are clean, free from pollution and low in chemical contents. Freshwater resources for human consumption are mostly restricted to groundwater. The water is extracted from springs, boreholes and wells. In general, the groundwater is potable. Some springs are temporarily fed by infiltration from glacial rivers. Surface water, on the other hand, is frequently polluted by dirt and mud caused by rainstorms, snow-melt, and heavy erosion. Therefore, the construction of water wells must be approved by local health commissions, which also monitor regularly the quality of extracted waters, especially their bacterial contents.

This information was provided by the Government of Iceland to the fifth and sixth sessions of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last Update: April 1998.

LAND MANAGEMENT

The Planning and Construction Law of 1997 states that the Minister for the Environment shall have supreme control of planning and building. The Planning Agency shall assist the minister. Local authorities shall prepare regional, municipal and local plans. The Planning Agency monitors the planning situation in the municipalities and assists the local authorities and guides them in preparing development plans.

The Ministry for the Environment has the primary responsibility for planning and building, according to Icelandic law. Other Ministries primarily responsible for the planning and management of land resources are the Ministries of: Agriculture and Industry.

The key legislation covering the planning and management of land resources are: the Planning and Construction Law 73/1997 and the Environmental Impact Assessment Law 63/1993. The power and initiative of local governments with regard to planning was significantly increased with the 1997 law.

A great improvement in the legal environment of planning of land resources occurred with the adoption of the Planning and Construction Law in 1997, which replaced the existing law on planning dating from 1964. Sustainable development is now a stated aim of the Law and all spatial planning: "The aims of this Law is to: encourage the rational and efficient utilization of land and natural resources; ensure the preservation of natural and cultural values; and prevent environmental damage and over-exploitation, based on the principles of sustainable development;". The law requires that all land undergo spatial planning, not only inhabited land as was previously required. As a great part of Iceland is uninhabited, this is a major change. All local governments are to finish a municipal plan before the year 2007.

The main developments in regulatory measures regarding land use and land resources since UNCED are the 1993 Law on Environmental Impact Assessment and the 1997 Planning and Construction Law. As for economic measures, the abolishment of subsidies for export of meat has lead to a reduction of livestock grazing on vulnerable land.

Another recent development, which will have a great impact on planning and management of land resources, is an integrated management plan for the central highlands, which comprise 40% of Iceland. The plan was adopted in 1999 and aims to integrate the development of the highlands with regard to power plants (hydroelectric and geothermal), transport, tourism etc., as well as nature conservation.

Iceland recognizes the right to land ownership. Currently, a government committee is attempting to clarify land ownership, especially in the highlands, following the adoption of a 1998 law that states that the Icelandic state owns all land that individuals can not legally uphold their claim for.

The Planning and Construction Law of 1997 contains some provisions dealing with possible conflicting issues in land use goals. The Planning Agency shall gather information on land use which apply to the country as a whole, e.g. regarding transportation, telecommunications, power structures and nature conservation. If inconsistencies or other conflicts of interest are revealed in land use as set forth in individual plans, the Minister for the Environment may decide to appoint a special committee to make proposals on the co-ordination of the relevant plans. On receipt of the proposals of the committee, the Minister may require the local authorities to incorporate the proposals in their development plans. Expansion of human settlements and all major structures must undergo environmental impact assessment.

The integrated management plan for the central highlands deals, among other things, with biological diversity, fresh water resources and mountain ecosystems within the area. Unsustainable grazing, mainly by sheep, is of concern in the highlands as well as other areas of Iceland, although the number of sheep has been greatly reduced in recent years. Laws regulating grazing and the fight against soil erosion are currently being reviewed.

The 1997 Planning and Construction Law was adopted after extensive consultation with local authorities and all major sectors of society. The integrated management plan for the central highlands was drawn up by a group mainly comprised of representatives from municipalities bordering the highlands. A committee to be set up to implement and oversee the plan will have representatives from local authorities and NGOs.

A government programme on a comprehensive plan for developing Iceland's hydroelectric and geothermal energy sources has recently been launched (see Other issues below). The programme is to take into account the views of all relevant sectors and the general public. The government has entrusted an NGO, Landvernd, to disseminate information about the programme and act as interlocutor in the dialogue between authorities and the public.

A government programme on a comprehensive plan for developing Iceland's hydroelectric and geothermal energy sources was launched in 1999. Its aims are to ensure that further utilization of these resources yield maximum economic, social and environmental benefits, while limiting their negative impact on the environment. This is an issue of major importance for land use and sustainable development in Iceland. It is estimated that only 10-15% of economically viable hydro and geothermal energy in Iceland has been harnessed, and the value of these non-polluting energy sources is likely to increase with growing concern about global warming and fossil fuels. At the same time, the harnessing of Iceland's rivers and geothermal fields would have a great visual impact, as well as other environmental effects, on wilderness areas, which calls for a comprehensive planning and prioritization of possible future power plants.

Forest land in Iceland is highly prized, as the country has suffered massive deforestation since its settlement some 1.100 years ago. The amount of forest land taken for other use since 1992 is negligible, while afforestation programmes have been greatly strengthened.

Despite these improvements, there is a lack of data regarding land use, including data on which to base a policy on sustainable grazing. A comprehensive land inventory to be undertaken by the Agricultural Research Institute and the Soil Conservation Service should greatly improve the situation. On a more general level, the lack of a digital geographical data base for most of Iceland's territory is a problem for further development of geographical information systems. As of 1999, the government has allocated new resources to develop a comprehensive geographical data base for all of Iceland, which the Geodetic Survey should complete in the next few years. There are currently no indicators in use for integrated land management and sustainable use of land resources.

Major steps have been taken in recent years to improve land inventories and information on land use and development. A comprehensive survey and map of soil erosion, a major issue for land use in Iceland, was published in 1997. Vegetation maps have also been greatly improved. A committee on remote sensing has recently drawn up a programme for organizing and improving the use of satellite image data. The Ministry for the Environment is in the process of implementing the committee's suggestions.

Information about land management is widely available via the Internet. General information on planning issues and environmental impact assessment (including all evaluation reports and decisions) can be accessed via the website of the Planning Agency ( http://www.skipulag.is ). Information on remote sensing, maps etc. are available at the Geodetic Survey (http://www.lmi.is ). Maps and other information on land erosion is available at a special website maintained by the Agricultural Research Institute (http://www.rala.is/kvasir).

Iceland is active in Nordic co-operation in this field, including NORDREGIO (Nordic Institution for Regional Development and Planning), the Nordic Committee on Construction Regulation and the Nordic Committee on Planning.

This information was provided by the Government of Iceland to the fifth and eighth sessions of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last Update: January 2000.

MOUNTAINS

The National Physical Planning Agency, the Nature Conservation Council, the National Energy Authority, and the Soil Conservation Service are primarily responsible for sustainable mountain development in Iceland.

Land-use in mountain areas is regulated by the following policies and laws: the Planning Strategy of Fjallabak (1994); the General Plan of Svinavatnshreppur (1993); the Planning Law (19/1994 with an additional clause 73/1993); the Power Law (58/1967 and 84/1972); the Water Law (15/1923); the Nature Conservation Law (47/1971); and the Environmental Impact Assessment Law (63/1993).

With a land area of 54,000 Km2, the central highlands is the most significant mountain area in Iceland. On the one hand, the highlands provide natural recourses for agriculture, energy production and tourism, and are hence subject to related pressures, i.e. from animal grazing, from construction of hydro plants and of electricity transmission lines. On the other hand, the highlands constitute a fragile ecosystem. Problems arise with regard to the various objectives relating to nature conservation because property rights in the highlands are mostly undefined, and the 40 municipalities scattered around the island have interests in the area and/or claim traditional user rights. Therefore, an integrated management of the central highlands is needed. Currently, the physical land-use plans of the central highland of Iceland are being revised, and the estimated year of completion is 1997.

There are 90 hydrological monitoring stations which cover the mountain areas well. The most important rivers and their catchments areas are the following: the Thjórsá (6,320 Km2), the Jökulsá á Fjöllum (5,750 Km2), the Jökulsá á Dal (1,560 Km2), and the Hvítá (2,000 Km2). With regard to the watershed development policies in the area, there is a hydropower development project for the Thjórsár basin (US$ 1,500,000) and a hydropower planning project for the Jökulsár basin (US$ 500,000). A survey has been conducted on the ecology of the Thjórsárver, and an assessment of the impacts of a possible hydroelectric reservoir. A master plan for the development of Iceland's hydropower potential is being prepared. Under the plan, the environmental impacts of hydropower development will be taken into consideration through ranking of projects in terms of both financial viability and environmental considerations.

This information was provided by the Government of Iceland to the fifth session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last Update: April 1997.

OCEANS AND COASTAL AREAS

In the area of integrated coastal zone management and sustainable development, the Ministry for the Environment is responsible for physical planning and environmental impact assessment. The National Physical Planning Agency, which falls under the ministry is responsible for physical planning and EIAs. The Nature Conservation Agency and the Icelandic Institute of Natural History are responsible for nature conservation and habitat protection.

In the area of marine environmental protection, the Ministry for the Environment is responsible for marine environmental protection from both land-based and sea-based activities. The responsible agency is the Environmental and Food Agency of Iceland (EFAI) which is an agency of the Ministry for the Environment. The EFAI runs an Office of Marine Environmental Protection (EFAI-OMEP) with responsibility for marine pollution control regardless of the source. The Icelandic Coast Guard exerts a policing function and provides a surveillance and communications service on behalf of the EFAI. The Icelandic Maritime Authority (IMA), an Agency of the Ministry of Communication, is responsible for the inspection of ships. The monitoring of radioactive waste is the responsibility of the Icelandic Radiation Protection Institute, an agency of the Ministry of Health.

In the area of the sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources, the Ministry of Fisheries is responsible for the implementation of the Fisheries Management Act and the Treatment of Commercial Marine Stocks Act. These Acts comprise the largest part of the relevant Icelandic legislation on the conservation and sustainable utilization of marine resources. The tasks of the Ministry are delegated to sub agencies such as the Directorate of Fisheries and the Marine Research Institute.

The Ministries of Fisheries and Environment have regular meetings to discuss matters of mutual concern in their respective portfolios. The EFAI-OMEP, the Coast Guard and the IMA have monthly coordination meetings. The fact that Icelanders are only 275 thousand reduces the need for formal mechanisms for coordination. The system is rather simple and transparent. The dependence of the nation on fisheries tends to lead to improved efficiency in this sector and the cooperation of those responsible for the management is good.

Strict regulations on mesh-sizes and selective fishing gear are an important part of how these problems are addressed in Iceland. The MRI conducts extensive research, one to mention specifically in this context is a comprehensive multi-stock management research project aimed at studying interactions in the marine ecosystem spanning the whole range of marine life from algae and plankton to large whales.

With respect o integrated coastal zone management and sustainable development, the coastal zone is of special importance in the nature conservation and habitat protection. Legislation relevant to integrated coastal zone management and sustainable development, includes the following:

Regulations have been set on the basis of the above law on pollution from ships, pollution from waste, reaction to pollution accidents, ban on the use of chemicals containing mercury, arsen and organotins, and rules on the transport of hazardous chemicals.

With respect to sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources, the following legislation applies:

These are the main laws; furthermore there are relevant laws on the management of certain stocks and on production and quality control, including:

Regulations in accordance with the above-mentioned laws are numerous and fall in eight categories.

The catch rule was developed at the initiative of the Ministry of Fisheries. This ministry had also issued an environmental declaration. Representatives of the industry, science and economics participated in the working group that developed the catch-rule. Finally the government endorsed the rule. IFPC (Iceland's largest exporter of fish) has established their own environmental principles.

The national strategy and policy on conservation and sustainable use of the marine living resources is stated in the Icelandic legislation and the NES. An ITQ (individual transferable quota) system has been implemented to meet the following fundamental points of the policy :

The Marine Research Institute provides annual stock assessment of the major stocks and suggest Total Allowable Catch (TAC) for the stocks. The process of determining the TAC is outlined below in the section on information.

There are no marine ecosystem types which have been identified as particularly fragile in the Icelandic coastal zone. Four types of protected areas have been defined and are managed in a special manner:

A National action plan to meet the obligations of the GPA on land-based sources is being developed. This plan is in the initial stages but will include all stakeholders into the process. It is expected to be ready in the year 1999. The municipalities in Iceland have invested heavily in sewage treatment facilities.

The overall strategy in this area is presented in the National Environmental Strategy (NES) of Iceland "Towards Sustainable Development" adopted by the Government in 1997. The strategy relates directly to integrated coastal management, marine environmental protection and sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources.

Major Groups are involved in decision-making in the following ways: The responsible ministries consult stakeholders directly. Groups of stakeholders are commonly represented on committees preparing legislations. When bills are being considered by the Parliament, stakeholders are given the opportunity to submit written comments and are invited to meet with the parliamentary committee. Groups and individuals are extensively consulted by the parliamentarians themselves. In a similar way the scientific community, not least those who are in charge of marine research, are in direct contact with those who are affected by their work and those have ample opportunities to express their views and comments.

A marine conservation area has established in the bay of Breidafjordur, West Iceland. This was done by special legislation in 1995. Management objectives are to conserve the many ecological and cultural features, accommodate sustainable use such as fisheries, tourism, algal extraction and other traditional uses. Local communities have been directly involved since the outset and are represented on a multi-stakeholder committee which oversees the conservation programme. The programme has facilitated scientific study, raised awareness of the biological, geological and economic values of the area, heightened interest in the cultural heritage and is stimulating the development of the tourism industry in the area including whale-watching.

A programme of integrated monitoring and assessment of marine pollution in Icelandic waters was initiated in 1989 based on the standards set in OSPAR, the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy and Icelandic regulations. The programme covers all aspects of marine pollution monitoring. The project is chaired by a board consisting of members of research institutions in Iceland. Results are reported regularly in a form accessible to policy makers and stake holders. A programme of integrated monitoring and assessment of marine pollution in Icelandic waters was initiated in 1989 based on the standards set in OSPAR, the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy and Icelandic regulations. The programme covers all aspects of marine pollution monitoring. The project is chaired by a board consisting of members of research institutions in Iceland. Results are reported regularly in a form accessible to policy makers and stake holders.

The population of Iceland is 275.000 on an island that is 103.000 km2. The bulk of the population resides close to the coast. The largest population center is the greater Reykjavik area with 61% of the population, the capital city and surrounding towns, in the southwest. The capital city of Reykjavik has 39.4% of the population. The largest population center outside the capital area is Akureyri in the north with around 20.000, the other towns have less than 5000 inhabitants. The primary economic activity in the coastal areas is fishing. The bulk of the fishing is done by trawlers and other large fishing vessels. The coastal towns have a number of smaller fishing boats with 1-2 fishermen on each boat. In 1997 revenues from export of fish accounted for 71.4% of the total Icelandic export of goods. The percentage of export and goods and services is 50%. Percentage of fisheries in the GDP in 1997 was 14.2%.

Oil exploration is nonexistent in Iceland and mining is limited to gravel mining on land and from the ocean bottom and mining of diatomite sediments. Industrial activity is mainly power intensive industry consisting of three factories (aluminium and ferrosilicon) in two locations. Tourism is Iceland tends to center on inland areas rather than the coast. Coastal recreation is limited. The percentage of the economy contributed by fishing and methods in place to encourage sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources.

The impact of shipping on the sustainable management of the coastal zone in Iceland is generally low. There is a substantial risk of major accidents, however. Annually 600-700 thousand tons of oil and gasoline are imported to Iceland. By far the largest quantity of the oil is transported to Iceland in tankers capable of carrying 15,000 to 30,000 tones per trip. There are 25 to 30 trips per year, and the largest ships coming to Iceland can carry about 30,000 tones. The oil is distributed to harbours outside the capital area on ships carrying about 2,000 tones. Other substances considered dangerous when being transported by sea include fish oil and various substances for energy-intensive industry.

Shipments of goods to and from Iceland goes mostly through ports in the capital area and along shipping routes running south of the country. On these routes bad weather and high seas are more common than elsewhere around the country. In addition, there are few harbours on the south coast. This area is important for fishing, fish farming and as spawning grounds for important fish stocks. Sailing off the coast of Iceland can be somewhat difficult because of weather, especially in the winter months. In addition, there are visible and submerged skerries off the coast that further increase the risk of pollution accidents. Frequent mishaps at sea have occurred off Iceland in past years, but most of them have been small. On the other hand, there is a recent example of a large cargo ship's having been stranded as a result of an underestimation of conditions off the south coast.

The primary sources of land-based pollution of the marine environment include the contribution of the source categories identified in the Global Programme of Action have been quantified and sewage is the most important source category in Iceland.

There has been a major effort to reduce dumping from the fishing fleet and recently an information booklet was produced by the Environmental and Food Agency to be distributed to the ship operators. Pollution from paint containing tributyltin compounds has resulted in local problems close to harbours in Iceland.

In light of the overwhelming dependence of Icelandic economy on fisheries it is vital for the economy and the well being of future generations that the management of fishing stocks has sustainable use and conservation as a primary goal. Practices of other countries can have a considerable negative effect in Iceland's effort to promote sustainable development related to use of living marine resources, however. The most important of these are

In the area of the prevention of marine pollution, Iceland is dependent on actions taken by other nations. This is particularly evident in the area of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and nuclear waste. Iceland places great emphasis on the implementation of the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities adopted in Washington in 1995. It is a cause of some concern in this regard that the UNGA resolution 51/189 adopted in December 1996 has not been implemented. This resolution calls for active participation of all relevant international organizations and agencies in the implementation of the GPA. This is particularly relevant for the establishment of a clearing house mechanism for technologies and practices for the abatement of land-based pollution.

Several courses have been offered in the area of environmental impact assessment. In Iceland there is general awareness of the importance of sustainable development of marine living resources. This is due to the dependency of the national economy on the fishing industry. The special effort undertaken in relation to the International Year of the Ocean (IYO) was therefore an effort to distribute information on the sustainability of Icelandic fisheries for consumers and leaders of public opinion in other countries and towards children and youth in Iceland. A book of ideas for teachers on how to inform and instruct better on these issues was published and a ship was made available for the schools that wish to instruct young people on site.

During the IYO research organizations and government institutions organized open houses for the public. The public was also invited to visit fishing vessels in harbours. A series of lectures about ocean issues was offered to the general public. This was very popular.

The Marine Research Institute provides annual stock assessment of the major stocks and suggest Total Allowable Catch (TAC) for the stocks. The process of determining the TAC involves:

The following aspects of the policy are of relevance here: The legislative body has open access for the general public to all debates and voting on law proposals, both direct, in print or via Internet. All information on quota allocations, vessels and up to date catch figures can be reached directly at the Directory of Fisheries or via the Internet. Information on catch in tons by vessels, fishing trips, and species is readily available form these sources. Landing by species, vessel, and harbour. Production by species, producer and export by markets, value and tons. Further information on productivity in the fishing sector is available i.e. catch pr. fisherman or product pr. worker. The Statistical Bureau of Iceland has information on work force in fishing and production of fish.

Comprehensive assessments of the state of the environment of coastal and marine areas have been carried out annually since 1989. In general, the situation has been stable. It is difficult to detect natural variations from anthropogenic impact. Results of the monitoring of the health of the ocean are printed in periodic report in Icelandic and provided to international organizations. This information was for included in the AMAP report on the State of the Arctic Environment.

There has been a ban on the hunting of whales in Icelandic waters since 1986. There has been a significant reduction in the hunting of seals.

A panel of experts has been established to assess the potential impact of climate change and sea-level rise on the Icelandic nature, society and economy. Their first task will be to report on the results of the second assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as is affects Iceland and the ocean around Iceland. This report will be written in a form accessible to the general public.

To fish or process fish in Iceland a license is needed from the Directorate of fisheries. It supervises transfer of quota shares between vessels and imposes penalties for illegal catches. The Directorate provides supervision on board fishing vessels and in ports of landing. That involves inspection of the composition of catches, fishing equipment and handling methods. All landings are weighted on electronic scales that are directly linked to the Directorate. This information is compared to quota status of the ship, and should there occur a difference between trips when surveillors where on, or not on board that is checked specially. Processors have to meet specific requirements concerning hygiene, equipment and quality control to obtain a license. Approved inspection bodies are responsible for inspection of hygiene, facilities and in-plant monitoring of production. The Directorate supervises the operation of these inspection bodies. The Directorate cooperates with a number of other government institutions i.e. the Icelandic Coast guard, the Directorate of Customs and the Association of Local Authorities.

The http://www.hollver.is/ EFAI operates a web side on marine environmental protection including information on emergency response in cases of marine pollution. The http://www.sigling.is/ Icelandic Maritime Authority operates a web site with a wealth of useful information for ship operators including a warning system for dangerous waves important in reducing the risk of pollution accidents.

Information on fish stocks and their utilization is included in reports on environmental statistics issued by the Icelandic Bureau of Statistics. An interministerial task force is working on the development of sustainability indicators taking note of work in this area by regional and international agencies.

The Marine Research Institute has a central role in the Icelandic administration regarding sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources due to its advisory role to the Ministry of Fisheries. The research it conducts, focuses on marine physics and chemistry, characteristics of the seabed, biological conditions and behavior of the marine vegetation. The most extensive field of research is however in the field of stock assessment, trials of fishing gear and studies of potentially harvestable species.

Icelandic firms have developed a more efficient and selective fishing gear and machinery for fish processing. The Icelandic Fisheries Laboratories research production methods to make fishing as environmental-friendly as possible.

In 1998 the United Nations University Fisheries Training Programme was established at the Marine Research Institute, in collaboration with other institutions and universities in Iceland. The programme offers a six month post-graduate course annually to practicing professionals from the developing countries. Participants come from countries where fisheries are of considerable national importance and their development is in the direction of internationalization. The course has a practical orientation and specializations are offered in several fields, including Fisheries Policy and Planning, Marine and Inland-Waters Resource Assessment and Monitoring and Quality Management of Fish Handling and Processing. The first course started in August 1998 and included 6 participants, all from Africa. The second course will start in June 1999, with 8 participants from Africa, Asia and Latin America.

With respect to marine environmental protection, the NES calls for increased research and monitoring in the area of marine pollution with special emphasis on the pathways of organic pollution and heavy metals into the marine food chain. Efforts will be made to reduce further the release of oil and other chemicals from ships in Icelandic waters. The use of paint containing tributyl tin will be banned. The release of organic effluent from fish processing will be reduced.

The selection of technology is made by the industry. Government agencies and non-governmental organizations provide operators with advice on the best available technology. This advice now takes notice of environmental concerns in addition to the economical.

The fisheries industry is run by the private sector in Iceland, the financial responsibility is the owners. They do not get any subsidies from the national budget. Most of the larger firms are on the stock-market. The monitoring of marine pollution and the level of the fish stocks is funded from the national budget.

The international project Benthic Invertebrates of Icelandic Waters (BIOICE) is run by the Ministry for the Environment and aims at a faunistic-zoogeographical investigation of the benthic invertebrate fauna in Icelandic waters. From 1993 through 1997, cruises were made in all sections of the economic zone around Iceland, between 50 and 3000 m depth. The samples are sorted at the Sandgerdi Marine Center. This center has now been granted large scale facility status by the European Union which will facilitate access by foreign scientists to the facility. The collections are analyzed by an international team of specialists, and later curated at the Icelandic Museum of Natural History, Reykjavik. This project represents a major effort in the study of marine biodiversity.

Other related agreements, particularly regional and sea-specific agreements, to which Iceland is a Party include:

Other bilateral, multilateral and international cooperation in which Iceland participates in order to further activities related to sustainable development and use of oceans and coastal areas include:

This information was provided by the Government of Iceland to the seventh session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last update: April 1999.

TOXIC CHEMICALS

Legislation that establishes a framework for levying environmental fees on substances that can become hazardous in the waste stream was adopted in 1996. The aim of the legislation is to reduce the use of such substances and to finance a nationwide system for the collection of hazardous and toxic wastes.

Measures have also been taken to stop discharge of hazardous and toxic substances from industry and households into sewage systems.

Iceland is particularly concerned about marine pollution from persistent, toxic and bioaccumulating substances (persistent organic pollutants/ POPs), and supports the Nordic Action Plan to reduce the releases of these substances.

Iceland is active in Nordic co-operation on chemicals and is affected by EC legislation in this area though the EEA. Iceland has been active in preparing international action to address persistent organic pollutants (POPs), both within the framework of UNEP and the LRTAP.

This information was provided by the Government of Iceland to the fifth session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last Update: April 1997.

WASTE AND HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

The Ministry of the Environment is responsible for waste management. Representatives of industry have been directly involved in the development of regulations in this area.

Several economic instruments have been used to promote recycling of solid wastes. The return rate of beverage containers is over 70%. Fees on single-use plastic shopping bags have also been introduced. There are also special charges levied on commercial enterprises for waste collection on the basis of nature and quantity. This provides an incentive for commercial establishments to reduce waste (such incentives do not apply to households which pay a flat fee).

A new law was being prepared in 1993 to improve the collection, disposal and recycling of scrap-metal. The law will, among other things, introduce deposit-return fees on automobiles to encourage more environmentally sound disposal of outdated vehicles. The legislation is still under preparation

The government adopted a specific national strategy for national waste management in 1991. The objective is to reduce waste generation by 50% before the turn of the century. To attain this goal, the government places special emphasis on changing production and consumption patterns. To this end, environmental education has a key role, and a task force on environmental education was established in 1993 to address this issue. According to the strategy, the waste management in municipalities will be enhanced.

The Government initiated in 1995 a ten-year plan for improving sewage treatment. Through this plan local communities can receive financial assistance from the Central Government for investments in facilities that improve the situation.

Household and industrial solid wastes constitute 95% of Iceland's total waste. Approximately 12% of total household and solid industrial waste is recycled or prepared for recycling abroad, and more than 50% is disposed in an environmentally sound manner.

The adequacy of facilities for the treatment of household and industrial waste varies substantially between the Reykjavik area and other communities. Reykjavik constructed the first modern center for receiving and handling waste. The center serves close to 60% of the population of Iceland. Recently a number of other areas of the countries have established similar facilities for collecting waste for treatment from dispersed municipalities. Currently only a very limited number of local household and industrial waste is directed untreated to landfills and by open pit-burning.

This information was provided by the Government of Iceland to the fifth session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last Update: April 1997.

The body mainly responsible for all waste management is the Food and Environment Agency under the Ministry of the Environment.

In 1996, a new law was adopted for introducing environmental fees on hazardous materials to finance the collection of hazardous wastes.

In 1991, the Government of Iceland adopted a national strategy for waste management. Hazardous wastes which cannot be dealt with properly in the waste receiving center of the Reykjavik area or used in the cement factory are exported for disposal in hazardous waste treatment facilities abroad.

The local authorities are responsible for waste disposal. The Government supports local authorities to construct waste receiving facilities. Representative for industry have be directly involved in the development of regulation in this area. A special committee, with representatives from industry, oversees the implementation of the new legislation for environmental fees of hazardous materials.

Since 1993, PCB use on marine applications (shipping) has been prohibited, and since 1994 its use in land has ceased in accordance with the Government Programme for the Systematic Collection of PCBs.

Agreement has been reached with the US-military base to the effect that the waste-receiving center of Reykjavik now also receives and sees to the export of hazardous wastes from the US military base.

The amount of hazardous waste generated in 1994 was 5,900 tones. Seventy-two percent of the waste was from the use of petrol products and recycled as a fuel in cement factory. Fourteen percent of hazardous waste was exported for treatment in other OECD countries.

A system for the collection of environmentally hazardous batteries was established already in 1989, with annual returns of around 12% (1993). In the future, measures will also be taken to stop discharge into sewage systems of heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants and other hazardous and toxic substances from industry and households.

Iceland ratified the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal in 1995.

This information was provided by the Government of Iceland to the fifth session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last Update: April 1997.

Iceland is concerned about activities in distant regions of the world which could lead to the release of radioactive substances into the sea, even though such substances would be very strongly diluted before they reached Iceland. At present, radioactivity levels of Icelandic waters are among the lowest in Europe.

Iceland, supported by other OECD Member States, has achieved significant progress in international fora in order to improve protection of the marine environment against the risk of radioactive pollution, e.g. from dumping of waste, storage of waste under the seabed, and from discharge of radioactive effluents from reprocessing plants.

This information was provided by the Government of Iceland to the fifth session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last Update: April 1997.

NATURAL RESOURCE ASPECTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN ICELAND

AGRICULTURE

ATMOSPHERE

BIODIVERSITY

DESERTIFICATION AND DROUGHT

ENERGY

FORESTS

FRESHWATER

LAND MANAGEMENT

MOUNTAINS

OCEANS AND COASTAL AREAS

TOXIC CHEMICALS

WASTE AND HAZARDOUS MATERIALS