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Economic Aspects | Natural Resource Aspects | Institutional Aspects | Social Aspects |Croatia

NATURAL RESOURCE ASPECTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN CROATIA

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• Agriculture
• Atmosphere
• Biodiversity
• Desertification and Drought
• Energy
• Forests
• Freshwater
• Land Management
• Mountains
• Oceans and Coastal Areas
• Toxic Chemicals
• Waste and Hazardous Materials

No information is available.

Decision-Making: Coordinating Bodies    

The Department of Agriculture within the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry is the competent governmental body. In order to achieve sustainability, however, cooperation takes place among a number of governmental bodies, including, for example, the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Physical Planning, the State Water Directorate, and the Ministry of Economic Affairs.

Decision-Making: Legislation and Regulations  

In accordance with the Law on Agricultural Land, conversion of a fertile agricultural land for non-agricultural purposes is prohibited, unless carried out in line with physical planning documents and other corresponding regulations. If the land conversion is permitted, it is subject to a one-off compensation for depreciation and fragmentation of agricultural land as a commodity of interest for the Republic of Croatia.

The general objective of agricultural policy is the promotion of a more effective production and marketing of agricultural products, in a way that increases benefits for farmers and users, contributes to Croatian economic growth, safeguards Croatian natural resources, and providing for the competitiveness of the Croatian agriculture in the global market. In achieving this objective, special emphasis is given to family farms, which form the basis of the Croatian agriculture.

Decision-Making: Strategies, Policies and Plans  

The actions for promoting sustainable agricultural and rural development described in Agenda 21 are included in the Strategy of Sustainable Agricultural Development in the Republic of Croatia, prepared by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry with assistance from FAO. The key element in the Strategy is the harmonization of Croatian agricultural policy with the Guidelines of the GATT Uruguay Round, and the formulation of long-term measures. The main objective of the Strategy is "the promotion of efficient production and marketing of agricultural products, in order to improve the welfare of farmers and consumers, to contribute to the growth of the Croatian economy, to protect natural resources and ensure the competitiveness of the Croatian agricultural products on the world market. In achieving this objective, special emphasis should be put on private family farms which are the basis of Croatian agriculture."

The Croatian Strategy of Sustainable Agricultural Development was adopted in 1995. There were no subsequent revisions thereof.  The year 1999 saw the enactment of the Biodiversity Strategy, whereas the preparation of Environmental Strategy and the National Environmental Action Plan, in cooperation with the World Bank, are underway.  Environmental guidelines and measures have been partially incorporated into development programmes, but their integrated consideration will be addressed in the Environmental Strategy and the NEAP, which are currently in preparation.

The Environmental Strategy and the NEAP are in preparation and the aspects of sustainable agricultural development are contained in a number of documents and regulations, such as:

• National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
• Draft Bill for the Law on Ecological Farming (in the enactment procedure)
• Decision on the Establishment of Multidisciplinary Bioethical Commission, with the priority task to elaborate background materials to regulate monitoring of GMO-containing or GMO-based products’ marketing practices.

• National Island Development Programme, etc.

The Biomass Energy Utilization Strategy 1998-2002 established the following measures for creating conditions for increased energy recovery from biomass and waste:

• CO₂ tax (which could, for instance, be established as 20-40% of the base market price or fuels, whereas the biomass as a CO₂-neutral fuel be exempt from this tax);
• subsidies for biomass-fuelled heating plants amounting to 10-30% of investment costs, which would depend on the efficiency degree and particulate and CO emissions;
• subsidies to homeowners for shifting to the residential heating system fuelled by biomass;
• subsidies per kWh for electricity production in co-generation plants fuelled by biomass;
• legal and technical regulations for biomass-fuelled small fire-boxes;
• ban on incineration of biomass (hay, wood residues ...) in open spaces;
• prescription of mandatory developments in stock farms and similar facilities which will be built or reconstructed, in order to enable collection of excrement to produce biogas;
• establishment of Croatian standards for bio-fuels (e.g. hay, wood, biogas, biodiesel).

Decision-Making: Major Groups Involvement  

In Croatia there is a large number of active NGOs constituted on the interest, professional, scientific or territorial principles, the representatives of which are actively involved in decision-making at all levels. For instance, distinguished scientists members of such associations have given their active contributions to the development of Croatian Strategy of Sustainable Agricultural Development; representatives of agricultural producers account for over fifty percent in the work of Agricultural Research Council; an NGO initiative has given a push-start to drafting a law on ecological agriculture, with active participation of members of associations involved in such production practices.

Programmes and Projects   

In accordance with the combination of limitations and development potentials, the main activities are oriented towards the following areas:

• change of agricultural structures,
• financing rural and agricultural sectors,
• trade and pricing policies,
• farmer support services, and
• social-economic status of agriculture.

"The Coastal Forests Rehabilitation and Protection" anticipates rehabilitation and protection of forests in the coastal areas of the Republic of Croatia, which have enormous significance in the preservation of environmental balance, especially concerning prevention of soil erosion risks. Coastal and island forests cover the area of 580,000 ha (including underbrush). Project value is US $67 million. The funds are provided in part from the World Bank grant (US $43 million), and the rest from the State Budget.

Apart from the adoption of annual sowing programmes, financially encouraged by the Government, the programme to build 6 new marketplaces (with cold storage units) in different parts of the country is in realization, to facilitate marketing and accessibility of agricultural products.

The Government of the Republic of Croatia has prepared the project "Croatian Energy Sector Development and Organization" (PROHES), in the framework of which ten national energy programmes were designed, one of them being the National Energy Programme BIOEN, which is a programme of energy recovery from biomass and waste. According to the Biomass Energy Utilization Strategy 1998-2002, BIOEN should create conditions for increased use and recovery of energy from biomass, initiate research in this area, develop technologies for collection, transformation and utilization of biomass and waste and enable effective exchange of information and scientific knowledge.

The project with the Croatian Bank of Plant Genes (HBBG) was initiated in 1991 at the Ministry of Science and Technology and the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, the implementation of which was entrusted to the Institute for Plant Cultivation, Genetics and Research Methods at the Faculty of Agronomy of the University of Zagreb. The HBBG target areas are local populations/primitive varieties, primarily cereals and bulk-seed leguminous plants.

Status

Since gaining its independence in 1991 and starting the transition to a market economy, the Republic of Croatia was first exposed to the war aggression, afterwards facing a large number of exiles and refugees and occupation of almost one third of its territory. In such circumstances approximately 400 agribusinesses, former strongholds of planned agriculture production, have undergone the privatization process. 

The position of Croatia is such that influences of several types of climate meet and mingle, and therefore natural vegetation is highly diverse. Similarly, Croatia contains a natural compendium of soil types. All the diversities and wealth of natural conditions of Croatia are reflected in the rationalization of Croatian agriculture. There are three main agricultural regions (with sub regions): the Pannonian, the mountainous and the Mediterranean.

Additional agriculture area brought under irrigation since 1992 is as follows:

Area in Ha: 5,790 ha Percentage of total cultivated land: 0.28%

Agro ecological conditions in Croatia have production potentials for far larger quantities of foodstuffs than the present needs are. Production self-sufficiency is therefore possible for a number of crops.

The level of pollution from agricultural production is moderate. In fact, there are regions in Croatia which have proposed to begin producing ecologically pure agricultural products (e.g. parts of the mountainous region, where the production is traditionally extensive, with minimum use of pesticides and mineral fertilizers). On the other hand, some areas, predominantly in the Pannonian region, still contain higher rates of pesticide and mineral fertilizer use but are now being oriented towards the implementation of sustainable agricultural production.

Utilization and recovery of energy from biomass as a renewable energy source are the goals of the BIOEN programme, which can be started through identification and startup of the following demonstration projects:

• plant for thermal energy recovery from forest biomass;
• station for the collection of wastewater and/or animal excrement for the production of biogas;
• dry-kilns on biomass from agriculture (cereal residues);
• station for the production of diesel fuels from rape;
• experimental plot for fast-growing trees.

Consumption of mineral fertilizers in tones

tones

Source: Statistical Yearbook 1998

• In the period 1991-1996, a part of the Croatian territory was under occupation, so the data expressed refer only to the unoccupied territory.

No information is available

Capacity-building, Education, Training and Awareness-raising 

In all of the Croatian counties, the Farmers Extension Services, the Veterinary Services and the Livestock Breeding Services were established to advise and help farmers. In this regard, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry has started a Farmer Support Services Project to facilitate the transition of the agriculture sector by providing technology-related support services that are relevant to private farmers. The aim is to improve the income of the private farming community and increase its productivity and hence the competitiveness of the sector. The project has six components: (1) Extension, (2) research, (3) Animal Health, (4) Pasture and Fodder Development, (5) Seed Industry Development, and (6) Policy Analysis Support.

Production-support services for the rural population in Croatia can be conditionally divided into direct and indirect measures.

Direct measures are, for example:

1. "Law on Financial Incentives and Charges in Agriculture and Fisheries" which encourage profitable production for the Republic of Croatia, as well as refunds of certain portions of funding for sold and delivered crop seed with declarations.
2. "Decision on Opening a Special Account for Agricultural Development and Reconstruction Loans", which prescribes that proceeds of the Special Account are to be used primarily for development programmes and reconstruction programmes, excluding current needs.

"The Farmer Support Services Project" is an indirect support measure oriented towards rural agricultural population, including, inter alia:

- modernization of agricultural practice and management of farms through the development of agricultural support services;

- support to implementation of applied and development research

- strengthening veterinary services institutions, etc.

The majority of activities is carried out through the Fareers’ Extension Services which either independently or in cooperation with other governmental authorities and NGOs organize lectures, printing publications, etc. The media involvement is all the more present, especially the TV and newspapers, and NGO programmes receive a certain amount of earmarked funding.

In 1996, a Special Account for Agricultural Reconstruction and Development Loans was opened at the Ministry of Agriculture and Development.

The Government of the Republic of Croatia during 1997 secured US $14.68 million from the State Budget for the Special Account for Agricultural Reconstruction and Development Loans, which provided resources for agricultural development programmes for different social groups of agricultural producers.

In 1996 Croatia entered into the Loan Contract for the Farmer Support Services Project (FSSP) with the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. The total Project value was US $30 million, out of which the loan accounts for US $17 million, whereas the remaining US $13 million would be earmarked from the State Budget in the period until the end of June 2001.

A new financing and agricultural development system is being considered by the Parliament. The Fund will be based on taxes (sold agricultural products), land leases and credits (banks and international funds).

Cooperation

The Republic of Croatia has just finalized the negotiations for entering WTO, which is expected to come into force beginning 2000, and in line with the results of negotiations, the procedures are being initiated for reviewing customs regulations and other legislation in Croatia.

Regional co-operation is undertaken through the Alps-Adriatic and Danube Regional Community Programme. International cooperation takes place with FAO (restoring of olive-groves in the Adriatic Region), the World Bank (Emergency Reconstruction Loan and implementation of the Farmer Support Services Project), the EBRD (implementation of the Wholesale Market Programme in Croatia), and several bilateral projects with neighboring countries.

International conventions have been signed, new legislation enacted, procedure for entering GATT/WTO started, and in 1995, in cooperation with FAO experts the Croatian Strategy of Sustainable Agricultural Development was prepared.

* * *

This information was provided by the Government of Croatia to the 5th and 8th Sessions of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last Update: March 2000.

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ATMOSPHERE

Decision-Making: Coordinating Bodies    

At present, the following government ministries / agencies have air quality management tasks and responsibilities:

Ministry of Environmental Protection and Physical Planning (MEPPP) and its Atmosphere Protection Department (6 staff): development of air protection strategy, policy and legal instruments; administrative supervision of the application of legislation, responsibility for international treaties and their integration into the national legal system; responsibility for monitoring and reporting at the national level;

Units of local self-government (County assemblies and the Assembly of the City of Zagreb, town and municipal councils): local level implementation of air quality protection legislation, in particular translation of the national environmental strategy into physical plan of the county; developing air quality protection and improvement programmes and obliging air pollution sources to set up restoration programmes in the category III air quality areas; establishing regional air pollution monitoring networks; local level reporting and data submission to the MEPPP; proposing stricter air quality standards and limit emission values than the national standards;

County Offices and the Office of the City of Zagreb – governmental authorities in charge of environmental protection (21 offices, approximately 40 staff dealing also with industrial and municipal management): maintaining environmental emissions cadastre, including data on air emissions; cooperation in the process of issuing permits; forwarding data to MEPPP;

Municipal offices for environmental protection: maintaining databases of and reporting on collective sources’ emissions to the County Offices.

Decision-Making: Legislation and Regulations 

The basic legislative framework for the implementation of the policy of air quality protection and improvement in Croatia is the Law on Air Quality Protection, in force since 1995. The Law regulates the establishment of national and local air quality monitoring networks, the mode of area classification with regard to air quality, the need for developing programmes for endangered areas, as well as the stationary sources of air pollution. It also introduces the obligation to keep records of the sources of emissions and monitor stationary source emissions, and to supply the units of local self-government with the relevant data. Also of importance in this context is the By-law on Recommended and Limit Values of Ambient Air Quality (1996).

Environmental protection inspectorate: Inspection of compliance by environmental polluters with air protection legislation; supervising implementation of air protection measures as specified in the Environmental Impact assessment and the sitting permits; supervising implementation of restoration programmes and programmes for air quality protection and improvement and the efficiency of air pollution reduction.

The State administration cooperates on the national as well as on the local levels with different expert institutions, for example with the Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, the Meteorological and Hydrological Service and the Ruder Boskovic Institute, which are all involved in air quality monitoring. Other institutions such as universities, research institutes and consulting companies are consulted, depending on the subject.

Table -1: Institutional framework of air pollution legislation

The competent ministry (MEPPP) prepares a draft regulation, which is, at first, informally coordinated with the relevant state and county institutions, ministries, county authorities, NGOs, private enterprises (if their interests are affected), academy and Croatian Chamber of Economy. MEPPP receives feedback from the authorities concerned, decides whether it can accept their comments and proposals are not and defines its own position. Since a decision of the Government in early 1999, a proposal for new legislation must also state whether the relevant EU legislation has been taken into account. The whole documentation is then officially sent to the Government, which passes it to a governmental committee where all competent authorities are represented, and a formal draft is prepared. The draft law is sent to the Croatian State Parliament, first to the House of Counties and subsequently to the House of representatives.

The local level – there are 415 municipalities, 106 towns and 21 counties, including Zagreb city – has an important function in implementing the atmosphere protection laws and regulations. The law on Local Self-Government regulates its relationship with the national authorities.  Counties and municipalities are on one side bound by national laws, but they can introduce stricter standards or a more stringent air quality monitoring system. If this is envisaged, the MEPPP is informed of the plans, which it has to approve before they may be carried out.

At present, the following regulations directly or indirectly govern air protection:

• The Law on Environmental Protection (1994);
• The Law on Air Quality Protection (1995);
• By-law on Recommended and Limit Ambient Air Quality Values (1996);
• Rule Book on Environmental Pollutants Inventory (1996);
• The Physical Planning Law (1998);
• By-law on Environmental Impact Assessment (1997);
• By-law on Limit Values of Pollutant Emission from Stationary Sources into the Air (1997);
• By-law on Quality Standards for Liquid Oil Fuels (1997);
• By-law on Conditions for Issuing Permits for Performing Professional Environmental Activities (1997);
• By-law on Substances Depleting the Ozone Layer (1999).

The regulations that indirectly govern air quality, based on the Laws on Standardization, on Road Safety, on Inflammable Liquids and on Measurements, are:

• Rule Book on Jet Engine Fuel Quality (1995);
• Rule Book on Fuel Supply Stations for Vehicles (1998);
• Rule Book on Vehicle Certification, with accompanying by-laws (1996, amended 1997 and 1998);
• By-law on Certification of Compression Engines and Vehicles with Such Engines Regarding Their Harmful Emissions (1998);
• By-law on Certification of Vehicles Regarding Harmful Compound Emissions in Accordance with Engine Fuel Types (1998);
• Rule Book on Technical Requirements for Vehicles in Road Traffic (1998);
• Rule Book on Vehicle Testing (1993);
• Rule Book on Technical Inspections of Vehicles (1993);
• Rule Book on Measuring Requirements for Devices Measuring Concentrations of Exhaust Gases from Internal Combustion Engines Running on Petrol (1997);
• Rule Book on Measuring Requirements for Devices Determining Exhaust Gases Turbidity in Compression Engines with Self-ignition - Diesel Engines (1997);
• Law on Excise Tax on Oil Derivatives (1994); and 
• Other laws on agricultural land (1994).

Legislation on the transport sector complies with the respective EU directives. It is expected that, in 2010, 75 per cent of the vehicles will fulfill the EC91 norm.  In the field of air protection the only economic instruments applied are fines prescribed by the existing legal provisions.

Until the Law on Air Quality Protection was passed in 1995, there were no grounds for implementation of a systematic air quality monitoring, nor air pollution prevention measures, due to inexistence of relevant legal regulations. The Law on Environmental Protection and the Law on Air Quality Protection, together with numerous by-laws regulating issues of discharging pollutants into the air from stationary, diffuse and mobile sources, permitted limit air quality values and quality standards for liquid oil fuels and other products, have offered possibilities for the realization of the stated goals.

The Law on Air Quality Protection prescribes a systematic air quality monitoring, as well as the obligation of implementation of prevention measures against pollution of the air, as an environmental element considered a general resource under special protection of the State. The Law also prescribes that pollution sources should be constructed and/or manufactured, equipped, used and maintained in the manner that prevents them from emitting pollutants into the air in the quantities above limit emission values. Legal or natural persons - owners and/or users of pollution sources should register pollution sources, as well as any modification thereof, to the County Office or the Office of the City of Zagreb in charge of maintaining pollution registers, with the corresponding data on situation, capacity, type and emission quantities. Emission sources should also submit data on pollutant emission into the air annually into the emission cadastre (maintained by the County Offices and the Office of the City of Zagreb).

The main purpose of passing regulations in the field of air quality protection is protection and improvement of air quality at the local level, which creates conditions for a healthy life and development of activities directly related to a clean environment. Limitation of local level emission values also contributes to a decrease of the Croatian share in regional and global atmospheric pollution, enabling effective implementation of the provisions of international treaties.

The By-law on Limit Values of Pollutant Emission from Stationary Sources into the Air is based on the principle of applying the best available technologies not entailing excessive costs (BATNEEC). It proposes technologies that have been accepted by the EU countries and limit values derived from common EU standards, international agreements or European Union legislation were consulted.

The By-law entered into force on 1 January 1998 and prescribes general ELVs for total particulate matter, inorganic and organic compounds and carcinogenic substances. Each substance is put in a risk category (I-IV) depending on its toxicity, persistence and accumulation potential and the technological possibilities for emission reduction. For some selected technological processes, e.g. production of non-ferrous mineral raw materials, production and processing of metals, chemical industry, food-processing industry, heating installations, gas turbines, internal combustion engines, waste incinerators, ELVs are prescribed for certain process-specific pollutants. Combustion installations have different ELVs according to their size and fuel used. Since 1 January 1998, all new or reconstructed stationary sources have to comply with the By-law.  Existing sources have to comply with the prescribed ELVs by the year 2004. In the transition period, existing stationary sources may exceed the prescribed limit values by a factor of three.

According to this Ordinance and the Law on Air Quality Protection owners and/or users of air pollution sources are obliged to:

• report on their air pollution sources and any reconstruction of them to the county authority;
• reduce the air emissions to be in compliance with the relevant legislation;
• regularly monitor air emissions and keep records; and 
• submit the data to the Environmental Emission Cadastre on a regular basis.

By-Law on Quality Standards for Liquid Oil Fuels prescribes quality standards for the following liquid oil fuels: unleaded motor petrol, leaded motor petrol, heating and lighting paraffin, diesel fuels and fuel oil, for the purposes of environmental - air quality improvement in the entire State territory.  By provisions of the By-Law content of lead, sulphur, benzene, total aromatics, polychlorinated biphenyls and other quality requirements: oxidation stability, research octane number, motor octane number, cold filter plugging point, pour point, distillation, cetane index, marker, density at 15⁰ C, water content and color are prescribed. For domestic products, due to the lack of suitable oil processing technologies, a sufficient five-year deadline (2002) has been set in order to achieve the standards prescribed by this By-Law.

In Croatia, there are no regulation so far related to the prohibition of use and sale of leaded motor petrol. Republic of Croatia has not yet phased out the use of leaded petrol for on-road vehicles. It is expected to phase out by the year 2005.  All petrol stations in Croatia now have at least one so-called "green pump" for unleaded petrol. At petrol stations the following unleaded petrol is available: EUROSUPER 95 and EUROSUPER 98. Few stations are equipped with reversible vapor capturing system.

Decision-Making: Strategies, Policies and Plans  

Systematic approach to air protection in the Republic of Croatia started with legislation of the Law on Environmental Protection, Law on Air Quality Protection, and by-law regulations based on those laws, and continues with working out of Air Protection Strategy as a part of Environmental Protection Strategy. The Air Protection Strategy is currently being drafted, as a part of the Environmental Protection Strategy. It is planned that this document be submitted to the Croatian Parliament until the end of 2000.

The task of the Strategy is to coordinate needs of economic development with air protection needs, taking into consideration all aspects of pollution. For each problem, starting from local, regional and global level, main causes are given and priorities and fundamental measures for efficacious action are suggested. The basic propositions of Air Protection Strategy are projections of polluting substances’ emissions to the air up to 2010, strategic directions of actions and priorities on State and County level, as well as a program of short-term and long-term measures for air pollution control.

According to the Kyoto Protocol, in order to prevent the future creation of greenhouse effects, it is required that the greenhouse effect emissions be reduced until 2012 by 5% in comparison with the level of emissions from the referential data from 1990.

On the basis of the drafted energy scenarios we are presenting sectoral measures that should contribute to the accomplishment of the above-mentioned objective.

Energy sector:

The Strategy of Energy Development of Croatia, in its larger part, takes into consideration the requirements of environmental protection, while the long-term orientation of this sectors are founded on the following objectives:

EN₁ - Increase of energy efficiency in all the areas of energy consumption through:

• the long-term reliable and sufficient energy supply,
• compatibility with the health, environment and physical surrounding issues, reducing the risks,
• economic efficiency coupled with social responsibility and,
• technological efficiency and adaptation capabilities.
• EN₂ - development of new and renewable energy resources,
• EN₃ - improvement of the consumer position, high quality services and lower prices and,
• EN₄ - education, information and advisory services and development of public relations.

Increase of energy efficiency:

The increase of energy efficiency is one the fundamental requirements of sustainable development within the Croatian energy strategy that implies:

• KUEN building: The Efficiency Programme in Buildings
• MIEE: Network of the industrial energy efficiency
• KOGEN: The Programme of co-generation
• KUENcts: Energy efficiency in the programme of central heating systems
• TRANCRO: Energy efficiency programme of transport

As the realization of these objectives requires considerable technical improvements in the energy system, the Strategy specifically takes them into consideration as follows:

• replacement of used up equipment and plants;
• use of waste heat of exhaust fumes;
• introduction of new systems of automatic regulation and management, and standardized regulation and equipment for precise regulation;
• incitement of cogeneration; and
• establishment of efficiency prices and tariff systems.

Systematic policy of renewable energy production:

This policy in Croatia is based on the national energy programmes, which have been introduced in 1997. They also include sub-programmes for the environment sector:

• BIOEN - Programme of consumption of biomass and waste; it is estimated that its potential will amount to 50-80 PJ (16 PJ in 1996) in 2030;
• SUNEN - Programme of consumption of solar energy; it is expected that by the year 2020 approx. 50 % of non-industrial requirements will be covered by solar energy;
• ENWIND - Programme of consumption of wind energy; the potential of the 29 selected macro locations is estimated at 750 kW per annum;
• GOEN -Programme of consumption of geothermal energy; Croatia has considerably greater geothermal potentials from the European average. It is expected that the consumption will be increased by approximately 10 times;
• MAHE -Programme of construction of small hydro-power supply plants; The estimated potentials amount to 100 MW of the total installed power

Industry:

Commercial and institutional sectors:

Households:

Small co-generations:

Transport:

 Agriculture and building:

 Terrestrial and marine resource development for greenhouse gas sinks:

Agriculture

Agriculture may play an important role in binding carbon from the air, as the bottom of the CO₂ emission. By binding carbon into the plant mass and soil the concentration of CO₂ in the air decreases. This may be achieved by changing the structure of plant production and methods of land cultivation. These possibilities are to be further analyzed.

Forestry

Monitoring the state of forest degradation in Croatia shows a constant downward trend, with the greatest damage observed on fir-trees. The recent data at the level of Europe show improvements in some regions, but also the increase of damages in oak-woods which are of inestimable value to Croatia. There are numerous causes of degradation that have common effects among which the most important are acidification, eutrophication, ground-level ozone, climatic factors and a number of biotic factors connected with anthropogenic activities.

Protection of forests has a positive effect on other ecosystems, it helps preserve the ground waters, protect soil from erosion and maintain microclimatic conditions. An important function of forests is absorption of the greenhouse gas CO₂ whereby its concentration in the air is reduced, and so are the undesired global climate changes.  Forest management in Croatia is based on the principle of sustainability, which means that exploitation of forests is smaller than the growth of wood mass. The traditional way of exploitation is the so-called “thinning out” rather than cutting down (clearing) of forests, thus maintaining the balance of various forest communities and biodiversity of other forest components.  With the aim to increase the carbon content in the total wood mass it will be necessary to provide balance among the following measures to:

• reduce cutting down of forests;
• increase the forest surface area;
• increase yields from existing forests;
• increase the efficiency of wood exploitation;
•  substitute fossil fuels with wood.

The measures stated are to be brought into balance with a number of other activities, particularly agriculture and issues relating to natural and sociological factors. Within the context of elaborating the National Report on Climate Change (to be finalized by the end of November 2000) priority measures will be defined, taking into account costs and benefits of measures in other sectors.

Measures for the Protection of Ozone Layer

Viewing the sector of ODS consumption, measures to be taken for the purpose of achieving the objectives are:

1.    Sector of cooling and air-conditioning equipment:

• phasing out CFCs consumption by the year 2006;
• preventing the import of products containing ozone depleting substances;
• preventing the discharge of CFCs in the air;
• control and prevention of equipment leakage;
• making service technicians familiar with alternative media;
• preparation and implementation of programmes for education of service technicians;
• elaboration of technical instructions for service technicians;
• elaboration of standards for equipment used for collection and recycling; and 
• preparation of the system for CFCs collecting and recycling.

2.    Sector of aerosols: introduction of the use of substitutes in aerosol production; and development of freon substitutes in       production of medicine aerosols.

3.     Sector of hard and elastic polyurethane foam production: preventing the wide use of CFCs in foam production.

4.    Sector of solvents: preventing the wide use of ODSs in the sector of solvents; and cooperation with international institutions in finding alternatives for laboratory applications.

5.    Sector of fire protection formulation of the strategy for halon collection and management.

6.    Sector of methyl bromide use: continuation of implementation and supervision of project execution.

Emission projection

Measures to achieve the objective of reducing the ODSs emissions relate to phasing out the ODSs consumption and to substitution with substances not harmful for the environment. The time schedule for the reduction of ODSs consumption is given in table 1.

Table 1.:     Time schedule for phasing out the consumption of ozone depleting substances

Transboundary air pollution

The fundamental objective is to attain sustainable economic development without over-stepping the critical levels and critical amount of pressures on the forests and water eco-systems of Croatia. This can be achieved through the implementation of the following objectives:

I.    Pressures should be reduced to the level bellow the thresholds of the critical pressures

M1 Co-ordinate the air protection strategy with the energy, industry, transport and agriculture strategies

M2 Ratify the Protocol on Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone to the Convention on Long-range transboundary Air Pollution

M3 Limit the emissions of NO_x, NMVOC, SO₂ i NH₃ simultaneously, applying the multi-pollutant multi-effect in accordance with the requirements of the Protocol to reduce the: 

• emissions to 70 000 t/annum until 2010;
• nitrate oxides emissions to 87 000 t/annum until 2010,
• NMVOC emissions to 90 000 t/annum until 2010,
• NH₃ emissions to 30 000 t/annum until 2010
• lead (Pb) emissions by at least 70 % until 2010 in comparison with the year 1990.

In transport:  M8 Completely stop consumption of a leaded petrol until the year 2005 in accordance with the requirements of the Protocol on heavy metals; M9 Proscribe the sulphur concentration in the diesel fuel to 0.005 % until the year 2007; M10 Proscribe the petrol concentration in benzines to 1 % after the year 2005; M11 Use alternative fuels with an emphasis on liquid gas (LNG); M12 Proscribe the installation of the equipment for catching the evaporable hydrocarbons in decanting and storing fuel at the petrol stations; M13 Reduced the volume of traffic in cities through the use of public transport and bicycles; M14 Proscribe emission standards for exhaust fumes of private cars and increase vehicle maintenance; M15 Plan and optimize traffic in urban areas; M16 Increase the competitiveness of other forms of transport, particularly the railway traffic.

In Agriculture:  M17 Proscribe and apply codexes of good agricultural practice; M18 Proscribe procedures and techniques of the reduction of NH₃ i CH₄ emissions for the cattle-raising farms.

II.    Introduce the cost-assessment and carting of the critical pressures for the entire Croatia

M1 Apply the internationally adopted methods of cost-assessment and carting of critical pressures and M2 Participate in the international research on the development of methods for establishing critical pressures.

III.    Attaining good quality data on the status of acidification of soil and eutrophication of waters

M1 Draft regulations for the implementation of acid sedimentation and toxic effects monitoring in accordance with the EU directives and the criteria of the signed protocols of the LRTAP Convention; M2 Complete and up-grade ( NH₃) cadastre of air emissions; M3 Up-grade and continuously improve the existing system of regional monitoring of the DHZ concentration in atmosphere; M4 Establish the ground water eutrophication monitoring; M5 Establish intensive forest status monitoring in accordance with the EU regulations.

 Air quality protection goals

Basic goals (long-term) in the field of air quality protection in the period until 2010 are to:

• achieve the first category of air quality over the entire territory of the state,
• reduce emissions of main pollutants from industrial plants, 
• reduce emissions of main pollutants from thermal power plants,
• reduce emissions of main pollutants from household combustion plants and combustion plants for wide application, 
•  reduce traffic-related emissions,
• phase out consumption of ozone depleting substances,
•  reduce emissions of greenhouse gases,
• reduce originators of photochemical smog and troposphere ozone.

Framework goals by pollutants are:

• Greenhouse gases:  Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in line with the provisions of the Kyoto Protocol – in the period between 2008 and 2012 the greenhouse effect of CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, HFC, SF₆ and PFC is to be reduced by five per cent in relation to emissions from the selected base year.

• ODSs. Implementation of legal provisions adopted. Prohibition of ODS discharge in the air, including ODS collecting and recycling.

• SO₂.emission: Reduction of total emission on the territory of the state to the level of the quota as prescribed by international treaties – up to 2010 the emissions to be cut by 70 per cent in relation to 1990. Reduction of the total emission from existing stationary sources to the level of limit values prescribed.

• NO_x.emission: Reduction of total emission on the territory of the state to the level of the quota as prescribed by international treaties – up to 2010 the emissions to be cut by 10 per cent in relation to 1990. Reduction of the total emission from existing stationary sources to the level of limit values prescribed.

• NH₃ emission: Reduction of total emission on the territory of the state to the level of the quota as prescribed by international treaties – up to 2010 the emissions to be cut by 30 per cent in relation to 1990.

• VOCs emission: Reduction of total emission on the territory of the state to the level of the quota as prescribed by international treaties – up to 2010 the emissions to be cut by 14 per cent in relation to 1990.

• Heavy metals (lead, mercury and cadmium): Reduction on the entire territory of the state to levels prescribed by international treaties. Phasing out leaded petrol consumption by 2005.

• Particulate matter. Enforcement of regulations adopted.

For the purpose of achieving the long-term goals it is necessary between the years 2002-2005 to:

• carry out categorization of the state according to the air pollution level;
• adopt a regulation on locations of air quality monitoring stations within the national network, including the programme and methodology of air quality measurements within the national network;
• adopt a regulation on permitted emissions of pollutant from diffuse sources;
• adopt a regulation on critical levels of ambient air pollution;
•  adopt a regulation on recommended and limit values of air quality in uninhabited areas with the aim to protect vegetation;
• enact a national programme for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, including rules for implementation of mechanisms to adjust to the Kyoto protocol;
• adopt Croatia’s regulations harmonized with regulations of the European Union and international treaties regarding permitted values of pollutant emissions and mission concentrations in the air;
• adopt Croatia’s standards harmonized with European standards relating to new vehicles;
• adopt a regulation on introduction of charges for air pollution from stationary sources;
• draw up a public transport development programme for cities;
• ratify international treaties already signed or in the process of signing that are significant for the overall air quality protection in The Republic of Croatia;
• reduce greenhouse gas emissions;
• conserve and increase greenhouse gas sinks;
• mitigate ozone depletion;
• mitigate transboundary air pollution.

Decision-Making: Major Groups involvement   

For the purpose of preparing and implementing Montreal protocol in Croatia the National Country Programme Team was established in 1995 with the main task to serve as an overall advisory body in the implementation, but could also provide specific support through its members familiar with the technical issues. NCPT includes representatives from the ministries, state institutions, industry, academy, NGOs, and Chamber of Commerce. NCPT has advisory status.

For the purpose of preparing and implementing UNFCCC in Croatia the National Climate Change Committee was established in 1999 which includes representatives from the ministries, state institutions, industry, academy, NGOs, and Chamber of Commerce. NCCC has advisory status.

Programmes and Projects   

• Ekonerg holding, Zagreb: “Calculation and mapping of soils critical load in Gorski Kotar region”, 1997.

During the preparation of the National programme several representatives of governmental institutions and private enterprises have offered their services and cooperation to the Government. For the purpose of preparing and implementing this programme in Croatia the National Country Programme Team has been established in 1995 with the main task to serve as an overall advisory body in the implementation, but could also provide specific support through its members familiar with the technical issues. The Country programme consists of the following elements:

• close monitoring and licensing system of ODS;
• strengthen the responsible unit at the Ministry that it will be able to provide users with more technical and commercial information regarding ODS alternatives and markets;
• develop and establish appropriate regulations, which are to regulate the issues of ODS import, export and consumption, as well as ODS-containing products, in more detail;
• identify and detail priority projects for presentation to potential financing sources,
• develop publicity campaigns through mass media and NGOs to increase the consciousness of the general public on the harmful effects of the continued use of ODS, and thus preparing it for increased economic costs which may be unavoidable in the phase-out process, etc.

After adopting the National Programme the Croatian Government established National Ozone Unit (NOU).  Measures undertaken by sectors include: (i) Phasing out Methyl Bromide/Fumigants.  In cooperation with tobacco industry accelerated phase-out consumption of methyl bromide in production of tobacco is introduced (it is planned to phase-out methyl bromide by 2005).  (ii)  Phasing out CFC in the Refrigeration Servicing Sector by implementing Refrigerant management Plan it is planned to phase-out CFCs in the refrigeration sector by 2005.  (iii) Phasing out CFC in foam production by implementing the phase-out project, CFC has been replaced in foam sector.  (iv) Phasing out CFC in Aerosol products by implementing the phase-out project, CFC has been replaced in cosmetics aerosol products. However CFC s are still use in medical products (inhalators).  (v) Phasing out CFC solvents by Consumption of 1,1,1-trichlorethane was phase-out in Croatia.  Carbon tetrachloride is used only as feedstock for initiation the cracking in furnaces of a vynil chloride monomer plant.  (vi) Phasing out ODS in fire-fighting products by elaboration of Halons Management Plan is under preparation in cooperation with Hazardous Waste Agency).

Status 

A generally accepted principle of sustainable development demands harmonization of developmental and conservational needs. In terms of air quality protection policy implementation instruments, when defining limit emission values, Croatia starts from the principle of "Application of Best Available Technology Not Entailing Excessive Costs" – (BATNEEC principle). This refers generally to those procedures and solutions that are not too costly, that have been practically verified and are available.

The consequence of war and of simultaneous commencement of economic transformation was the drop in all economic activities and social standard, followed by a significant decrease of pollutant emissions. The most drastic drop of 55.4 per cent was recorded in sulphur dioxide emissions, because beside the reduction of energy consumption the major source of emission, the thermal power plant Plomin, reduced the emission (from 44,000 tons in 1990 to 17,847 tons in 1997). The greatest reduction of heavy metal emissions is recorded in the lead emissions (59,2 per cent) as a direct consequence of gradual introduction of unleaded petrol. The reduction of emissions of other pollutants amounted to 44.1 per cent with CO, 31.8 per cent with NH₃, 23.5 per cent with NMVOC, 16.9 per cent with CO₂, 16.5 per cent with NO_x, 15.4 per cent with N₂O and 13.1 per cent with CH₄.

The overview of pollutants by activity sectors over the period observed is shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Emission of selected pollutants, 1990 – 1997* (1000 tons/year)

* Activates related to human activities (without nature)

On the basis of the annual calculation of air pollutant emissions from the pollution sources in the Republic of Croatia and monitoring of emission state by sectors in the period between 1990 and 1997, it may be concluded as follows:

• the highest annual emissions were recorded in 1990, while in the period between 1990 and 1997 the emissions of all pollutants dropped as a consequence of war activities and the shutdown of a number of major air pollution sources;

• in 1997 the pollutant emissions increased again as a consequence of a 15.4 per cent rise of energy consumption in comparison with 1996, but they are still by 25 per cent lower than in 1990;

• the share of power industry (fuel combustion in all sectors) in the total SO₂ emission is 98 per cent, in the NO_x emission about 95 per cent and in the CO₂ emission about 88 per cent;

• the share of traffic in the total annual NO_x emission is about 65 per cent, in the CO emission about 47 per cent, in the NMVOC emission about 25 per cent, in the CO₂ emission about 24 percent and in the lead emission about 98 per cent;

The past years showed the downward trend of the consumption of ozone-depleting substances from 562 tons in 1995 to 168 tons in 1998. Still it should be stressed that the drop of consumption is a consequence of several factors: the consequence of war destructions, transition to market economy and, consequently, the immediate drop of production, trends of phasing out the consumption of ozone-depleting substances on western markets and the strengthened awareness of the forthcoming phasing out of the consumption of ozone-depleting substances.

Agriculture

One of the measures introduced in agriculture sector is promotion of alternative farming. There are many examples of established agro ecological processing in different parts of the country and the environmentally friendly technologies in private agriculture (Istria region, etc.). The application of “Integral Plant Nutrition.  Due to the low consumption of Annex A ozone-depleting substances (less than 0.3 kg per capita or rather 0.2 kg per capita for substances under Annex B of the Montreal Protocol) the Republic of Croatia belongs to countries granted a grace period for phasing out the consumption of ozone-depleting substances.  Basic guidelines for phasing out the consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) in the Republic of Croatia, or rather for implementation of the Montreal Protocol, were for the first time presented through the National Programme for Phasing Out the Ozone-Depleting Substances (1995).

Challenges  

Disregarding the considerable reduction in the emission of all pollutants (in comparison with the year 1990) and a reduction in the specific emission (emission/inhabitant or emission/km2) in comparison with the average emissions in the EU countries (lead is the only exception), Croatia still has a problem of air pollution. The excessive or moderate air pollution has been registered for a number of years in the cities of : Zagreb, Rijeka, Split, Sisak, Šibenik, Pula i Kutina. The reason for this is a release of pollutants in the air from mobile sources, certain technological processes and burn out of fuels. On the basis of the first conducted emission measurements and monitoring of five-year trends in the settlements, it can be concluded that a considerable number of inhabitants is exposed to the excessive or moderate air pollution. Cities and towns with such high levels of pollution demand an additional attention with regard to the air protection, in both the number and methods of critical indicators monitoring and a better control of the stationary and mobile air pollution sources.

Air protection costs are presently financed from the public budgetary resources: the national budget and the budgets of local self-government and government units. The resources allocated for financing these costs are insufficient and of total costs of environmental protection only some 0.2 per cent annually account for air protection.

Capacity-building, Education, Training and Awareness-raising 

In the past period the main promotional activities were:

In 1998, UNEP/WMO brochure was translated and printed: Understanding of climate change; United nations Framework Convention on climate change - Beginners guide, which has been distributed to all the primary and secondary schools in Croatia.  During the years of 1999/2000, seven workshops have been held on the topic: The first National Report of the Republic of Croatia in accordance with the obligations stipulated by UNFCCC. Some 300 participants participated in the work of workshops, including the representatives of science sector, research institutions, non-governmental organizations, state administration and industry.

Magazines Economy and Environment and Energy, economy and environment dedicate certain issues to the topic of climate change every once in a while.  Additionally, a promotional video clip under the title Climate is changing - your habits should be changed too will be aired on the Croatian television from November 2000.

Through its competent authorities, the Republic of Croatia is systematically educating employees, by organizing seminars and courses within and outside educational institutions, to work with the substances that deplete the ozone layer. Permanent promotional activities in mass media are helping to raise the awareness of co-responsibility for the environment, thus preparing the public for the benefits which will inevitably arise in the course of withdrawal of these substances from use.

Information

Croatia can provide accurate air quality indicators for the past few years except for certain industrial zones burdened by out-of-date technology. Annual reports on air pollutant emissions have been prepared in Croatia since 1993. These reports include the following substances: S02, NOx, N20, CH4, CO, C02, NH3, NMVOC and heavy metals (Pb, CD and Hg). 

On the basis of the first studies of the climate change impact analysis and the possible adoption of ecosystems to the environmental impacts, one can conclude that the greatest impacts and vulnerabilities in the future can be expected in the following areas:

• coastal areas: flooding of shore due to raising the sea level, penetration of sea water into the underground streams and flooding of large surfaces of the low river basins
• agriculture: erosion increase and decrease of yield per acre of certain plants
• forestry: moving of forest eco-types in vertical dimension and spacially

Air pollution

Regardless of the present state of the air quality monitoring system, for all cities covered by the existing system it may be said that air pollution in these cities is a consequence of general environmental pressures, coming primarily from the production and consumption of all forms of energy (stationary and mobile sources), households, industry and municipal and production wastes.

In the period from 1995 to 1998 the air pollution state by cities was as follows.

Evaluation of the air quality state

On the basis of data on air quality monitoring in the period from 1995 – 1998 it may be concluded as follows:

The issues of climate change can also be found on the web page of the Ministry : www.duzo.ring.hr

Research and Technologies   

Ordinance on Environmental Impact Assessment prescribes mandatory elaboration of an Environmental Impact Study (EIS) for specific interventions into environment and it has to be carried out for all planned activities that are subject to approval and could significantly affect the environment. These activities include: the exploitation and use of soil, water, forests, mineral and other natural resources; and the construction, change of operation, or removal of certain facilities and equipment.

The assessment itself is based on the environmental impact study, which is an integral part of the application for obtaining a site-permit or any other type of permit for interventions not requiring the issuing of site-permits. Specific ordinance for this purpose determines categories of activities for which: an environmental impact assessment (EIA) is always mandatory; if certain conditions and criteria are fulfilled, require a mandatory EIA; and an EIA requires only a study containing particular analyses of nature, or partial accounts.  All new or reconstructed sources have to comply with the new air pollution legislation. Therefore, the new coal-fired power plant Plomin II, which should be put into operation this year, will be equipped with a desulphurization unit (limestone wet scrubber with efficiency over 95 per cent), low-NO_x burners and an electrostatic precipitator.

80 per cent of industry is located in the central part of Croatia (Sisak-Zagreb region), 10 per cent in Rijeka and the rest is scattered all over Croatia, with a further industrial center in Split. Croatia has about 24 large sources, which produce the majority of emissions. Six of them are power plants, three are refineries, four are cement plants, four are petrochemical plants, one is a gas extraction facility and the others are chemical and metallurgical plants. After their privatization one of them stopped operating (Umag) and the others are being upgraded step by step.

The Koromacno cement plant already meets the emission limits for new sources, introduced ISO 14000 and is regarded as a good example of environmental protection management. Both the cement plant in Pula and the cement plant complex in Split have been upgraded as well. The cement plant in Umag is not currently operated.

The refineries, all of which belong to the State-owned company INA, will also be upgraded step by step. However, only the refinery in Rijeka has been upgraded so far. The refinery in Sisak, the oldest in Croatia, still has problems with obsolete technologies; upgrading them requires large investments. All INA plants introduced ISO 9000 and are now preparing to introduce also ISO 14000.

Croatia has few waste incineration plants. Two fluidized bed furnaces for the incineration of sewage sludge and waste oil in the Sisak and Rijeka refineries (a rotary kiln incinerator in Sisak will be put into operation soon), one hospital waste incinerator in Zagreb and the new hazardous waste incinerator PUTO in Zagreb.

Technological and other changes relating to the extraction, production, storage, transport, and use of raw materials, semi-products, finished products and energy and the trial introduction of new products and technologies.

Cleaner technologies

Since Croatia’s economy is currently facing problems with its obsolete and ineffective technologies, war damage and recession, it is improbable that the requirements of the air protection legislation will be met within the prescribed time period. The driving force behind the introduction of new/cleaner technologies is the need to improve overall production efficiency rather than environmental concerns. Some examples of successful implementation of cleaner technologies with regard to air emissions include:

1. Hazardous waste incineration plant PUTO: incineration in rotary kiln at a temperature of 950-1 000^oC, equipped with abatement techniques (activated carbon injection, wet NaOH scrubber or dry sodium bicarbonate dry scrubbing, urea injection for NO_x scrubbing, bag-house filters) which ensure compliance with emission standards.
2. Refinery in Rijeka: high-efficiency plant meeting all air emission limits (a new unit for hydrodesulphurization and mild hydrocracking gas oil), including Claus process for elementary sulphur production and low-NO_x burners.
3. Gas exploration facility in Molve: separation of gas impurities (CO₂, H₂S and mercury).
4. Installation of dry low-NO_x burners in the reconstructed gas combined cycle power plants in Zagreb and Jertovec, ensuring NO_x concentration below 100 mg/m^3.
5. The new coal-fired power plant PLOMIN II is equipped with a desulphurization unit (limestone wet scrubber with efficiency over 95%), low-NOx burners and an electrostatic precipitator.
6. Adaptation of cement production technology so that conventional energy materials can be partially replaced by wastes while maintaining the same cement quality and emission standards.

Croatia has a large crude oil processing sector, where high VOC emissions occur -- representing at the same time material losses. Nevertheless, vapor recovery units (VRU) have not been installed so far, nor are there plans to do so in the near future. Some new petrol stations are prepared for vapor recovering, but without a complete system, comprising a closed system of vapor capturing, distribution tank-trucks with bottom loading and VRU at the distribution points, this particular system may not be operated properly.

Financing

The state budget finances the national network for air quality monitoring. Budgets of local government and self-government units finance local networks for air quality monitoring. The polluter, the owner and/or the user are responsible for the financing of measures to reduce air pollution caused by stationary sources.

Cooperation  

Croatia is a party to the following international agreements concerning air protection and its national policies are partly based on them:

• Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1991)
• Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1991)
• London Amendment (1994)
• Copenhagen Amendment (1996)
• Montreal Amendment (2000)
• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1996)
• Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (1991)
• Protocol on Long-term Financing of the Cooperative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe (EMEP) (1991)
• Protoc