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NATURAL RESOURCE ASPECTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN CANADA

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AGRICULTURE

Decision Making: Coordinating Bodies

In order to address environmental issues in agriculture effectively, producers, processors, and governments must work together. Federal/provincial agreements on environmentally sustainable agriculture are helping producers design and implement activities focused on issues such as water quality, waste management, and soil conservation. The key decisions about investing in more environmentally sustainable practices are being made at the farm level. As such, it is the farm sector that must ultimately decide on how to protect the resources upon which it relies and in so doing, minimize environmental degradation.

Decision Making: Legislation and Regulations

No information is available.

Decision Making: Strategies, Policies, and Plans

The Canadian vision of sustainable agriculture was expressed in Growing Together, the discussion paper that initiated the comprehensive Agri-Food Policy review in 1989. The vision provided a framework to integrate economic, social, and environmental goals and was endorsed by governments and a variety of stakeholders. Building on this framework, the 1990 Report of the Federal/Provincial Agriculture Committee on Environmental Sustainability translated the concept of integration into recommendations that include adjustments to agricultural practices, and policy and programme reform to strengthen economic viability and environmental sustainability. The Report also identified eight main environmental and natural resource issues facing Canada's agriculture and agri-food sector: conservation of soil resources, surface and groundwater quality, water quantity management, sustainable management of wildlife habitat, air quality and climate change, energy efficiency, pollution and waste management, and conservation of genetic resources.

Agriculture and Agri-food Canada has completed a national consultative process to examine the challenges of environmental sustainability facing the sector and to develop a federal departmental strategy and action plan. A new Strategy for Environmentally Sustainable Agriculture and Agri-Food Development in Canada will provide the key underpinning for the department's post-Green Plan environmental activities, will be completed early in 1997. It will reflect an increased emphasis on pollution prevention and environmental stewardship among farmers and agri-food industries.

In support of sustainable agriculture, farmers are forming rural conservation clubs and developing environmental farm plans in Ontario, Atlantic Canada, and Quebec. In the Prairie Provinces (Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta) the farmer-owned Wheat Pools (grain marketing cooperatives) have developed guides to environmental farm planning to be used in conjunction with other on-farm conservation planning processes. These initiatives help farmers identify their successes in effective environmental management and develop work plans to address potential risks. It is projected that from 5,000 to 6,000 of these plans will be completed in Ontario alone by the year 1997. Alberta has launched a campaign, Growing Alberta, to increase the awareness of the impact of agriculture on the environment and the economy. Producers in a number of provinces are developing management standards that guide the implementation of environmental stewardship. For example, British Columbia and Alberta have established codes of practice for the management of animal waste, and Ontario has produced 10 booklets on Best Management Practices. In Quebec, initiatives include a Sustainable Development Policy for the agricultural sector and new regulations respecting the reduction of agricultural pollution. A component of the St. Lawrence Vision 2000, an action plan between the governments of Canada and Quebec designed to conserve, protect and restore the St. Lawrence River, supports projects that contribute to reducing agricultural pollution.

Decision Making: Major Groups Involvement

Industry and public advisory committees play a key role in working with governments to determine priorities and establish programmes. Farm organizations, conservation groups, and the larger agricultural extension community are driving forces behind the sector's plans for adopting best management practices that reduce environmental impacts, such as using pesticides more efficiently and shifting to conservation tillage practices. Certain non-governmental organizations are working to accelerate development and implementation of sustainable agriculture practices and to promote awareness of the need for an agriculture that is based on sustainable principles.

Programmes and Projects

Industry has developed tools for environmental stewardship, such as programmes to reduce environmental impacts and health risks in the agri-chemical industry, publications promoting improved water quality, and videos on best management practices. Canada has instituted a number of soil conservation and habitat conservation programmes over the years, such as the Permanent Cover Programme, that will ultimately convert some half-million hectares of marginal, erosion-prone land in parts of western Canada from annual crops to sustainable land uses under permanent cover. In most provinces, Federal Green Plan programs are addressing the links between pesticides and water quality, wildlife and biodiversity. Part of a new federal agricultural adaptation initiative, that is managed by farmers, is addressing issues such as water quality and waste management.

Status

The agricultural sector has made progress in achieving its environmental objectives. In 1991, low-till and no-till practices accounted for nearly one-third of the seeded cropland in Canada compared to negligible amounts only 20 years ago. Summer fallow has decreased almost 30% in the last two decades. Through federal and provincial efforts aimed at reducing toxins, some 29 compounds affecting more than 2000 agriculture-related products have been controlled or eliminated. Also, the agricultural sector is working towards meeting the terms of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer by reducing production and use of methyl bromide, a fumigant. The sector has demonstrated a willingness and an ability to adapt to its environmental challenges.

In the future, farmers will continue their shift to sustainable management practices and industry will improve its ability to self-regulate through initiatives such as environmental codes of practices and self-assessment guides. Industry and governments will continue to promote environmental sustainability and improve the understanding of the links between the sector's activities and their impacts on the environment. Provincial and federal governments will continue to work towards ensuring that policies and programs contribute to sound environmental practice by, for example, adapting their initiatives to the ecosystem approach and addressing issues at the rural-urban interface.

Challenges

No information is available.

Capacity-Building, Education, Training, and Awareness-Raising

Through the Green Plan, the federal government has established new projects to strengthen the national capacity to conserve plant and animal genetic resources.

Information

Federal efforts to support sustainable agriculture include the development of agri-environmental indicators that help evaluate the sector's environmental performance, provide information on key trends, and facilitate the integration of environmental considerations into the sector's decision-making processes.

Research and Technologies

Research efforts by governments, universities, and industry, through biotechnology as well as conventional techniques, include the development of disease- and pest-resistant crop varieties, reduction of pesticide use, and the development of practices that integrate disease and pest control with crop and soil management practices (integrated pest management).

Financing

Through the sustainable agriculture component of the Green Plan, the federal government is providing $138 million over six years (1991/92-1996/97) to help the sector continue to make the transition to more environmentally sustainable practices. Of this amount, $34 million has been earmarked for national initiatives; $104 million has been matched by equal funding from provinces under joint agreements. Province/producer/industry-led councils may also allocate funds for environmental projects under the $240 million Canadian Adaptation and Rural Development Fund (1995/96-1998/99).

Cooperation

Internationally, Canada is working to help other nations meet their Agenda 21 objectives. The International Development Research Centre (IDRC) is supporting research on food systems in regions where problems of food insecurity, poverty, and environmental degradation are most urgent. Indigenous knowledge and coping mechanisms at the household level will be incorporated in efforts to find local sustainable solutions. For example, the use of natural biological pesticides, which can be made locally at little or no cost, has been identified as a key area of research. The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) has a number of projects in place promoting environmentally sound farming practices and rural economic diversification in developing countries. Much of this work is carried out through community-level education and the introduction of appropriate technologies.

* * *

This information was provided by the Government of Canada to the fifth session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last Update: 1 April 1997.

For country reports on Plant Genetic Resources, click here.
To access the FAOSTAT Data Base for information by country, item, element and year, click here:
Click here to link to biosafety web sites in Canada.
Click here to link to the Biosafety Information Network and Advisory Service (BINAS), a service of the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), which monitors global developments in regulatory issues in biotechnology.
Click here to link to Country and Sub-regional Information on Plant Genetic Resources of the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.
Click here to go to Web Site of the Codex Alimentarius Commission, which includes information on the Codex Alimentarius and the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme.
Click here to access the Web Site of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR).
Click here to access the sixteen international agricultural research centers that are members of the CGIAR.

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ATMOSPHERE

Decision Making: Coordinating Bodies

Under Canada’s Constitution, the responsibility for clean air is shared among the federal and provincial/territorial governments. The federal government is responsible for domestic transboundary air pollution (e.g., smog, particulate matter), and international air pollution. Provincial/territorial governments have been traditionally responsible for regulation of emissions from stationary sources.

At the federal level, Environment Canada cooperates with Natural Resources Canada, Transport Canada, Health Canada, and the Climate Change Secretariat in making decisions protecting the atmosphere (see Question 2 for their areas of focus). Environment Canada also facilitates the development of a shared environmental agenda with other federal departments, and with the provinces/territories.

In addition to the shared jurisdiction of the environment among governments, self-government and comprehensive land claim agreements point to the new law-making powers of Aboriginal peoples in the area of environmental management.

Environment Canada is looked on as the leader in safeguarding the Canadian environment, including the atmosphere; developing regulations on substances such as those that deplete the ozone layer; informing Canadians; and providing the science needed to understand and respond to atmospheric issues such as climate change. The Meteorological Service of Environment Canada carries out scientific research to better understand such areas as stratospheric ozone, long-range transport of persistent organic pollutants, and local air quality issues, which helps to guide policy-making groups at Environment Canada and other federal departments.
Environment Canada is responsible for regulating  emissions from vehicles and engines, including pollutants that are deemed toxic to human health (e.g., lead in gasoline), as well as fuel quality standards.  Both Transport Canada and Natural Resources Canada are responsible for managing the voluntary motor vehicle fuel consumption program. Natural Resources Canada, Environment Canada, and Transport Canada are involved to varying degrees in education and awareness that aim to reduce vehicle fuel use and emissions.

Natural Resources Canada (NRCan) conducts research and development, and advances policies and programs, for the stewardship of Canada's natural resources. Protection of the atmosphere is major consideration for NRCan’s Energy Sector and its Forest Service. The Energy Sector coordinates energy policy development and conducts programs in the areas of energy efficiency,renewables and alternatives, hydrocarbons, and nuclear energy. NRCan also coordinates energy technology research and development, operates the Energy Technology Branch, and manages the Program of Energy Research and Development. This program supports and complements the energy-related activities of several federal departments and agencies. The Canadian Forest Service conducts research on forests and forestry practices, including their effects on the atmosphere, and promotes sustainable forestry, which takes these effects into account.

The Climate Change Secretariat, established in February 1998, reports to Natural Resources Canada and Environment Canada. Besides its involvement in developing the National Implementation Strategy for Climate Change, its primary objectives are to: 

Generally speaking, emissions from air, rail, and marine engines are covered by the Aeronautics Act, the Canada Transportation Act, and the Canada Shipping Act, which are administered by Transport Canada. Natural Resources Canada and Transport Canada manage fuel economy ratings for vehicles.

Federal and provincial/territorial cooperation is also facilitated through a number of committees and working groups. For example, federal and provincial/territorial governments cooperate on air issues at the technical level through the National Air Issues Coordinating Committee. The First National Climate Change Business Plan, announced in October 2000, will create new mechanisms over the next year for federal, provincial/territorial, and municipal collaboration.

The Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) is the major intergovernmental forum in Canada for discussion and joint action on environmental issues of national and international concern. The CCME comprises environment ministers from the federal, provincial, and territorial governments, who meet twice a year to discuss national environmental priorities. In 1998 the CCME committed to a new approach to environmental management in Canada when all jurisdictions (except Quebec) signed the Canada-Wide Accord on Environmental Harmonization, under which many sub-agreements are being struck on a wide range of important environmental management issues. For example, the Canada-Wide Environmental Standards Sub-Agreement sets out principles for governments to jointly agree on priorities, to develop standards, and to prepare complementary work plans to achieve those standards, based on the unique responsibilities and legislation of each government. The guiding principles in this Accord were further reinforced in February 1999 when all provincial/territorial governments (except Quebec) and the federal government signed the Framework to Improve the Social Union for Canadians. Environment Canada’s work to facilitate cooperation on the environment among provincial/territorial governments is guided by principles articulated in the Accord.

The regulation of ozone-depleting substances in Canada provides an example of federal–provincial/territorial cooperation. Both levels of government are responsible for regulating various aspects of ozone-depleting substances in the country. Their regulatory programs are complementary, forming an integral part of Canada's Ozone Layer Protection Program. The federal government is generally responsible for issues deemed to be in the national interest, and as such is responsible for implementing the provisions of the Montreal Protocol, including controls on the manufacture, import, and export of ozone-depleting substances under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act. Provincial/territorial governments are responsible for regulating emissions and discharges to the environment, governing the implementation of ozone-depleting substances recovery and recycling programs, and setting emission controls under provincial regulations.

Decision Making: Legislation and Regulations

The Canadian Environmental Protection Act 1999 (CEPA), administered by Environment Canada,  provides the Government of Canada with new enforcement tools and powers to reduce pollution and to eliminate and regulate emissions of toxic substances. Under CEPA, the federal government has the authority to set national emissions standards for new on-road, off-road and non-road vehicles and engines, as well as the authority to set national fuel quality standards.   For more information on this Act, please consult the following Web site: http://www.ec.gc.ca/cepa

The Ozone-depleting Substances Regulations under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act ensure Canada’s compliance with the Montreal Protocol. Amendments to these regulations are made as required to reflect changes in reduction and phase-out schedules adopted by the Parties to the Montreal Protocol. At present, only the consumption of HCFCs and methyl bromide are still allowed. Both substances are controlled under regulations by a system of allowances and permits similar to the systems that were used for other ozone-depleting substances before they were phased out. A second regulation, the Ozone-depleting Substances Products Regulations, deal with the control of certain manufactured products containing ozone-depleting substances, such as small pressurized CFC containers, aerosols, and plastic foam food packaging.

As well two environmental codes of practice have also been developed under CEPA. They serve as valuable references for both the private and public sectors, recommending practices for pollution prevention, emission reduction, environmental management, and preventive maintenance. The Environmental Code of Practice for the Elimination of Fluorocarbon Emissions from Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Systems provides national guidelines for the reduction and eventual elimination of emissions of ODSs used in these systems. The Environmental Code of Practice on Halons provides direction to halon owners and users on managing halon stocks in a manner to reduce, and eventually eliminate, halon emissions to the atmosphere.

In June 2000, the Government of Canada, the provinces, and the territories adopted new Canada-Wide Standards for Particulate Matter (PM) and Ozone. These standards set ambient air quality concentration targets for ground-level ozone and fine particulate matter for the year 2010. These standards commit all jurisdictions to reaching specific reduction targets, which will lead to a significant reduction in smog- causing emissions in Eastern Canada by that date or earlier, subject to successful negotiations with the United States for equivalent reductions through an ozone annex to the Canada-U.S. Air Quality Agreement. Meeting these new standards will require a wide range of measures by the Government of Canada, the provinces, and the territories. In addition to measures for vehicles and fuels and solvent-containing products, Environment Canada is working with provinces and territories to develop comprehensive emission reduction strategies for a number of major industrial sectors in Canada. Other measures focusing largely on existing commercial and industrial sources are being undertaken by provinces and territories to ensure that the new particulate matter and ozone standards will be met by 2010. For further information, consult the following Web site: http://www.ccme.ca

Other important air quality-related Canada-wide standards were also either adopted or accepted in principle by federal and provincial/territorial ministers in June 2000. These include standards to deal with toxic air contaminants, including mercury, benzene, dioxins, and furans.

Generally speaking, emissions from air, rail, and marine engines are covered by the Aeronautics Act, the Canada Transportation Act, and the Canada Shipping Act, which are administered by Transport Canada. Natural Resources Canada and Transport Canada manage fuel economy ratings for vehicles.

The Weather Modification Information Act requires that any person proposing to engage in weather modification activities in Canada inform the Atmospheric Environment Service in advance, provide full details on those activities, maintain a daily record, and submit reports to the administrator of the Act.

The Canadian Environmental Assessment Act sets out responsibilities and procedures for the environmental assessment of projects involving the federal government. Environmental assessment provide a systematic approach for identifying the environmental effects including air emissions associated with proposed projects. By identifying adverse environmental effects before they occur, environmental assessments allow decision-makers to modify plans so that the effects can be minimized or eliminated. For further information on this Act, please visit the following Web site: http://www.ceaa.gc.ca/index_e.htm

Most Canadian provinces have now implemented mandatory recovery and recycling of ozone-depleting substances legislation. Provincial regulatory requirements to minimize emissions of ozone-depleting substances include proper labeling of equipment containing ozone-depleting substances; training for equipment service providers; and methods to be used to install, remove, repair or service products containing an ozone-depleting substance. Provincial regulations also prohibit the recharging of leaking equipment, and products containing or made with ozone-depleting substances. Many of the provincial regulations reference the codes of practice and make compliance with the codes mandatory under the law. For a list of provincial regulations on ozone-depleting substance, please visit the following Web site: http://www.ec.gc.ca/ozone/regs/prov/indexE.htm

Tax measures and other economic instruments

Recent changes in the federal tax system support sustainable energy efforts related to climate change, renewable energy, and energy conservation. These include recent increases in the capital cost allowance for some electrical field equipment in use in oilfields, and the accelerated capital cost allowances provided to various energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies.

The use of economic instruments to achieve environmental goals has remained fairly limited in Canada. Product charges/taxes and deposit refund systems tend to be the most frequently used instruments and have been used by all levels of government in Canada. For example, Canadian consumers pay several taxes on fuels to run their vehicles and equipment: federal, provincial/territorial, and municipal excise taxes, the federal goods and services tax, and in some instances, provincial sales tax. The purpose of these fuel taxes is to raise revenue for general government use, and to use market-based approaches to increase the energy efficiency of Canada's transportation system for environmental and energy policy purposes. The largest tax burdens are on sales of gasoline and diesel fuel to consumers. Various industrial and commercial users typically pay a reduced level of tax on the fuels they consume. Consumers who purchase more-fuel-efficient vehicles benefit from an effective reduction in the total excise tax required. Alternative fuels, such as ethanol produced from renewable sources, propane, compressed natural gas, and methanol, are exempted from the federal excise tax. For blended fuels, the tax exemption applies only to the proportion of the exempt fuel in the product.

As an example of a special regional tax, purchasers of motor fuel inside the greater Vancouver transportation service region pay an additional tax of 5¢ per litre compared with those from outside the region. Outside the region, the tax paid to the government is 7.25¢ per litre, whereas inside the region the tax paid to government is 4.25¢ per litre and the tax paid to the Greater Vancouver Transportation Authority (for air management programs) is 8¢ per litre. The additional tax monies are collected, kept  and redistributed by the Greater Vancouver Regional District.

There is growing interest in more innovative instruments, such as tradable permit schemes, in which the private sector is able to trade the right to emit within an established cap on emissions.

Subsidies

The use of subsidies can be justified in some situations, but in general they tend to create economic distortions and undermine the efficient working of the economy. They can also encourage pressures on resources by disguising the real costs of economic activity, thereby serving as a barrier to sustainable development. As part of the effort to reduce federal spending and to restructure the role of the federal government, steps have been taken since 1994 to substantially reduce or eliminate many government subsidies, grants, and contributions. In particular, direct government subsidies and other supports to the transportation and agriculture sectors have declined significantly. In the 1995 federal budget, the government also indicated that direct financial support for energy mega projects would end after 1995–1996. Natural Resources Canada has taken steps to increase the share of grants and contributions for energy efficiency and alternative energy in the past decade.

Other incentive measures

Methyl bromide is being phased out under federal regulations by 2005.  To ease the transition, companies that use methyl bromide have been assigned allowances on a yearly basis.  These users are permitted to trade whatever portion of their allowances that they do not use. Approximately 30 percent of methyl bromide allowances (on a kilogram basis) are transferred annually, with the majority of these transfers taking place between users and the supplier. The result has been to keep a more competitive supply of methyl bromide for the smaller applicators, however, cost savings have not been quantified.

Decision Making: Strategies, Policies, and Plans

Environment Canada focuses on three broad categories of air pollutants, although all air issues are closely interconnected and have common sources and common health and environmental impacts. These categories are:

In general, Environment Canada will continue research and development to evaluate greenhouse gas mitigation technologies; assess the impacts of climate change on northern water resources; understand the importance of various sources of hazardous air pollutants, and their concentrations, interactions, and effects in the Canadian environment; identify factors delaying recovery of aquatic ecosystems in response to lower emissions of acid rain; and assess the risks to human health and the environment posed by particulate matter and other contaminants. Through its Weather and Environmental Predictions business line, Environment Canada is supporting adaptation to influences and impacts of atmospheric and related environmental conditions on human health and safety, economic prosperity, and environmental quality. It is doing this through research into adaptation to day-to-day and longer-term changes in atmospheric, hydrological, and ice conditions.

Increasingly, Environment Canada seeks to take actions with its partners, other federal and provincial ministries and key stakeholders such as industrial, health and environmental associations to address several pollutants simultaneously, thus providing multiple benefits from the same investment. Over the next three years, Environment Canada will continue to focus its actions to reduce adverse human impact on the atmosphere and on air quality in the following ways.

Climate change

The National Climate Change Process established 16 Issue Tables/Working Groups involving 450 experts from industry, academia, non-governmental organizations, and government. The Tables reviewed seven key sectors of the economy and eight cross-cutting strategies. An analysis and modeling group integrated the results into a comprehensive preliminary analysis of the implications of options for meeting Canada’s Kyoto target. No other country has adopted such an open, inclusive, and comprehensive process. Among other issues, the National Process identified:

In 2000, building on the work of the National Process and acknowledging the considerable contributions of the Issue Tables, the Energy and Environment Ministers moved forward a coordinated national approach to climate change that includes the National Implementation Strategy for Climate Change and the First National Climate Change Business Plan, the federal component of which is reflected in the Government of Canada Action Plan 2000 on Climate Change.

The Strategy outlines five themes or priority areas for its first phase, which are:

The Strategy will be implemented through a series of three-year business plans. These action-based plans will be continually monitored, reviewed, and updated to reflect new understandings and opportunities, and presented to Ministers on an annual basis. The Government of Canada Action Plan 2000 on Climate Change (found at the following Web site: http://www.climatechange.gc.ca), approved in October 2000, is the federal government’s contribution to the First National Climate Change Business Plan that is being implemented with the provinces and territories. Over the next few months, the Government of Canada will work with provincial/territorial governments and stakeholders to fine-tune the measures and seek partnerships.

Under Action Plan 2000, the Government of Canada announced in the mini-Budget of October 18, 2000, that it intends to invest $500 million,  in measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Combined with the $625 million for climate change-related activities for the next five years that was announced in the 2000 federal budget, this investment results in a commitment of $1.1 billion to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in Canada. This builds on the $850 million the Government of Canada has spent on climate change since 1995. The Plan reflects the Government of Canada's contribution to the First National Climate Change Business Plan that is being developed with the provinces and territories. Federal, provincial, and territorial ministers of energy and the environment have now met to discuss their respective plans for addressing climate change.

The five-year Action Plan 2000 targets key sectors and includes initiatives in transportation, energy (oil and gas production and electricity), industry, buildings, forestry and agriculture, international projects, technology, science, and adaptation. These sectors account for more than 90 percent of Canada’s greenhouse gas emissions. The initiatives in Action Plan 2000 will achieve greenhouse gas emissions reduction of about 65 megatons per year during the commitment period of  2008 to 2012. The following graph outlines the key areas that are expected to contribute to these emissions reductions.

Substances that deplete the ozone layer

Canada is a Party to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer and is subject to the controls prescribed to under the Protocol. Charged with developing a coordinated national strategy to eliminate emissions of ozone-depleting substances in Canada and to harmonize the control measures taken by governments, the working group (described under Question 2), led by Environment Canada, prepared the National Action Plan for the Recovery, Recycling, and Reclamation of CFCs. This plan, endorsed by the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment in October 1992, identifies the tasks necessary to ensure that harmonized, progressive actions take place to control all ozone-depleting substances. To date Canada has banned the production and consumption of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) since 1996, carbon tetrachloride since 1995, trichloroethane since 1996 and halons since 1994, and is phasing out other ozone-depleting substances in accordance with the Protocol. Canada is committed to implementing the Protocol both domestically and internationally and contributes to the Multilateral Fund, the financial mechanism for aiding developing countries in their quest to comply with the Protocol. 

Air quality

Canada-wide standards for particulate and ozone were approved by federal and provincial/territorial ministers of the environment in June 2000.  These standards commit all jurisdictions to reaching specific reduction targets by 2010. For further information, please visit: http://www.ccme.ca

On October 13, 2000 delegations of Canada and the United States finalized a draft of the Ozone Annex to the 1999 U.S. - Canada Air Quality Agreement. The commitments in the final draft relate to the control and reduction of emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOC) which are precursors of ground-level ozone, a major component of smog and unhealthy air over major regions of eastern North America.

To improve air quality, Environment Canada is also

Hazardous air pollutants

For Persistent Organic Pollutants, a protocol has been negotiated under the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution.  With the signing of this regional Protocol, the stage has been set for the next step:  a global agreement on Persistent Organic Pollutants under the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP).  Canada has already prohibited the manufacture and import of new PCB equipment and instituted management controls that have led to an overall decline in the level of PCBs in the Canadian environment.  Canada is also engaging in cooperative projects with developing countries and economies in transition to reduce or eliminate the release of persistent organic pollutants that may endanger the health of Canadians, particularly Aboriginal peoples living in the North.

Dioxins and furans, released into the environment as by-products from various manufacturing and industrial processes, were declared toxic under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act in 1990.

In 1995, the Canadian government adopted the Toxic Substances Management Policy which provides a science-based framework to identify toxic substances that are bioaccumulative, persistent and predominately released as a result of human activity.  The policy calls for the virtual elimination of these substances from the environment.

The Arctic, one of the world's most sensitive ecosystems, is being further protected by projects under the Arctic Council fostered by Canada, Denmark/Greenland, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and the United States.  Results of the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program form a data source for those involved in Arctic contaminants research.

Canada, the United States and Mexico have developed joint regional action plans on PCBs, DDT and chlordane. 

Persistent Organic Pollutants are included in the great Lakes Binational Toxics Strategy (Canada/U.S.) and other complementary agreements.    

Terrestrial and marine resource development for greenhouse gas sinks

Canada recognizes that promoting terrestrial and marine resource development for greenhouse gas sinks has both atmospheric and other environmental benefits. For example, the soil management practices that build up the carbon sink in agricultural soils have other benefits with respect to soil fertility, soil structure, erosion control, crop yields, and ultimately, farm profitability. The recently announced first business plan under the new National Implementation Strategy for Climate Change calls for concrete action to enhance carbon storage in agricultural soils and forests. See Question 8 for activities being carried out in Canada to enhance carbon sinks.

Canada has a continuing interest in the recognition of greenhouse gas sinks with respect to its Kyoto obligations, and will be actively involved in the discussion of this issue.

Substances that deplete the ozone layer

Canada is a Party to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer and is subject to the controls prescribed to under the Protocol.  To date Canada has banned the production and consumption of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) since 1996, carbon tetrachloride since 1996, trichloroethane since 1996, and halons since 1994, and is phasing out other ozone-depleting substances in accordance with the Protocol. Canada is committed to the implementation of the Protocol both domestically and internationally and is a contributor to the Multilateral Fund, the financial mechanism for aiding developing countries in their quest for compliance with the Protocol.

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions

The Government of Canada Action Plan 2000 on Climate Change, described under Question 6, sets out a package of initiatives to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in key sectors. The Plan includes a number of measures to develop and deploy emerging renewable and alternative energy sources to meet the demand for energy while decreasing emissions. The renewable and alternative energy industries have been extensively involved in the two-year consultation process. Action Plan 2000 captures many of the best ideas resulting from this process.

Specific initiatives to support the research, development and deployment of renewable and alternative energy technologies include:

Conserving and increasing greenhouse gas sinks

Terrestrial: Agriculture

Canada’s agricultural soils have lost about 25 percent of their original carbon content since cultivation began approximately 100 years ago. These soils accounted for about 7 percent of agricultural emissions of carbon dioxide in 1996. The carbon content of soils can be influenced by management practices, such as tillage systems. According to model predictions, if Canadian farmers continue to convert from conventional tillage to conservation tillage systems with less summerfallow at the present rate, agricultural soils will become a net sink for carbon by 2010. This trend will continue as long as carbon‑enhancing land management practices are adopted, until the soil reaches a new equilibrium for the new practices.

Federal and provincial agriculture departments will continue to promote land uses and soil management practices that build carbon soil by adding organic matter or reducing the rate at which soil carbon decays. Such practices include:

 Terrestrial: Forestry

Forests cover 45 percent of Canada’s landscape and are a dominant component of our economy and culture. Forests and forest soils remove and store large amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Sustainable forest management can enhance the amount of carbon that is stored, or sequestered. Canada’s Action Plan 2000 identifies afforestation (planting trees where they previously did not exist, in this case on marginal farmland) and expansion of the farm shelterbelt program (particularly on the Prairies) as two ways to increase carbon storage in forests.

Marine

In order to provide a firm scientific basis for the development of governmental policy on the reduction of fossil fuel CO2 emissions, Canada's marine greenhouse gas research programs are designed to:

As a member nation in the Climate Technology Initiative to mitigate CO2 emissions, Canada will participate in 2001 in the first international CO2 disposal experiment, which will use PVC pipe to inject 100 tons of liquid CO2 at a depth of 850 m off Kona coast of Hawaii. Canada will also participate in the international program in 2002 to determine the influence of iron on the sea-to-air flux of climatically active gases in an iron fertilization experiment in the northeast subarctic Pacific.

Mitigating ozone layer depletion

Short-term goals for mitigating ozone layer depletion are:

Long-term goals for mitigating ozone layer depletion are:

Mitigating transboundary air pollution

Canada-wide standards for particulates and ozone were signed by federal and provincial/territorial ministers of the environment in June 2000. These standards commit all jurisdictions to reaching specific reduction targets by 2010. For further information, please visit the Web site of the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment: http://www.ccme.ca

 In October 2000, delegations of Canada and the United States finalized a draft of the Ozone Annex to the 1999 U.S.– Canada Air Quality Agreement, with the assistance of health, environmental, industry, and labour representatives. The Annex defines the region in each country to which the agreement applies. In Canada, this region includes within central and southern Ontario and southern Quebec, representing more than 50 percent of Canada’s population. In the United States, the region includes 18 states and the District of Columbia, representing about 40 percent of the country’s population. Commitments under the agreement relate to the control and reduction of emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOX) and volatile organic compounds (VOC), which are precursors of ground-level ozone, a major component of smog and unhealthy air over major regions in Eastern North America. Emission control measures for emissions of these compounds are specific to each country:

In Canada:

Aggressive annual caps by 2007 of 39 kilotonnes of NOX emissions from fossil-fuel power plants in southern Ontario and 5 kilotonnes of NOX  in southern Quebec aligned with U.S. standards year-round.

Implementation of stringent emission reduction regulations, aligned with the United States for:

Estimated total NOX reductions in the Canadian transboundary region of 44 percent year-round by 2010.

The agreement also provides for:

Canada is leading the negotiation of a global agreement under the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to reduce and eliminate the release through the atmosphere of the world's most toxic persistent organic pollutants (POPs), such as DDT and PCBs. Canada is affected through the global transport of these and other pollutants in the atmosphere. In its Budget 2000, Canada committed $20 million over the next five years to projects that will help developing countries and countries with economies in transition to reduce or eliminate the release of POPs into the environment.

Canada was the first country to ratify the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Protocols on POPs and Heavy Metals.

Canada has signed the Canada-Wide Acid Rain Strategy for Post-2000, and is currently working in collaboration with the provinces and territories on its implementation. The Strategy calls for new emission reduction targets in eastern Canada, pursuing emission reduction commitments from the U.S., ensuring the adequacy of acid rain science and monitoring, and minimizing growth in emissions in areas where deposition is still below levels that cause harm.

Additional resources of $8.7 million over five years ($2.1 million in 2000) have been allocated for enhancing the science and monitoring programs on Acid Rain. Efforts are made to continually improve and expand the National Pollutants Release Inventory, each year providing Canadians with more information on pollutants released in their communities. Canada has doubled funding for federal–provincial air pollution monitoring with an additional $1.2 million for the National Air Pollution Surveillance Network. In 1999, Canada initiated the first program on smog forecasting in New Brunswick. This program was expanded to Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island in 2000. A pilot project is currently underway to share smog forecasting information with provincial and municipal governments in the Vancouver area. The program will be fully operational in 2001. Canada is strengthening the science of clean air through the provision of $60 million to create the Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences to strengthen science capacity in air quality, climate change and extreme weather issues.

Other

For further details on what the Canadian government is doing to protect the atmosphere, please visit the following Web site: http://www.ec.gc.ca/air/gov-efforts_e.shtml

Decision Making: Major Groups Involvement

Increasingly, Canadians participate in the decision making and economic activities related to sustainable use or development of land and natural resources. Environment Canada and Natural Resources Canada are working in partnership with provinces, territories, and municipalities to improve local access to clean air and clean water and to reduce the threat of climate change in urban and rural centres by providing $25 million to create the Green Municipal Enabling Fund and $100 million to create the Green Municipal Investment Fund. These funds will provide grants, loans, and loan guarantees for projects that increase the energy and environmental efficiency and cost-effectiveness of municipal water, wastewater, waste, energy, and public transportation facilities and services. Projects include energy-efficient retrofits of buildings, district energy systems, deployment of renewable energy technologies, improved public transportation services, and upgraded waste- and water-management services.

Municipal governments have been involved in greenhouse gas reduction for more than a decade. More than 60 Canadian communities have joined the Partners for Climate Protection Program, a joint program of the Federation of Canadian Municipalities and the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives, committing themselves to reducing greenhouse gas emissions in their own operations and communities. These municipalities are developing local action plans to guide their actions. Municipalities are actively involved in the national climate change process through their work on the Municipalities Table and as active participants on other tables as well. For further information, please visit the following Web site: http://www.fcm.ca

Several Canadian municipalities have also established regulations to protect the stratospheric ozone  layer. For example, the city of Burnaby has passed by-laws mandating the recovery of CFCs and halons. Fines are assessed to individuals and companies that ignore by-law provisions. The city of Montreal has developed a purchasing policy that mandates the use of alternative ozone-friendly products and technologies.

Decisions on suburban development, public transit, municipal sewage, garbage dumps, and other areas with a bearing on air quality are all made municipally, giving municipalities great scope for contributing to improvements in air quality and reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. For example, the Toronto Atmospheric Fund (http://www.city.toronto.on.ca/taf) was established in 1992 with an endowment of $23 million from the sale of city property. The Fund was created to help Toronto meet its goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 20 percent by 2005. It is managed by a board of directors made up of city councillors, city staff, and citizens, who direct funds to finance projects that save energy and money, cut greenhouse gas emissions, create jobs, and make the city a healthier place to live and work. Loans and grants are made to community groups, government organizations, and businesses, which work in partnership with Fund to reduce emissions.

Canada recognizes the need to incorporate the views of all stakeholders in atmospheric issues, including project proponents, beneficiaries, and affected groups, including the nine groups identified in Agenda 21. Canada has opened up its governance processes and invested substantially over the past decade to promote decision making compatible with sustainable development in government and industries, and among individual citizens and consumers. Public participation is encouraged at all levels of decision making, from legislative committees to regulatory and judicial hearings and environmental assessment processes, for example for adopting the Canada-wide standards on particulates and ozone, and for the Ozone Annex.

Women, youth, indigenous people, NGOs, local authorities (e.g., the Federation of Canadian Municipalities), and business and industry have all been represented on the Canadian delegation to the United Nations Framework on Climate Change.  Please refer to Question 6 (Climate Change section) for more details on the consultation process on climate change.

Working groups also ensure the participation of a variety of stakeholders in decision making. For example, the Methyl Bromide Industry Working Group was established to provide a consultative forum where interested stakeholders such as growers, end users, fumigators, pesticide manufacturers, research organizations, and government and non-government organizations can discuss and provide strategic direction on effective implementation of Canada's program for the control of methyl bromide. The mandate of the group is also to identify priorities for research and registration of alternatives in each end use; discuss, review and make recommendations on the adoption of alternatives, including institutional barriers, if any, to such adoption; and to discuss opportunities for joint researching, demonstration and adoption of new alternative technologies. The group is co-chaired by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Environment Canada, and an industry representative. This informal group acts as a supplement to, but not a replacement for, other consultative mechanisms and related advisory bodies.

Programmes and Projects

Industrial activities

Industry Canada’s Canadian Business Environmental Performance Office is a one-stop centre for information and services to help Canadian companies improve their environmental performance. A public–private sector partnership, the office demonstrates the importance of environmental performance to profitability and competitiveness by providing quick, easy and integrated access to major providers of sources of information, services and advice on emergency, health and safety management, resource conservation and pollution prevention, waste management, resource centre and policy development, climate change, and industry-specific information.

Canadian Environmental Solutions provides a comprehensive database that matches organizations with an environmental problem with profiles of Canadian firms and their technologies that can solve them. CES describes almost 2,000 environmental problems, including climate change and other air qualityissues, and profiles 900 companies that can provide solutions to them.

Industrial activities that contribute to reductions in greenhouse gas emissions in Canada are varied and extensive. For example, energy-efficiency gains are being investigated, including the recycling of materials. Expert working groups in each industrial sector are devising and testing process modifications and new technologies.

The following federal government programs stimulate the use of renewable energy sources by industry, thus reducing greenhouse gas emissions:

Other federal initiatives directed at industry and related to reduction in greenhouse gas emissions include:

Voluntary Challenge and Registry, Inc., a stand-alone, not-for-profit corporation, encourages private and public sector organizations to voluntarily limit or reduce their net greenhouse gas emissions, as a step towards meeting Canada's climate change goals. More than 700 organizations from all sectors of the economy have joined the initiative (for further information, investigate http://www.vcr-mvr.ca).

Agricultural activities

The first step in reducing agricultural greenhouse gas emissions is developing a reliable inventory of these gases, both sources and sinks. In 1998, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada reported the results of preliminary work to create such an inventory in The Health of Our Air: Toward Sustainable Agriculture in Canada. Measurement and modeling methods continue to be refined to improve this inventory. A national agri-environmental indicator, the Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Budget, first published in 2000, provides a baseline against which to measure future changes and to assess our success in achieving emissions reductions. According to the most recent estimates, agricultural emissions of nitrous oxide, methane, and carbon dioxide make up about 10 percent of Canada’s total emissions of these gases. These amounts include all sources associated with farming except food processing and transportation, and reflect an increase of about 4 percent between 1981 and 1996. 

Between 1981 and 1996, agricultural emissions of nitrous oxide rose by 21 percent, mainly because of more-intensive farming practices and increased use of nitrogen fertilizer. Nitrous oxide emissions can be reduced by using methods of nitrogen application that improve plant-uptake efficiency, reduce nitrous oxide release per unit of nitrogen applied, and reduce the amount of nitrogen in manure by changing the composition of livestock feed. Current research and agricultural extension focuses on:

Emissions of methane remained relatively constant between 1981 and 1996. Current work to reduce methane emissions involves improved livestock feeding and better manure management.

Emissions of carbon dioxide dropped by 13 percent, mainly the result of adopting conservation farming practices. Reducing the amount of carbon dioxide emitted by the soil by increasing the amount stored by the soil is being achieved through management practices cited in Question 8.

Examples of agricultural programs that contribute to reductions in greenhouse gas emissions are:

Canada recognizes that land-use planning and practices have an impact on protecting the atmosphere. Through various programs, initiatives and partnerships with industry, government, non-profit partners, Canada undertakes research on housing technology, and type in addition to land-use and transportation planning.

The two main changes in agricultural land use in the past 15 to 20 years that have contributed to atmospheric protection are reduction of summerfallow and an increase in permanent cover.

Summerfallow, the practice of tilling cropland (using mechanical or chemical tillage, or a combination of these) and leaving it unplanted for a whole year, was once widely practised in western Canada because it helped control weeds, replenish soil moisture, and increase available nutrients in the soil. Soils frequently under summerfallow usually have a lower carbon content than those cropped annually. Fallow both hastens decomposition of soil carbon and reduces carbon inputs into the soil. Between 1971 and 1996, the area of summerfallow in Canada dropped from about 11 million hectares to about 6 million hectares and is expected to continue to drop until it stabilizes at 4.5 million hectares by about 2050. This steady reduction in summerfallow area contributed to the 20 percent decrease in bare-soil days (the number of days a soil is left without a crop and is thus exposed to the elements) in Canada between 1981 and 1996, which in turn contributed to reduced risk of soil erosion.

Returning cultivated land to permanent cover, such as grass, is another way to increase the amount of soil carbon. This land-use option reduces agricultural productivity, so it is currently practised only on marginal lands and, to a lesser extent, in small areas of cultivated lands planted to shelterbelts or grassed waterways for the control of wind and water erosion. Afforestation, or planting trees on marginal lands, including marginal farmland, is gaining interest in Canada.

In addition to activities outlined under Question 8, proposed amendments to the Ozone-Depleting Substances Regulations include:

Cooperative research and demonstration projects between government and industry have already reduced the use of methyl bromide in Canada by about 40 percent. In agriculture and agri-food production, some alternatives to methyl bromide have been identified, including different chemicals and methods. For example, a guideline has been prepared to encourage the use of integrated pest management, combining preventative and treatment practices, to control pest problems in food-processing facilities.

In 1990, Canada’s concern about its greenhouse gas emissions spurred a major expansion of federal programs to focus on this issue.

The Energy Efficiency and Alternative Energy (EAE) program, launched by Natural Resources Canada in 1991, supports economically feasible increases in energy efficiency and the use of alternative energy sources. It encourages investment in corporate and consumer EAE opportunities and seeks to engage all sectors of the economy and Canadian society in rethinking and improving energy use.  It does this by

In 1995, federal and provincial ministers of energy and environment approved the National Action Program on Climate Change, tabled at the 1st Conference of the Parties (CoP1) in April 1995. To reinforce voluntary action, the Joint Ministers of Energy and Environment agreed in February 1995 to establish the Climate Change Voluntary Challenge and Registry, which broadens the awareness of the need to act and publicizes the plans and accomplishments of organizations that reduce their greenhouse emissions. It was incorporated in October 1997 as a non-government, not-for-profit organization.

The 1997 federal budget announced a $60-million, three-year program to stimulate energy efficiency and use of renewable energy sources. In December 1997, Canada participated in the 3rd CoP, agreeing to reduce greenhouse gas emission to 6 percent below 1990 levels by 2008–2012. In early 1998, federal and provincial/territorial governments established a National Climate Change Process to examine the impact, costs, and benefits of the Kyoto Protocol and the various implementation options open to Canada. The 1998 federal budget provided $150 million over three years for a Climate Change Action Fund to help Canada develop its response to the Kyoto Protocol.

Activities under the Climate Change Action Fund have been divided into four components:

Operation of the Climate Change Action Fund is based on a number of principles:

For more information on this program, visit this Web site:  ccaf@climatechange.gc.ca

In April 1998, the Office of Energy Efficiency (OEE) was created in Natural Resources Canada to renew, strengthen, and expand Canada’s commitment to energy efficiency, particularly in relation to the Kyoto Protocol. Programs delivered by the OEE target all final energy consumers and emphasize partnerships and economic investments. A new National Advisory Council on Energy Efficiency assists in identifying opportunities for new and greater energy efficient measures. The OEE reports annually on the state of energy efficiency in Canada and manages Canada’s new annual Energy Efficiency Conference, an energy efficiency technology products and services trade show, and Canada’s Energy Efficiency Awards ceremony. For further information on OEE programs, please visit the following Web site: http://oee.nrca.gc.ca

Environment Canada’s EcoAction Community Funding Program provides financial support to community groups for projects that have measurable, positive impacts on the environment. Non-profit groups and organizations (including community groups, environmental groups, Aboriginal groups and First Nations councils, service clubs, associations, and youth and seniors’ organizations) are eligible to apply for funding under the program. EcoAction encourages projects that protect, rehabilitate, or enhance the natural environment, and build the capacity of communities to sustain these activities into the future. Projects require matching funds or in-kind support from other sponsors. Priority for funding is given to projects that will achieve results in the areas of clear air and climate change, clean water, and nature. 

The Canadian Climate Program Board oversees research activities and facilitates cooperation in Canada in the area of climate and climate change. The Board, with membership from federal, provincial and territorial governments, universities, private industry, and environmental organizations, was responsible for preparing the science, impacts, and adaptation components of Canada’s National Implementation Strategy on Climate Change. The federal government sponsors an innovative research program called the Climate Research Network in 16 universities across the country, aiming to increase understanding of the chemical, physical, and biological changes related to climate change.

The Atmospheric and Climate Science Research Directorate of the Meteorological Service of Canada conducts research in the atmospheric and hydrological sciences related to meteorology, climate, air quality, and the associated environmental impacts and adaptations, and carries out science assessments.

The Canadian Centre for Climate Modeling and Analysis (CCCma) has developed one of the most advanced General Circulation Models in use today to predict future climate, study climate change and variability, and better understand the various process that govern our climate system. Selected data from CCCma simulations are contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Data Distribution Centre to facilitate their use for climate impact studies. Work to refine the models is ongoing.

Canadian scientists participate in international research on the climate system under the auspices of the World Climate Research Program (WCRP). Within the WCRP, Canada is participating in the Global Energy and Water Experiment by studying hydrological processes in the permafrost- saturated and largely snow-covered lands of the Mackenzie River Basin. For further details, please consult the following Webcsite: http://www.gc.ca/initiatives_e.cfm

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada conducts a National Agri-Environmental Indicator Project (http://www.agr.ca/policy/environment) that, among other goals, assesses Canadian agriculture’s greenhouse budget using national five-year census data. It also carri es out ongoing research to answer the questions of how farming practices affect the composition of the atmosphere and how these emissions can be reduced. Canadian experts on agricultural adaptation and mitigation currently sit on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

Status

Canada expects long-term shifts in average climate conditions and/or a change in the frequency of extreme climate events as a result of climate change. Both will have significant direct and indirect impacts on our lands, our oceans, and our resources. In some areas of the country, current changes in climate are impacting upon natural resources, water resources and the associated socio-economic systems. Examples of the types of effects that may be felt in the various regions of Canada follow.

British Columbia and Yukon

Climate change will have significant impacts in British Columbia and the Yukon, including increased flood dangers in some areas, drought in others, and widespread disruption to forests, fisheries and wildlife. Sea levels are expected to rise up to 30 cm on the north coast of British Columbia and up to 50 cm on the north Yukon coast by 2050, mainly due to warmer ocean temperatures. This could cause increased sedimentation, coastal flooding and permanent inundation of some natural ecosystems, and could place low-lying homes, docks and port facilities at risk. In winter, increased winter precipitation, permafrost degradation and glacier retreat due to warmer temperatures may lead to landslides in unstable mountainous regions, and put fish and wildlife habitat, roads, and other man-made structures at risk. Increased precipitation will put greater stress on water and sewage systems, while glacier reduction could affect the flow of rivers and streams that depend on glacier water, with potential negative impacts on tourism, hydroelectric generation, fish habitat and lifestyles. Spring flood damage could be more severe both on the coast and throughout the interior of British Columbia and the Yukon, and existing flood protection works may no longer be adequate. Summer droughts along the south coast and southern interior will mean decreased stream flow in those areas, putting fish survival at risk, and reducing water supplies in the dry summer season when irrigation and domestic water use is greatest.

 Prairies

Current projections suggest that climate change would result in increased air temperatures and decreased soil moisture. There is less confidence about whether precipitation will increase or decrease or about how climate change may affect severe weather events. Most scenarios suggest that the semi-arid regions of the Prairies can expect an increase in the frequency and length of droughts. Some of the potential impacts of these changes include: Average potential crop yields could fall by 10–30 percent due to higher temperatures and lower soil moisture. However, higher temperatures could lengthen the growing season, and may increase crop production in northern regions where suitable soils exist. Increased demand for water pumping and summer cooling, due to drought, and decreased winter demand due to higher temperatures, could push electrical utilities into a summer peak load position at the same time as hydropower production is reduced by decreased water flow. This could result in increased thermal power production with an increase in fossil fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.Semi-permanent and seasonal wetlands could dry up, leading to reduced production of waterfowl and other wildlife species.

 Arctic

In the past 100 years, the Mackenzie district has warmed by 1.5 o C and the Arctic tundra area by 0.5oC, while the Arctic mountains and fjords of the eastern Arctic have cooled slightly. Future winter temperature increases of 5–7oC over the mainland and much of the Arctic Islands are projected. Summer temperatures are expected to increase by up to 5oC on the mainland, and by 1–2 oC over marine areas. Annual precipitation is expected to increase by up to 25 percent. These changes in temperature and precipitation would have dramatic effects on tundra and taiga/tundra ecosystems, reducing them by as much as two-thirds. More than one-half of the discontinuous permafrost area could eventually disappear, with marked surface instability in the short term. Sea ice cover would be much thinner and would virtually disappear in summer. This would improve Arctic shipping conditions but have serious consequences for some animal species such as seals and polar bears.

 Ontario

Ontario could experience anywhere from 3-8 °C average annual warming by the latter part of the 21st century, leading to fewer weeks of snow, a longer growing season, less moisture in the soil, and an increase in the frequency and severity of droughts. Other impacts of climate change are expected to  include more days when heat stress and air pollution adversely affect people's health; increases in the frequency and severity of forest fires; and changes to aquatic ecosystems and alterations to wetlands. As well, water levels in the Great Lakes could decline to record lows by the latter part of the 21st century, reducing shipping capacity.

Quebec

In Quebec, northern regions should warm more than southern region, with precipitation likely decreasing slightly in the south and increasing in the north. Likely consequences include lower water levels in the St. Lawrence River, which will affect shipping, navigation, and the marine environment of the river; and positive effects on agriculture, including a longer growing season and the extension of agriculture further north.

Atlantic

Temperature rises in Atlantic Canada are expected to be more modest that in the rest of the country. The Canadian coupled climate model projects a warming of 0–4oC, with the least change along the Labrador coast and highest changes in the western portions of the region. Atlantic Canada is particularly vulnerable, however, to rising sea levels, whose impacts could include greater risk of floods, coastal erosion, coastal sedimentation, and reductions in sea and river ice. Other potential impacts include: loss of fish habitat; changes in ice-free days, which could affect marine transportation and the offshore oil and gas industry; and changes in range, distribution, and breeding success rates of seabirds.

More information on the impacts of climate change on Canada can be found through the following links:  
Impacts of climate change related to energy, forests and our physical environment at  
http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/gcc/english/html/impacts.html  
The Canada Country Study: Climate Impacts and Adaptation at:  
http://www.ec.gc.ca/climate/ccs/ccs_e.htm  
Science, Impacts and Adaptation at:  
http://sts.gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/adaptation/main.htm  

Human Health

Climate change is likely to have wide-ranging and mostly adverse impacts on human health. These impacts would arise by both direct pathways (e.g., exposure to changes in thermal stress and to changes in extreme events) and indirect pathways (e.g., increases in some air pollutants, pollens, and mold spores; malnutrition; increases in the potential transmission of vector-borne and water borne diseases; and stresses on the general public health infrastructure).

The young, the elderly, the frail, and the ill, especially those in large urban areas, are particularly susceptible to projected increases in the frequency and severity of heat waves. If temperatures warm as projected, sensitive populations in urbanized areas in southeastern Ontario and southern Québec could experience increased incidence of heat-related illnesses and death.

Although impacts on extreme events are somewhat uncertain, an increase in the frequency and severity of extreme events may lead to: (a) increases in deaths, injuries, infectious diseases, and stress-related disorders; and (b) increases in other adverse health effects associated with social disruption and environmentally-forced migration. A recent extreme precipitation event was partly responsible for a 1995 outbreak of toxoplasmosis in the capital regional district of British Columbia.

With respect to Infectious diseases, it has been suggested that western equine encephalitis, eastern equine encephalitis, and the snowshoe hare virus could expand their ranges in Canada. Malaria could potentially return to southern Canada, and the area in which populations are susceptible to dengue and yellow fever may extend northward into Canada. Other diseases that may increase their geographic distribution/incidence include heartworm, Lyme disease, Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever, and hantavirus.

Projected increases in temperature could affect the seasonality of certain respiratory disorders and could exacerbate air pollution in both urban and rural areas, and thus accentuate respiratory disorders.

Illnesses related to environmental contamination (e.g,. by Bacillus anthracis), water contamination (e.g., by Giardia, Cryptosporium, Leptospira, and sea-food toxins), and reduced water quality (e.g., by parasites) are projected to grow in number.

Additional health impacts might result from changes in water quantity, nutritional health (e.g., dietary changes resulting from shifts in migratory patterns and abundance of indigenous food sources), weather-related accidents, and increased numbers of environmental refugees.

Traditional lifestyles

The subsistence economic sector (hunting, trapping, fishing) is worth about $15,000 per household annually in the Arctic and about half that in the subarctic and often provides up to half of the total local economy. For indigenous people, the role of subsistence lifestyles in maintaining a sense of self and of connection to heritage is equally important. Subsistence living depends upon both the availability and distribution of wildlife and related resources, and the use of traditional knowledge and local adaptations to environmental conditions. Natural ecosystems are vulnerable to projected climate change with consequent changes possible in their location, habitat characteristics, and species composition. As a result, subsistence patterns (locations, timing, type of game) and the sustainability of subsistence lifestyles are also vulnerable.

Settlements

The built environment includes homes, buildings, supporting infrastructure, roads, railways, and engineering structures such as dykes and pipelines. Impacts from climate change on the built environment could include changes in construction requirements to deal with an altered climate, changes in the frequency and intensity of floods and other extreme events, and projected changes in land stability (e.g., landslides and permafrost melting).

The length of the summer construction season is projected to increase while the length of the winter season could decrease.  Although an advantage for southern Canada, a shortened winter season in the North could create difficulty for access (due to projected decreases in the viability of winter roads) and for heavy construction (due to concerns regarding disturbing sensitive tundra areas with heavy equipment).

Increases in frost heave, thaw settlement, and slope instability associated with projected permafrost melting could negatively affect the structural integrity and design of northern structures and construction requirements, including utility lines and pipelines. Foundation conditions are vulnerable in the North as permafrost thaws, with differential settlement possibly leading to changes in the integrity of structures, or even collapse of buildings. Utility lines and pipelines may rupture. Mining operations might become easier, but waste dumps, tailings dams, and water diversion channels could be vulnerable, possibly leading to their collapse and increased and expensive maintenance.

Cost savings from projected decreases in snow loadings on buildings and structures are possible in some areas; however, projected increases in wind and rain loadings and in freeze/thaw cycles could have negative impacts. The stability of foundations is of concern in those areas where increased winter rainfall, increased freeze/thaw cycles and drier summers are projected.

Although there remains considerable uncertainty regarding projections of changes in flooding and other extreme events, the potential implications of these changes for buildings and construction, warrant their consideration. The flooding of low-lying homes, docks, and port facilities, as well as stresses on water distribution and sewage systems associated with projected increases in sea level, extreme rain/snow fall, and spring ice jams on rivers are a major concern. Particularly vulnerable to changes in extreme events are electricity transmission and utility lines (due to changes in wind and ice loading), bridge piers, and dams (due to changes in flood levels and ice jams). Premature structural failure due to deterioration over months and years could be accelerated where increased occurrences of such things as temperature extremes and frequency of combined wind and rain are anticipated.

In many cases, the current margin of safety built into the National Building Code is expected to be sufficient to maintain safe and economical structures, given good workmanship and materials and no significant changes in variability. Adaptation options to address concerns related to structural safety, as well as energy conservation and the minimization of life-cycle costs of building and structures, include:

 Ecosystems

Water resources

In many parts of Canada there are conflicting demands for water which could be exacerbated by projected changes in climate.  
Improved management of water infrastructure and demand-side management of water supply have the potential to mitigate some of the impacts of conflicting and increasing water demands. Sectoral adaptive strategies to climate change should include consideration of the many and competing demands for water (e.g., natural ecosystems, municipalities, manufacturers, recreation and tourism, agriculture, hydro-electric generation, and export requirements). For example, the agriculture sector on the Prairies has identified an expected increase in the need to irrigate crops in response to projected changes in climate. Irrigation requires capital investments and a sufficient supply of water. With a projected reduction in overall available water in this region it may not be realistic to expect that increased irrigation will be a viable adaptation strategy for agriculture.

Canadians spend more than a billion dollars per year in the water resources sector adapting to current climate conditions. These adaptations include the construction of dams, sewers, drainage ditches, floodways, and other infrastructure. Adapting to climate change that includes a potentially more vigorous hydrological cycle will likely increase these expenditures substantially.

Terrestrial ecosystems

Plant growth is expected to increase on average. Where natural ecosystems are fragmented with patches linked by corridors, further disruptions and land-cover changes could sever these links, causing even greater fragmentation and consequent disruption of migration pathways. The boundaries of the ranges of existing vegetative and wildlife species could shift to higher latitudes and higher elevations, including the invasion of southern or lower elevation species, respectively. This reflects an expected northward shift in the ecoclimatic regions, as well as a change in their relative size and composition. Wildlife and biodiversity, currently reflective of existing conditions, are vulnerable under projected changes in temperatures, habitat loss or degradation, changes in food abundance or availability, and changes in predation rates, parasites and diseases. For example, Canada’s tundra area may shrink by more than 30 percent of its current size, so that it may be confined mainly to the islands north of the mainland, and its vegetative content would likely change in response to snow cover and soil moisture changes. High Arctic Peary caribou and muskoxen may become extinct, while mainland caribou would come under significant stress. A real concern is the capacity for terrestrial species to adapt to a rate of climate change that is anticipated to be faster than any experienced historically. An additional impact of a warmer tundra region is increased carbon dioxide and methane emissions as permafrost melts, thus amplifying projected climate change.  

Forest ecosystems

Changes are projected in the growth and regeneration capacity of forests in many regions of Canada. In some cases, this could alter the functioning and compositions of forests with implications for associated natural ecosystems and the long-term sustainability of the forest products market.

Generally, as a result of projected changes in climate, Canadian forests could experience increased drought stress, an increase in frequency and severity of fire, increase in vegetation growth rates, and potentially, more frequent and severe storms and wind damage in coastal areas. Forests are expected to shift northward (and to higher altitudes), but expansion may be limited by the ability of species to migrate. Some species may become extinct at the edges of their current range as more competitive species move in from the south and northern expansion is curbed by geographical and anthropogenic obstacles. The boreal forest (for example) is expected to undergo an extensive reduction in size. Grasslands and temperate deciduous species may invade from the south and northern expansion of the boreal forest is limited by poor soils, permafrost and insufficient sunshine amounts. Forest structure of the Pacific northwest is expected to remain similar to the present with richness in species diversity compensating for individual species migration. Wildlife habitat and natural reserves may suffer due to a lack of connectivity and the imbalance between habitat and climate created by climate change.

Wetlands

Wetlands are a critical resource providing habitat for species (including some of Canada’s rare, threatened, or endangered ones), storage for atmospheric carbon, nutrient and mineral cycling, water purification, and natural flood control. The most important waterfowl breeding area in North America is the Prairies wetland area, while the Great Lakes provide important migration and staging habitats.

As a consequence of climate change, semi-permanent wetlands may change from open-water dominated basins to vegetated areas and wetland salinity could increase significantly. Where lowered water level is the major impact, waterfowl habitat may be significantly altered both in quantity and quality. Over a third of the wetlands in Canada’s parkland region may shrink under warmer temperatures despite increased precipitation; the impact is expected to be less severe in the grassland region. There is some possibility that prairie wetlands may expand northward offsetting some of the anticipated losses in other parts of the region.

Aquatic ecosystems

Many fish species in lakes and streams are likely to shift northward by about 150 km for every 1oC rise in temperature; as a result, freshwater habitat for some key aquatic wildlife including salmonids could be lost in parts of Canada. Cold water species such as brook trout might be at greater risk. Reduced sea ice thickness and extent will result in mixed impacts. Some species such as the sea otter may benefit from being able to expand into new areas while others such as seals may decline due to reduced sea-ice expanses for breeding and feeding. The polar bear is particularly of concern; it could become extinct through starvation if the Arctic Ocean becomes seasonally ice free for a long enough period. Some large breeding colonies of seabirds, including colonies of Common Murre and Northern Gannets in Newfoundland, are at risk due to projected increases in sea level.

Migratory birds

Summer and winter habitats and migratory routes are vulnerable as a result of projected changes in climate. Included are important coastal staging grounds that could be subject to sea-level rise such as those in Atlantic Canada and wetlands which could be subject to drying such as those in the Prairies. In addition, the environment of migratory bird sanctuaries may no longer be suitable for the intended species and there may be implications for international agreements governing affected migratory birds.

Economic activities

Our current climate is variable and Canadians and the economy react to it in different ways.  There are many examples of successful adaptation to climate, ranging from adopting design codes, to developing and planting appropriate types of vegetation, to situating buildings or roads in certain locations, to promoting specific types of recreation activities, and so on. Canadians spend billions of dollars annually adapting to our current climate.

While some partial estimates of potential costs have been made, these are limited in scope and remain uncertain or even speculative. Values cited by the IPCC of some percentage of GDP (i.e. 1–2 percent of GDP for developed countries assuming a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide by 2050 and a mean global warming of 2.5o C) should not be taken as an estimate of the aggregate potential cost of climate change to Canada. To date, estimates downplay the incalculable risk of costly catastrophe scenarios and the possibility of unanticipated impacts, disregard the costs of adapting to a changing climate and all but ignore the social value of most non-market goods and services. As a result, a reasonable arguments could be made to either raise or lower existing estimates substantially.

 The costs of climate change adaptations are expected to arise from either technological, environmental or social considerations:

The manufacturing, industrial and non-renewable resource extraction industries are closely intertwined with the availability of appropriate energy and transportation. Projected impacts of climate change on Canada’s industrial sector are primarily related to possible changes in heating and cooling demands, possible implications from greenhouse gase reduction requirements, as well as altered transportation availability. For the foreseeable future, fossil fuel use is expected to remain dominant within the Canadian industrial sector. The viability of alternative sources of energy, such as wind and solar, will remain sensitive to cloud and wind regimes.

Energy sector

Demand: The industrial sector is the largest energy user in Canada, accounting for 43 percent of the total end-use energy demand. Energy demand for the industrial sector is expected to increase to 47 percent by 2020, thus remaining the most important energy user. The energy demands of the residential sector are anticipated to decrease in relative terms (from 19 percent of total end-use demand in 1995 to 15 percent in 2020) due to implementation of energy efficient technologies and appliances. Energy demand profiles for heating are expected to decrease and for cooling are expected to increase as a result of projected increases in temperature. It has been suggested that the Prairie agricultural sector could experience increases in energy requirements to meet projected increases in demands associated with irrigation, grain drying and harvesting.

Supply - Electricity: Hydro-electric generation potential is sensitive to changes in water availability and river flow regimes. Projections of water availability and flows suggest possible increases in generation potential in Labrador and northern Québec, and possible decreases in Ontario, the Prairies, and southeastern British Columbia. Transmission lines are sensitive to storm-related outages and, as such, concerns have been raised regarding the security of these lines should projected changes in extreme events occur. Particularly vulnerable are those industries dependent on a sustainable and uninterrupted supply of electricity (e.g., aluminum production).

Supply - Fossil fuels: Offshore oil and gas operations in the North could benefit from a retreat in the southern ice boundary, but are sensitive to more intense and frequent extreme storms projected as a result of a potentially longer open-water season. Pipeline costs in the Arctic are likely to be more expensive due to the need to address increased permafrost instability. Costs for ice-breaking tankers should be reduced. Uncertainties are still high enough, however, that the positive impacts cannot be incorporated into current design while negative impacts have to be included due to the conservative approach adopted by industry for frontier activities. As a consequence, there may be an increased cost for frontier oil and gas operations in the short term. For coal mining operations, increased erosion and landslides may be a concern in mountainous areas, such as British Columbia.

Historically, the energy industry has been able to adapt fairly successfully to changes in supply and demand, and to tackle new challenges such as the search for oil and gas under ice-covered waters through innovation. As a result, the adaptation capacity of the energy sector is considered to be high. This capacity may be challenged, however, by the expected rate of climate change and by possible surprises.

Forest industry

While an increased potential harvest level appears favoured (at least indirectly) by projected temperature levels for Canada, losses due to possible forest decline and modified fire and insect regimes, as well as drought stress in some areas, could challenge the adaptive capacity of the industry. This seems likely to be the case where long-run sustainable yield levels are considered. As a consequence, the overall impact on the Canadian forest industry is expected to vary by regions.

The adaptability of the forestry sector is dependent on the industry’s ability and willingness to adapt to whatever species do prevail as a consequence of climate change, to salvage-cut dying stands, to plant cut areas with species better adapted to the altered climate, and to move to locations where resources are more plentiful. Confidence in the industry’s ability to adapt is, in part, a reflection of the expectation that future impacts will be simply extensions of the types of conditions currently dealt with - that is, same problems, different locations and extent. Adaptation, in addition to considering the social and environmental costs, will need to address concerns regarding ecosystem sustainability (e.g., increasing forest landscapes to reduce fragmentation and maintaining migration corridors, and managing stands and landscapes to reduce crown and large area fires).

Agriculture

An important dimension to the relationship between climate and agriculture is the wide range of conditions for agricultural production existing in different regions. These differences are reflected in the projected impacts:

Crop development: The rate of development of grain crops is projected to increase, with the time between seeding and harvesting being reduced (e.g., reduced by up to 3 weeks in most regions for spring-seeded cereals and coarse grains). In northern regions, the increased development rate could reduce the risk of frost-induced crop injury.

Yields: In the Prairies, spring-seeded cereal yields are projected to decrease in the west and increase in the east. Ontario and Québec are projected to experience similarly variable results except that northern areas may experience increased production especially for corn. In both the Atlantic region and British Columbia, increased grain yield potential is foreseen, but realization of this potential is likely dependent on increased irrigation. In the Peace River area, positive impacts on cereal yields are expected to be confounded by increases in crop moisture stress and accelerated crop maturation. Oilseed yields may be generally reduced in Canada, although the effects may possibly be offset by northern expansion of the area capable of oilseed production.

Land capability: The Peace River region and northern agricultural areas in Ontario and Québec could see some expansion of the land area suitable for commercial crop production. Agricultural opportunities may develop in the southern Yukon and the lower Mackenzie River area, but they are not expected to be substantial. The area suitable for growing fruit and vegetables could expand beyond current locations in southern Québec and Ontario.

Livestock: For the western Prairies, increased summer stress on livestock is plausible due to dry pastures and poor feed production, while reduced cold stress in winter is likely.

Economics: Limited studies of the economic impacts of climate change suggest that there will be substantial variations at the sub-provincial or sub-regional levels with the potential for increased variability in annual farm profits.

There is a strong consensus that projected changes in climate could result in longer and warmer frost-free periods across Canada and, thereby, generally enhance thermal regimes for commercial agriculture. These changes in agro-climatic conditions are not expected to impact regions on an equal basis, with the longest extensions of the frost-free season expected in Atlantic Canada. The extent to which these longer and warmer frost-free seasons might benefit Canada, however, will in all likelihood be diminished by less soil moisture in all regions and under all climate change projections. Hence, it is crucial that all assessments of the implications of climatic change for Canadian agriculture take account of the possibility of both negative and positive impacts on agro-climatic properties.

The assessment of adaptation strategies has focused mainly on the Prairies or the boundaries of Canadian agriculture as defined by the current climate (where appropriate soils may limit expansion). Adaptation options include delaying the onset and rate of climate change through the reduction of greenhouse emissions using altered crop mixes and cropping practices or coping with and adapting to climate change by spreading the risks, reducing the potential occurrence and/or magnitude of negative impacts, capitalizing on new "opportunities" arising from climate change and developing appropriate research and education programs.

Adaptive measures at the farm or local level include: switching to different cultivars or introducing higher value field crops; increased use of irrigation; and diversification of farming mix to include more livestock. At the regional or national level, adaptation approaches could include: altered subsidy structures to reflect actual climate risk; crop assistance programs linked to soil conservation; and strengthened rural education programs to encourage sustainable land use practices.

Most studies to date, however, have not generally addressed the economic feasibility of such adaptation options nor the ability or willingness of the farm community to undertake them.

Fisheries

Pacific marine: Decreased and more variable sustainable harvests are projected for southern salmon populations. Pacific cod abundance is also projected to be reduced. Increased, more consistent sustainable harvests are anticipated for northern salmon populations, with sockeye salmon being most vulnerable.

Atlantic marine: Overall sustainable harvests from coastal and estuarine waters could decrease due to projected decreases in freshwater discharge and consequent declines in ecosystem productivity. Widespread changes in sustainable harvests, locations of fishing grounds, and efficiencies of fishing gear for many species are plausible due to complex and likely unpredictable changes in the ocean currents that shape offshore marine habitats and migration patterns.

Arctic marine: Increases in sustainable harvests are projected for most fish populations, due to increased ecosystem productivity as shrinking ice cover permits greater nutrient recycling.

Southern freshwater: There may be decreases in sustainable harvests for many of these fisheries due to declining water levels in lakes, declining flow rates in streams, and reductions in nutrient loading and recycling for many lakes and streams on the Canadian Shield. The proportion of the overall sustainable harvest comprised of valuable cold water fish, including species such as trout, whitefish, and grayling, could be reduced.

Northern freshwater: Increases in sustainable harvests are projected for most northern freshwater fish species, due to longer, warmer growing seasons and relatively small changes in water levels. Potentially, there will also be an increase in the diversity of fish species that can be harvested sustainably due to projected increases in the diversity of thermal habitats available to support species currently limited to more southerly ranges.

The daily activities that sustain the life of individual fish (e.g., feeding, predator avoidance, body maintenance and growth) and the seasonal activities that maintain the existence of populations (e.g., gonad development, reproduction, parental care) are all strongly effected by the annual pattern of water temperatures that fish experience. For fish, the temperature tolerance zones for survival, growth and reproduction are species-specific characteristics.

Concerns have been expressed that pooling and averaging of impacts can hide smaller scale inequities and that responses at the larger scale alone may not be sufficient. In addition, fisheries adaptation options identified, for the most part, have been used previously in response to other environmental or use changes and each has limitations, typically assuming orderly change. As such, considerations in the development of adaptation options include:

Transportation

Land-based: It is expected that overall land-based transportation costs could be reduced due to shorter and/or less harsh winters (more efficient engine operation, less warm-up time, shorter snow removal seasons although with greater amounts during the winter season in some areas of the country). This is particularly applicable for southern areas of the country. In the North, however, such as in the Mackenzie Basin, winter transportation costs may be raised due to a reduced length of season for ice roads. Projected increases in permafrost instability will likely lead to increased maintenance costs for existing all-weather roads and rail-beds.

Marine: The shipping season could lengthen for areas currently characterized by sea ice for all or part of the year, such as Hudson Bay and the western and central Arctic, and marine design needs related to sea ice may be relaxed. Projected sea-level rise will generally contribute to deeper drafts in marine harbours and channels, but could lead to significant damage to coastal support infrastructure in Atlantic and Arctic Canada. The potential of increased storm activity has raised concerns regarding the necessity of increased navigational aid support.

Freshwater: Although longer open-water seasons are possible, projected reduction of water levels could translate into significant, negative impacts for commercial navigation on major rivers and lakes, such as the Great Lakes - St. Lawrence River system. On the Mackenzie River, the barge season could lengthen (suggested by as much as 40 percent), but navigation may be more difficult with the projected lower water levels.

Air: The impacts on air travel have not been rigorously investigated;, however, it is suggested that aviation would be more sensitive to climate change than any other mode of transportation. Inclement weather causes delays for Canadian airlines that cost more than $81 million in 1981 due to disrupted flights. For smaller aircraft, longer seasons for the operation of float planes are likely, with conversely shorter seasons for snow and ice landing strips.

Canada provided the United Nations with its national inventory data on emissions of greenhouse gas emissions, in accordance with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

Canada’s Greenhouse Gas Inventory for 1990-1998 shows Canada’s greenhouse gas emissions in 1998 were 13% above 1990 levels.  However, the growth in emissions is slowing down.  From 1997 to 1998 total greenhouse gas emissions grew by only 1%. In the mid 1990s, emissions were growing at about 3% per year, while Canada’s economy grew at an average rate of about 2% per year.  In 1998, the year that emissions growth slowed, GDP grew 4.4%.

The data also points to areas where action will be required to start reducing Canada’s emissions.  For example: Emissions in the industrial and manufacturing sectors are slightly below 1990 levels.  Energy efficiency improvements in the industrial and manufacturing sectors are keeping pace with production increases.  Emissions in the electricity sector are 28% above 1990 levels.  Emission in the electricity sector continued to grow as coal was being used to pick up much of the increased demand for electricity.  Emissions in the transportation sector are 20% above 1990 levels.  The average fuel efficiency of the new vehicle fleet have not improved since 1990.  Road freight and the number of sport utility vehicles, vans and light trucks continue to increase. The Kyoto Protocol commits Canada to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 6% below 1990 levels by the period between 2008-2012.

Information on Canada’s greenhouse gas emissions for 1990 to 1998 can be found at the following Web site: http://www.ec.gc.ca/press/000906_m_e.htm The Web site of Environment Canada’s Greenhouse Gas Division is:http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/ghg/english/ehome.html

Agricultural land

There is potential for carbon sequestration on all agricultural land in Canada. The adoption of farming practices that reduce soil disturbance caused by tillage and increase the amount of biomass (crop) production will result in an increase in soil carbon. Adoption of zero tillage practices, reduced summerfallow frequency, the conversion of marginal cropland to permanent cover crops and pasture, increased forage production, and improved (more intensive) pasture management all promote carbon sequestration.

Agricultural land occupies 61 million hectares in Canada, of which 34.4 million hectares is cropland, 6.8 million hectares is hayland, 4.4 million hectares is improved pasture land, and 15.6 million hectares is unimproved (native) pasture land. The largest potential for greenhouse gas sinks is associated with the cropland, hayland, and improved pasture, because they are the most highly managed lands. They represent 75 percent of the agricultural land in Canada.

The proportion of the agriculture land base that is currently being managed in such a way that soil carbon is increasing is less than 75 percent. Zero tillage, reduced summerfallow frequency, conversion to permanent cover, and improved grazing land management occur on about 14.5 million ha in 1999, and are projected to increased to about 21 million ha by 2008.

Under the Montreal Protocol, Canada controls and monitors the consumption (import plus production minus exports) of ozone-depleting substances. Over the past five years, consumption has remained steady at less than 3 percent of 1986 levels.

Challenges

Many residents of urban centers are concerned with local air quality, especially in the summer. The most frequent causes are ground-level ozone and airborne particles, which, combined with other air pollutants, produce a condition known as smog. Urban air also contains trace amounts of many toxic chemicals, including various volatile hydrocarbons, such as benzene.

Air pollution can have significant effects on human health, ranging from eye, nose, and throat irritation to reduction of lung capacity, aggravation of respiratory diseases, and even premature death. Health research has shown that there is no threshold below which smog would have no negative effect on health and that the majority of health effects caused by air pollution, including the most serious (hospitalization and death), can occur at ozone concentrations below the value used to issue smog advisories. Hospital admissions increase with increasing air pollution, even at pollution levels regularly experienced by Canadians. Even healthy young adults breathe less efficiently during air pollution episodes, especially when exercising vigorously. Pollutants like ground-level ozone, sulphur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide also injure plants, resulting in reductions in crop yields and forest tree growth.

Within the last few years it has become clear that finer particles whose diameters are less than 10 µm (PM10), the so-called inhalable particles, may be responsible for most of the airborne particle threat to human health. Elevated levels of inhalable particles can occur across Canada, throughout the year, and in urban as well as rural areas. The factors favouring higher levels include important local sources (e.g., industry), long-range transport from other sources, and local topography and weather conditions, which can trap pollutants.

The average number of days on which ozone exceeded the National Ambient Air Quality Objective (82 ppb, 1-hour) has decreased by 50 percent since 1980, despite a 37 percent increase in average year-round ozone levels. A notable exception to this was the summer of 1988, which was particularly hot and hazy. In Canada, ozone levels tend to peak in summer, during mid-afternoon in the city, and during late afternoon to early evening in rural areas downwind of cities. Ground-level ozone is primarily a problem in the Windsor––Quebec City corridor and, to a lesser extent, in the southern Atlantic region and the Lower Mainland of British Columbia.

Urban air contains small amounts of the toxic hydrocarbon benzene. This is cause for concern, since benzene is known to cause a specific form of leukemia, and even low levels of exposure can increase the risk. Apart from cigarette smoking, the main route of human exposure to benzene is breathing air in city centres. Benzene levels at the perimeter of gasoline service stations are generally higher than average city levels. Benzene levels are generally four times higher in city centres than in rural areas. Average benzene levels in Canadian cities have fallen by 49 percent since monitoring began in 1989. This is largely due to better emission controls on vehicles.

Canada's widely dispersed and rapidly increasing population, our geography and climate, and our export-oriented, resource-dependent economy create challenges to progress on reducing emissions of greenhouse gases. Further, energy exports alone account for a substantial amount of Canada's growth in emissions of greenhouse gases since 1990. Because nuclear and hydro provide a substantial portion of our electricity generation, there is less scope for reductions than in some other countries.

Two barriers to eliminating the use of ozone-depleting substances are identifying alternatives for the use of

Carbon sinks are associated with managed resources, such as agricultural land and managed forests. Such resources represent a small proportion of the land area in Canada (although a large expanse of Canada is under forest cover, most of this forest is unmanaged Crown land). Also, the amount of carbon potentially stored in terrestrial sinks is far outweighed by growing emissions from transportation. Another significant challenge is that of scale, measurement, and verification of changes in carbon stocks.

Smog

Smog is linked to a variety of adverse health impacts. Scientists have found that the number of hospitalizations for respiratory ailments increases with increasing levels of air pollution. A recent study in 11 Canadian cities concluded that air pollution contributed to the premature deaths of at least 5,000 Canadians per year. A similar number of Canadians were hospitalized, while even greater numbers suffered other effects. In Canada, the number of children with asthma has risen more than fourfold in twenty years, and it is estimated that 25 per cent of school absences are due to asthma. Although scientific research is ongoing in this area, it is accepted that air pollution contributes significantly to asthma attacks.

To protect Canadians from the adverse effects of air pollution, there are plans to deliver regular and timely air quality forecasts that will:

 Planned future air quality forecasts will move:

Agriculture

Farmers depend on certain levels of crop yields to make their operations profitable. Any environmental condition that reduces yields poses a threat to farm viability. Crops and crop varieties show a wide range of tolerance to ground-level ozone, but a number of studies have demonstrated lower crop yields as a result of exposure to this pollutant. Crops are rarely exposed to only one pollutant; plants growing in high ozone concentrations may also suffer injury from sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, acid rain, and UV radiation. The effects are further complicated by crop type, time of exposure, weather conditions, previous exposure, and other environmental stresses.

With atmospheric ozone depletion, more UV radiation reaches the earth. Although plants have mechanisms to protect against UV radiation, high exposure to this radiation can injure plant tissues and damage DNA inside the cells, in turn reducing plant growth. Some plants produce lower yields under increased UV radiation. Increased UV-B may also disrupt marine food chains.

Depending on existing conditions, global warming and CO2 enrichment can have either positive or negative effects on crop yields. It is believed that yield increases in mid and high latitudes are caused by positive physiological effects of CO2, longer growing season, and amelioration of the effects of cold temperature on growth. Decreases in yield and even total crop failure could result from shortening the growing period, reduced water availability, and/or poor vernalization. The effects of diurnal and interannual climate variation may have important implications for farm values. Economic analysis has shown that greater interannual variation is harmful to farm values, and the marginal effect of temperature variation is relatively larger than the effect of variations in precipitation. Currently in Canada, crop failure due to drought, flooding, hail, and other weather events and conditions can be covered by crop insurance.

Capacity-Building, Education, Training, and Awareness-Raising

In November 1999, the Public Education and Outreach Issue Table (one of 16 Issue Tables created to study climate change issues in Canada) presented its strategy to reach out to Canadians on climate change. The strategy recognized the need for long-term, integrated, and sustained public education and outreach, and provided the following overall objectives for a national strategy:

The strategy recommended a variety of activities and audiences that should be targeted to achieve the above objectives. It also proposed that the strategy be implemented through the establishment of multi-stakeholder centres or “hubs” at the regional and national levels. The Climate Change Action Fund has allocated $30 million over its first three years to the Public Education and Outreach Program. Environment Canada’s Climate Change Bureau manages the program in partnership with the Office of Energy Efficiency at Natural Resources Canada. The information component of the Climate Change Action Fund includes publications and information kits, a climate change Web site (http://www.climatechange.gc.ca), newspaper supplements, and print and radio advertising. In the first two years of this program, more than 100 national and local projects received support for such varied activities as educational materials and exhibits, community activities and events, and workshops. For example:

 Other federal programs and initiatives that support public education and outreach include:

The EcoAction Community Funding Program is an Environment Canada program that provides financial support to community groups for projects that have measurable, positive impacts on the environment. EcoAction encourages projects that protect, rehabilitate or enhance the natural environment, and build the capacity of communities to sustain these activities into the future. Projects require matching funds or in-kind support from other sponsors. Priority for funding is given to projects in the areas of Clean Air and Climate Change, Clean Water, and Nature.

Canadian Environment Week celebrates the efforts and commitments of Canadians all over the country who are working for a cleaner and healthier environment. Activities are underway in many communities that take action on clean air, clean water, climate change, and nature. In order to assist these community actions Environment Canada has developed their Outreach Program. Please visit the following Web site: http://www.ec.gc.ca/eco/eweek_e.htm

Clean Air Day Canada has been proclaimed by the Government of Canada to increase public awareness and action on two key environmental priorities, clean air and climate change. Since the early 1990s, every year in May and June, environmental, health and transportation groups have organized clean air-related community activities across Canada. Clean Air Day Canada builds on this solid tradition and is very much a grassroots, locally-based event relying on strong partnerships with all sectors of society, founded on concrete actions in communities across Canada.

Environment Canada  helps communities recognize the activities, projects, and general efforts that help improve the environment. Environmental citizenship certificates are available for individuals or groups deserving recognition for their demonstrated commitment to improving the environment. For further information, please visit the following Web site: http://www.ec.gc.ca/ecoaction/hero

The Tree Canada Foundation, Natural Resources Canada (Canadian Forest Service), and hundreds of companies from across the country are supporting community involvement in planting 1.5 million of Canada’s Millennium Trees. This project promotes green communities green and recognizes the value of trees in carbon cycling and storage.

The Pollution Data Branch (PDB) of Environment Canada is responsible for analyzing, disseminating, developing, and improving inventories of pollutant information in partnership with others. They also strive to continually improve the public's access to information. They maintain such databases as air contaminant emissions for Canada, found at Environment Canada's Web site, the Green Lane, at http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb  

An education initiative on the protection of the ozone layer was undertaken by Environment Canada in partnership with the Knowledge of the Environment for Youth Foundation. The initiative resulted in the development and implementation of teacher-friendly curriculum materials (manuals for students and teachers, as well as background material) for use in schools across Canada. The initiative was based on the recognition that Canada's education systems have an important role to play in encouraging appropriate actions and discouraging damaging behaviors.

The following educational programs are being developed with funding from the Climate Change Action Fund: 

 Climate change

The Canadian Climate Research Network (CRN) was created in 1994 as a mechanism to enable the Canadian government to engage the energies, ideas, and talents of the university and private sector communities in providing the critical scientific knowledge required for policy-making related to climate change and climate variability. It consists of a network of Collaborative Research Groups linked together through an electronic network, interchange of personnel, workshops, and similar activities. CRN was established not only to tap the research capabilities of the universities but also to train new researchers in the area of climate change. The Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric  Science, announced in February 2000, supports research in climate change, air quality, and severe weather mainly at universities, thereby helping build research capacity. Climate research and the Climate Change Action Fund (Science, Impacts, and Adaptation), mentioned earlier in this document, also contribute to building capacity. The Meteorological Service of Canada (MSC) has in place post-graduate scholarship and visiting fellowship programs to train new researchers in the climate and atmospheric sciences.

MSC technical staff are currently provided on-the-job training and some specialized workshops on the deployment and maintenance of equipment and sensors for systematic climate observation programs. MSC is currently developing a national technical workforce renewal plan that addresses succession planning, recruitment standards, and occupational training and career progression. It is envisaged that web-based distance learning approaches will be employed to augment requisite formal institutional education programs.

A pilot program on air quality predictions was successfully conducted and a national program is being proposed and developed. Such a program could significantly heighten the awareness of the general population to air quality issues and broadens the knowledge base from a few scientists to the general scientific population. Such a program is also expected to create a snowball effect in areas of awareness, training, education, and research by making the issue a more visible.

One of the most important components of the National Action Plan for the Recovery, Recycling, and Reclamation of CFCs is training for the people involved in the recovery and recycling of these substances. In consultation with the relevant service industry associations, and based on the original addition of the Environmental Code of Practice for the Elimination of Fluorocarbon Emissions from Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Systems, Environment Canada developed a training program for technicians involved in  servicing refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment. This training component is a valuable product that Canada can export to the rest of the world.  

Agriculture                 

The Climate Change Funding Initiative (CCFI) helps to improve the scientific understanding of the agriculture sector’s contribution to greenhouse gas emissions. Among other things, the initiative focuses on:

Programs that raise producers’ awareness of climate change and transfer technology to minimize agricultural greenhouse gas emissions and to deal with the agricultural effects of climate change include:

Information

The Meteorological Service of Canada (MSC) operates and maintains a monitoring system comprising a network of meteorological and hydrometric observations across Canada. Many of the observations, such as hourly temperature, humidity, wind speed and pressure, are collected and archived nationally from telecommunications circuits. Most of the observations, such as stream flow and level, daily temperature, and precipitation amounts, are collected and processed by the regional MSC offices, and forwarded to the National Archive System for long-term storage and access for a wide variety of purposes. The observations in the National Archive System date back to 1840. Most observations are archived in a digital relational database. A small portion of the data holdings is in paper or microfilm. As a whole, the National Archive System is the main source of physical observations related to climate change in Canada, which are used to monitor trends in the main observational elements such as temperature, precipitation, and stream flow. The Climate Research Branch maintains special data sets of temperature and precipitation, based on temperature and precipitation retrieved from the National Archive System that have been assessed for nonhomogeneity due to siting and instrument changes and adjusted accordingly where necessary. These homogeneity-adjusted data sets are then assessed for trends and other changes such as in variability and extremes. Results are posted quarterly on the Web at: http:// www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/ccrm/bulletin. Other data sets such as remotely sensed sea ice are also used for climate change monitoring by various researchers in Canada

The Canadian (national) Climate and Water Archive holds daily information from meteorological, climatological, and hydrometric networks, with additional hourly observations from meteorological and some climatological networks. This archive is further described by the station information system that holds the metadata information. A  Web site (http://www.cmc.ec.gc.ca/climate) provides access to the station catalogue, the 1961/90 normals, and documentation on the archive, price list, and access policies. Canadian climate summaries are also available from this site, but this is restricted to subscribers (at cost). External users can query the normals and the station catalogue directly from this Web site but must request the information through regional MSC offices or from the National Service Desk, who then extract the information, perform the requested analysis and submit the information to the user. A top priority this fiscal year and next is to develop and implement an external Web site to allow external users to access directly the national climate and water archive. Furthermore, we are also participating in the Canadian “Government On Line” initiative to develop a one-stop window for accessing all archived climatological/hydrometric observations.

The National Pollutants Release Inventory (NPRI) is a publicly accessible, facility specific inventory of information on toxic substances released to the air, as well as to water and land. The NPRI list of toxic substances was recently expanded by 50 percent and now tracks 268 pollutants of concern. The NPRI continues to improve and expand. Information on the 1998 NPRI is now available on a provincial and regional basis. The provincial and regional fact sheets provide more detailed information on the direct releases of pollutants to air, water and land, and their transfers to other locations for treatment or disposal. The fact sheets also provide information on the inter-provincial movement of the NPRI-listed pollutants being transferred for disposal. For further information on this inventory, including how to carry out a data search, please visit the following Web site: www2.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri

Canadians need information about air quality that is up-to-date and more frequent than the handful of advisories currently available each year. Smog forecasts issued every single day allow sensitive individuals, particularly children, the elderly, and those with asthma and other respiratory illnesses, to make their plans based on what they know about their own response to air pollution. Daily air quality forecasts, combined with public awareness programs at the community level, allow Canadians to make more informed choices in much the same way the UV Index works in assessing the risks of exposure to the sun. Air quality reports for all areas of Canada can be seen at Canada’s Air Quality Services Web site: http://www.msc.ec.gc.ca/ag_smog/index_e.cfm

Information on climate model outputs is available on the Web site of Environment Canada’s Canadian Centre for Climate Modeling and Analysis for those engaged in research to study the impacts of climate change (http://www.cccma.bc.ec.gc.ca).

The Climate Trends and Variability Bulletin produced by Environment Canada is routinely available at http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca

Agriculture

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada calculates a national Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Budget indicator that estimates the net exchange of nitrous oxide, methane, and carbon dioxide (expressed in carbon dioxide equivalents) associated with agriculture. The performance objective for this indicator is to have declining net emissions of greenhouse gases over time (a specific goal for agriculture has not yet been set). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) methodology is used to estimate nitrous oxide emissions in three categories: direct emissions from agricultural fields, direct emissions from animal production systems, and indirect emissions derived from nitrogen that came from agricultural systems. Direct emissions from fields include those from mineral fertilizers applied to soil, animal manure used as fertilizer, nitrogen-fixing crops, crop residues, and the cultivation of organic soils. Methane emissions are also calculated using IPCC methodology. Carbon dioxide emissions are estimated using the Century model for carbon exchange, which accounts for agricultural management practices, including planting, fertilizer application, tillage, grazing, and addition of organic matter. Canada’s national inventory of greenhouse gases avoids overlapping estimates by attributing carbon dioxide produced from fuel consumption and the manufacture of fertilizers and machinery to the transportation and manufacturing sectors.

Agriculture’s involvement in the responding to the challenge of climate change is described in a public document entitled The Health of Our Air: Toward Sustainable Agriculture in Canada. The national agri-environmental indicator Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Budget is reported in Environmental Sustainability of Canadian Agriculture: Report of the Agri-Environmental Indicator Project. Both of these reports are available electronically at http://res2.agr.ca

Research and Technologies

The Meteorological Service of Canada (MSC) is Canada's primary source for meteorological information. MSC operates and maintains Canada’s national atmospheric and hydrometric monitoring networks. These include:

Weather (Public and Aviation), comprising more than 700 surface stations, made up of a combination of automated and human observing programs. Systems in place include Automated Weather Observing Systems (AWOS) , Campbell Scientific loggers, and antiquated MARS/MAPS technology.

Climate, currently comprising about 2,200 automated and human volunteer stations that provide basic climate information. Supplementary data are collected at a sub-set of  these stations with the number of stations recording a parameter varying from 10s to 100s of stations depending on the requirements for this information. Supplementary programs include: rate-of-rainfall, typically using the Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge; evaporation with the Class A Evaporation Pan; snow on ground with a ruler or sonic snow depth sensor (i.e., SR-50); wind using an 78-D or R.M. Young anemometer; sunshine, primarily with a Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorder; radiation using a number of different commercially available pyranometers; and soil temperature profiles with thermocouples or thermisters.

Marine, for which more than 40 moored and six drifting buoys provide data. To augment this, some 300 Volunteer Observing Ships provide on-going reports.

Ice, for which information on ice formation and thickness are collected in Canada using satellites (e.g., Radarsat).

Hydrometric, using a network of more than 2,000 stations. The monitoring technology is currently a mix of aging analogue water level recorders and modern digital recorders.

Air Quality (for information on the technologies used to obtain atmospheric composition information, see: http://www.msc.ec.gc.ca/ag_smog/index_e.cfm).

Most of these networks provide data on a real or near real-time basis and as such provide information on the current and changing state of atmospheric conditions.

Numerous technologies are being developed to advance the uptake of renewable energies, increase energy efficiencies, and reduce energy intensities. For example, solar thermal and photovoltaic systems are being improved in order to develop cost-effective solutions that will be demanded by the public. Alternative fuels for vehicles, including electric vehicles and the required battery packs, are quickly evolving. Several projects are examining fuel cells, including Proton Exchange Membranes, solid oxide types, and methods for reforming fuels either for stationary or mobile applications. There are also several industrial projects designed to improve energy efficiencies mainly through process modifications in the pulp and paper sector, oil and gas sectors, aluminum manufacturing, and in the food and beverages domains.

In agriculture, beyond the management practices described in Questions 7 and 9, research is being done into ways to store carbon in value-added products such as strawboard; and to reduce fossil fuel use, such as:

Many technologies are related to and advanced by communities.  These are generally associated with heating and cooling of public buildings; use of methane from landfills; and district heating installations, including co-generation.

Canada faces particular challenges given its varied land mass and extreme climatic conditions.  This is the case for our different industrial and natural resource sectors.  Increase productivity, improved performance, including environmental, and greater efficiency are goals our industries are constantly striving to achieve. New and cleaner technologies are regularly introduced as part of continuous business improvements.  This is the case for our major resource sectors such as mining and pulp and paper.  Individual industries have introduced technologies to reduce industrial emissions.  Major emissions reductions have also been achieved from the use of cleaner fuels and new motor vehicle emissions technologies.

Financing

Canada’s 2000 federal budget: 

The Government of Canada Action Plan 2000 on Climate Change, described under Question 6, will invest $500 million on measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.  This plan targets key sectors including initiatives in transportation, energy (oil and gas production and electricity), industry, business, forestry and agriculture, international projects, technology, science and adaptation. For further information, consult http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/css/imb/hqlib/200079e.htm

The private sector is a major player in investing in new technology and proactive in protecting the atmosphere.

Projects approved under the Climate Change Action Fund (CCAF) must have at least 25 percent of their funding from other sources. This funding is in the form of cash and in-kind support (e.g., professional services, volunteer time, materials, supplies, and equipment). At one point in the program, $16 million in CCAF financing had leveraged $38 million in other funding, for a total of $54 million. The network of partners created by the Fund helps to ensure that projects will continue after CCAF support has ended. 

For example, Technology Early Action Measures is funded through the Climate Change Action Fund. Eligible projects in this program must demonstrate innovation in the transportation, energy, agriculture, and various industrial sectors and must work with Canadian industry to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, support community‑based implementation of greenhouse gas emission reduction technologies, and/or transfer Canadian greenhouse gas reduction technologies to other countries, particularly developing nations. Top priority is given to projects that demonstrate significant financial partnering with a number of interested parties, such as the private sector, provinces, and municipalities.

Cooperation

There is increasing awareness and recognition that global environmental problems are adversely affecting the Canadian environment. Climate change, urban smog, loss of species, and the transport of pollutants to the Arctic are examples of the way that global pressures are affecting the quality of life of Canadians. Environmental issues such as these have led to an unprecedented degree of global action, since no nation acting alone can ensure national or global environmental security. Canada must work in partnership with other nations and international organizations to monitor the environment and conduct environmental research and development, to tackle problems at their source, and to implement international agreements effectively.

Scientific cooperation

Canadian participation in international scientific programs help to focus attention on issues of concern to Canada and attracts the interest of other leading international scientists and external funding sources to scientific work being done in Canada.  For example:

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was created in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Program and the World Meteorological Organization to assess scientific information, assess the potential impacts, and formulate strategies to respond to climate change. Canadian scientists have been lead authors, contributors, and reviewers for the IPCC’s First and Second Assessment Reports, produced in 1990 and 1995, respectively. More than 30 Canadian scientists are participating as authors and editors of the IPCC’s Third Assessment Report, scheduled for completion in 2001.

The World Climate Research Programme furthers scientific understanding of the climate system and climate processes. Within the program, Canadian scientists are working on the World Ocean Circulation Experiment and the Joint Global Ocean Flux Study to help improve understanding of ocean processes and to contribute to the development of ocean components of climate models. Canada  also participates in the Global Energy and Water Experiment. Furthermore, Canada is involved in the Global Climate Observing System, which combines observations of the atmosphere, oceans, and terrestrial systems into an integrated set of observations of the global climate system. Canada’s main contribution to the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment is through the Mackenzie GEWEX Study (MAGS), details of which are available at  http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/GEWEX/MAGS.html

Ozone-depleting substances

Recognizing that the successful implementation of the Montreal Protocol depends on global participation, a  Multilateral Fund was created to work as a mechanism to help developing countries eliminate substances that are controlled under the Montreal Protocol within the agreed time frame. The Fund, which is replenished every three years, is financed by industrialized countries party to the Montreal Protocol, based on the United Nations scale of assessment. Under the rules or the Fund, developed countries can reserve up to 20 percent of their contribution for bilateral cooperation projects with developing countries. Canada's annual contribution to the Fund (1997–1999) amounts to US $5.7 million. This sum is shared between the Canadian International Development Agency (80 percent) and Environment Canada (20 percent). Environment Canada’s share (US $1.14 million/year) is used to finance bilateral activities with Article 5 countries subject to the rules and approval of the fund’s executive committee. The Technology and Industry Branch of the Environmental Technology Advancement Directorate at Environment Canada is responsible for developing and managing bilateral projects, along with the promoting opportunities for Canadian businesses under the Fund. Sectors covered under the Multilateral Fund are refrigeration, aerosols, solvents, halons and methyl bromide alternatives. Projects in the refrigeration and methyl bromide sectors are currently a priority due to the upcoming freeze deadlines. The halon sector is also high priority since halons have a high ozone-depleting potential.

Bilateral agreements

The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) is the primary agency for delivering Canada's Official Development Assistance program and the technical cooperation program with economies in transition. CIDA's two-fold mandate is to support sustainable development in developing countries in order to reduce poverty and to contribute to a more secure, equitable, and prosperous world, and to support democratic development and economic liberalization in Central and Eastern Europe by building mutually beneficial partnerships. To implement these programs, CIDA works with partners in the private and public sectors in Canada and in the target countries as well as with international organizations and agencies. Environmental protection and infrastructure services are among the six priority areas addressed by CIDA. Consequently, CIDA has numerous projects addressing environment, energy, and transport issues. CIDA is also responsible for managing the new $100 million fund to support technology transfer to address climate change issues. Descriptions of all CIDA’s programs and projects can be  accessed at the following Web site: http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca

Canada has Memoranda of Understanding (MOU) with 18 countries. These MOUs establish a framework under which collaborative projects can be undertaken in the areas of environmental management policies, approaches, and tools; environmental pollution prevention and control approaches, development of national science capacity; conservation and sustainable resource management policies, practices, and technology transfer and solutions; and exchange of information on a range of environmental issues.

Canada supports the Environmental Technology Verification Program, which provides a third-party independent assessment of a vendor’s technology or project performance claim. The program has bilateral/multilateral projects in China, Indonesia, and Bangladesh, and has signed MOUs with the California Environmental Protection Agency, the State of New Jersey, and Korea.

Canada endorses the objectives of the World-Wide Fuel Charter for Gasoline and Diesel Fuels.  The charter is an "effort to develop common, world-wide recommendations for 'quality fuels', taking into consideration customer requirements and vehicle emission technologies, which will in turn benefit our customers and all other affected parties."  Global fuels standards are vital if the developing world, where car ownership is increasing at an enormous rate, is to benefit from the newest vehicle technologies.   This objective is in line with the United Nations Agreement Concerning the Establishing of Global Technical Regulations for Vehicles, Engines and Components.

In addition, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is working with member countries to reduce the level of emissions from aircraft while recognizing the need to balance these efforts with safety issues.  The ICAO is also working on measures to mitigate air traffic congestion and reduce fuel consumption.  Similarly, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) is working to reduce emissions from ships.  Canada participates in both these organizations and encourages their continued progress in these areas.                                      

1992 United Nation’s Framework Convention on Climate Change and 1997 Kyoto Protocol

Immediately after the negotiation of the Kyoto Protocol, Canada’s First Ministers recognized the importance of climate change and agreed that Canada must do its part to address the issue. The First Ministers agreed, as a guiding principle, that no region should bear an unreasonable burden from implementing the Protocol. The First Ministers directed the federal, provincial, and territorial energy and environment ministers to examine the impacts, costs, and benefits of implementing the Kyoto Protocol, as well as the options for addressing climate change. In the spring of 1998, the Energy and Environment Ministers responded by establishing an inclusive and collaborative National Climate Change Process.

The National Climate Change Process established 16 Issue Tables/Working Groups involving 450 experts from industry, academia, non-governmental organizations, and government. The Tables reviewed seven key sectors of the economy and eight cross-cutting strategies. An analysis and modeling group integrated the results into a comprehensive preliminary analysis of the implications of options for meeting Canada’s Kyoto target. No other country has adopted such an open, inclusive, and comprehensive process. Among other issues, the National Process identified:

In 2000, building on the work of the National Process and acknowledging the considerable contributions of the Issue Tables, the Energy and Environment Ministers moved forward a coordinated national approach to climate change that includes the National Implementation Strategy for Climate Change and the First National Climate Change Business Plan, the federal component of which is reflected in the Government of Canada Action Plan 2000 on Climate Change. These documents, described under Question 6, can be found at the following Web site: http://www.nccp.ca

Under the Kyoto Protocol, Canada has committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions to 6 percent below 1990 levels by 2008–2012. Canada’s Greenhouse Gas Inventory for 1990–1998 shows that Canada’s greenhouse gas emissions in 1998 were 682 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent, 13 percent above 1990 levels (see the graph below). However, the growth in emissions is slowing down. From 1997 to 1998, total greenhouse gas emissions grew by only 1 percent. In the mid-1990s, emissions were growing at about 3 percent per year, while Canada’s economy grew at an average rate of about 2 percent per year. In 1998, the year that emissions slowed, GDP grew 4.4 percent. If business proceeds as usual in Canada, greenhouse gas emissions will continue to climb, reaching about 761 megatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalents by 2010, 26 percent over our Kyoto target. Mitigation measures must take this projected growth into account.

A Compendium of Canadian Initiatives: Taking Action on Climate Change describes Canada’s programs on climate change. On the individual level, Canadians are being encouraged – through governmental communications, workplace and community initiatives, and the campaigns of non-governmental organizations – to become informed about climate change and to support efforts to slow its progress. On a practical level, the most important step individual Canadians can take to slow climate change is to practise energy efficiency in our everyday lives. Efforts continue to help Canadians become more energy efficient in our homes, our transportation, and the workplace. Further information can be found under “What’s new” at the following Web site: http://www.nccp.ca

Canada continues to invest in research on climate change to better understand its scope and impacts. Canadian scientists are making important contributions to scientific work on climate change, including through the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. They play a critical ongoing role in informing policy- and decision-makers of the potential impacts of climate change across the county. This work includes supporting the development of Canada’s positions in international negotiations and helping to identify and develop options for domestic mitigative measures and adaptation strategies. For example, Canada has developed

In the short term, Canada can address climate change through energy efficiency and conservation. Ultimately, a major shift to alternative, less-emitting energy sources (like small-scale hydroelectricity, wind energy, and biomass, which have untapped potential) will occur as new technologies penetrate the market and alternative energy becomes more competitive.

Canada continues to pursue its international objectives as well in the continuing negotiations related to the United Nations Framework on Climate Change and details of the Kyoto Protocol. Canada’s international objectives with respect to climate change are to:

As an active participant in the 6th Conference of the Parties (CoP6), Canada will seek to ensure that the rules for the Kyoto Protocol are designed to effectively address the challenge of climate change in the long term. We will also be seeking decisions that establish a cost-effective and credible market for protocol instruments to help meet our target. While it is Canada’s aim to achieve the majority of our reductions at home, these instruments will complement domestic action. Canada has considerable experience in forestry and agricultural practices that remove carbon from the atmosphere and store it in “carbon sinks”. At CoP6, we will be seeking rules on sinks that allow Canada and other countries credit for such activities. The Government of Canada has been consulting closely with the provinces and territories, industries, and other key stakeholders to develop Canada’s position for CoP6. Many member countries have already launched major national strategies on climate change, and more countries are expected to follow suit throughout this year. Initiatives in Canada’s 2000 federal budget, as well as the development of a National Implementation Strategy, ensure that Canada moves in parallel with other OECD countries on climate change.

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

Canada was among the first countries to ratify the Montreal Protocol and is in full compliance with the Protocol and all of its amendments. Canada has ratified the amendments to the Protocol up to the 1997 Amendments in Montreal and is in the final stages of ratifying the most recent amendment, the 1999 Beijing Amendment. More information on measures to implement the Protocol can be found at Environment Canada’s Web site: http://www.ec.gc.ca/ozone

Canada was the first country to ratify the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Protocols on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and Heavy Metals and is leading the negotiation of a global agreement to reduce and eliminate the release through the atmosphere of the world's most toxic POPs, such as DDT and PCBs. In its Budget 2000, Canada committed $20 million over the next five years to projects that will help developing countries and countries with economies in transition to reduce or eliminate the release of POPs into the environment. 

Through the North American Commission on Environmental Cooperation, Canada is involved in air quality initiatives with the US and Mexico.

In October 2000, Canada and the United States finalized the Ozone Annex to the 1999 U.S.– Canada Air Quality Agreement. The Annex will reduce air pollution flows from the United States thereby improving air quality and the health of Canadians living in downwind areas in eastern Canada. It will also commit to reduce flows of pollution from areas in Ontario and Quebec into the United States.

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This information was provided by the Government of Canada to the fifth session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last Update: 17 July 2001.

For further information on energy related to the atmosphere, please see Canada’s response to Guidelines for National Reporting to CSD IX on Energy and Energy-Related Aspects of Atmosphere and Transport (Agenda 21, Chapter 9), Part III. 
For further information on transportation related to energy and atmosphere, please see Canada’s response to Guidelines for National Reporting to CSD 9 on Transport (Agenda 21, Chapter 7 & 9), Part IV.
The Canadian Web sites listed below offer information on Canadian programs and initiatives related to the atmosphere and to climate change. Most of them also provide links to other related sites.
National atmosphere and climate change Web sites:
Government of Canada Climate Change Site:  http://www.climatechange.gc.ca
National Climate Change Secretariat:  http://www.nccp.ca
Environment Canada’s Green Lane:  http://www.ec.gc.ca
Atmospheric Environment Service: http://www1.tor.ec.gc/index.html
Canadian Centre for Climate Modeling and Analysis: http://www.cccma.bc.ec.gc.ca/eng_index.html
Climate Trends and Variations Bulletin: http://www.tor.ec.gc.ca/ccrm/bulletin
EcoAction 2000: http://www.ec.gc.ca/ecoaction
Science Assessment of Climate Change: http://www.tor.ec.gc.ca/apac
The Canada Country Study: http://www.ec.gc.ca/climate.ccs
Natural Resources Canada: http://www.nrcan.gc.ca
Canadian Forest Service: http://www.nofc.forestry.ca/climate
Energy Technology Branch: http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/es/etb
Office of Energy Efficiency: http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca
Office of Energy Research and Development: http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/es/new/oerd.htm
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada: http://www.agr.ca/envire.html
Healthy Air: http://www.agr.ca/research/Healthy_Air/toc.html
Fisheries and Oceans Canada: 
The Ocean’s Role in Climate Change: http://csas.meds.dfo.ca/aosb/Oceans/Welcome.htm
Clean Development Mechanism and Joint Implementation Office: http://dfait-maeci.gc.ca/cdm-ji
Health Canada: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/english/climate.htm
Industry Canada – Technology Partnerships Canada: http://tpc.ic.gc.ca
Transport Canada: http://www.tc.gc.ca/envaffairs/english/climatechange.htm
National Roundtable on the Environment and the Economy: http://www.nrtee-trnee.ca
Voluntary Challenge and Registry Inc.: http://www.vcr-mvr.ca
Provincial/territorial/municipal Web sites:
Alberta: http://www.climatechange.gov.ab.ca
British Columbia: http://www.elp.gov.bc.ca/epd/epdpa/ar
Manitoba: http://www.gov.mb.ca/environ/index.html
New Brunswick: http://www.gov.nb.ca/environm
Newfoundland and Labrador: http://www.gov.nf.ca/env/Labour/OHS/default.asp
Northwest Territories: http://www.gov.nt.ca
Nova Scotia: http://www.gov.ns.ca
Nunavut: http://www.inac.gc.ca/nunavut/index.html
Ontario: http://www.ene.gov.on.ca
Prince Edward Island: http://www.gov.pe.ca/te/index.asp
Quebec: http://www.mrn.gouv.qc.ca
Saskatchewan: http://www.gov.sk.ca
Yukon: http://www.gov.yk.ca
Federation of Canadian Municipalities: http://www.fcm.ca
International Council of Local Environmental Initiatives: http://www.iclei.org/iclei.htm
Other Canadian sites:
Canadian Institute for Climate Studies: http:/www.cics.uvic.ca
Canadian Climate Research Network: http://www.cics.uvic.ca/climate/crn/crn.htm
Click here for Canada's Second National Report on Climate change.
 Click here for information on Air.
 Click here for information on Atmospheric Change.
 Click here for Canada's Pollution Prevention Strategy.
 Click here for information on Pollution.
 Click here for information on Acid Rain Indicators.
 Click here for information on Climate Change Indicators.
 Click here for information on Ozone Depletion Indicators.
 Click here for information on Urban Air Quality Indicators.
Click here for national information from the Web Site of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.  
For the access to the Web Site of the Ozone Secretariat, click here:
Click here for Canada's 1997 and 1998 "Green Reports" (Reports of the Commissioner of the Environment and Sustainable Development), including information on Canada's implementation strategy to respond to climate change.

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BIODIVERSITY

Decision Making: Coordinating Bodies

Domestically, management of biological resources falls primarily within provincial jurisdictions. However, the federal government, industries, Aboriginal groups, scientific societies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) all play important roles in the decision-making process.

A number of co-management boards have been established, composed of representatives of Aboriginal communities and government appointees. Within the Northwest Territories and Yukon, these boards have become the main instruments of wildlife management in land claim areas. Through the Nunavut Wildlife Management Board, Inuit of the Northwest Territories' eastern areas co-manage wildlife in what will become the Nunavut Territory. The Quebec government has prepared a list of parks, ecological reserves, and wildlife management activities for its northern regions that will involve Aboriginal communities. In 1994, the government and the Montagnais concluded an agreement for the co-management of the Louis-Babel ecological reserve. In existence since 1982, the Beverly-Qamanirjuaq Caribou Management Board is an excellent example of the incorporation of traditional knowledge into the political process. The BC government has appointed a 19-member panel comprised of scientists and Nuu-Chah-Nulth elders to study ways of changing management practices in old-growth forests around Clayoquot Sound. And Parks Canada and the Inuvialuit of the Western Arctic are working together on a Management Plan for Aulavik National Park on Banks Island.

Decision Making: Legislation and Regulations

In October, 1996, the bill of the Endangered Species Protection Act was introduced into Parliament. The Act is designed to prevent extirpation or extinction of wildlife species, and to secure their recovery. The scope of the Act covers wildlife within federal jurisdiction, and will be complemented by provincial and territorial legislation and programs under a National Accord for the Protection of Species at Risk. Other important legislative or policy initiatives include the proposed Oceans and Endangered Species legislation, and a National Program of Action on Land-Based Sources of Marine Pollution.

Decision Making: Strategies, Policies, and Plans

In November 1995, environment ministers from each of Canada's provinces and territories joined the federal Minister of the Environment in signing the Canadian Biodiversity Strategy. Based on extensive consultation with all sectors of Canadian society, the Strategy will be implemented through measures such as: the filing, within one year of Strategy approval, jurisdictional reports on policies, activities, and plans that help implement the CBD; coordination of national and international Strategy elements; formal mechanisms that permit and encourage non-government participation in Strategy implementation; and reports on the status of biodiversity.

Decision Making: Major Groups Involvement

As Canada moves from strategy to implementation, there is much evidence that economic sectoral groups are becoming increasingly engaged in advancing biodiversity conservation and sustainable use objectives. The forest and agricultural sectors have done much work to identify biodiversity indicators. The Canadian Pulp and Paper Association have created a position and budget for the purpose of developing a biodiversity strategy for the industry. The agricultural community is also developing a response to the Strategy, and has recently compiled an impressive inventory of activities and initiatives undertaken at the farm level.

Programmes and Projects

In 1996, the federal government in cooperation with the provinces, territories, and Aboriginal communities, created two new national parks and provided interim protection for two areas that have been proposed as national parks. In addition, the federal government has announced that it is considering the establishment and management of national marine conservation areas.

Status

No information is available.

Challenges

In order to fully implement the CBD, much scientific research remains to be accomplished. For example, Canada needs to improve basic inventory data at both species and ecosystem levels. Only about 50% of the species that are thought to exist in the country have been identified. Moreover, we must continue to heighten public understanding of the issues related to conservation and sustainable use of biological resources. As well, at both the national and international levels procedures and mechanisms must be in place to ensure that the sharing of benefits from biological resources is fair and equitable. Adequate financing continues to be a challenge for the implementation of the CBD through the Canadian Biodiversity Strategy.

Capacity-Building, Education, Training, and Awareness-Raising

No information is available.

Information

The national Ecological Monitoring and Assessment Network (EMAN) is providing the opportunity to develop inventories and engage in long-term biodiversity monitoring at many locations across the country.

Research and Technologies

No information is available.

Financing

No information is available.

Cooperation

Canada signed and ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1992. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Florawas ratified in 1975, with the latest report submitted to the Secretariat in 1996. In November 1995, Montreal was chosen as the site for the Permanent Secretariat of the CBD by the second meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the CBD meeting in Djakarta, Indonesia. The new premises of the Permanent Secretariat in Montreal were officially opened in May 1996.

Canada has been very active internationally in support of the Biodiversity Convention. It has co-sponsored workshops and symposia in Costa Rica, Chile, and Cote d'Ivoire. It has participated in and hosted meetings of United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Expert Panels, and has played an active role in the two meetings of the Inter-governmental Committee for the CBD. At the first two meetings of the Conference of the Parties (COP) in the Bahamas and Indonesia respectively, Canada co-hosted a Biodiversity Technology Fair. Through the North American Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Canada has entered into cooperative biodiversity programs with its North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) partners. The Canadian Museum of Nature is assisting other countries in the production of biodiversity country studies. Finally, Canada is collaborating in an Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) project under its Development Assistance Committee (DAC) to develop biodiversity indicators; and with Germany, Australia, and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre on the creation of an international Clearing House Mechanism for scientific and technical information exchange.

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This information was provided by the Government of Canada to the fifth session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last Update: 1 April 1997.

Click here for national information on Biodiversity.
 Click here for national information on Environmental Conservation.
 Click here for information on wildlife.
 For access to the Web Site of the Convention on Biological Diversity, click here:
For access to the Web Site of the CITES Convention, click here:
 For access to the Web Site of the CITES Convention, click here:
 For the Web Site of the CMS Convention, click here:
 For the country-by-country, Man in the Biosphere On-Line Query System, click here:
 Click here to link to biosafety web sites in Canada.
 Click here to link to the Biosafety Information Network and Advisory Service (BINAS), a service of the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), which monitors global developments in regulatory issues in biotechnology.
 Click here to go to the Web Site of UNEP's International Register on Biosafety.
Click here for Canada's 1997 and 1998 "Green Reports" (Reports of the Commissioner of the Environment and Sustainable Development), including information on biodiversity in Canada.

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DESERTIFICATION AND DROUGHT

Decision Making: Coordinating Bodies

The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) was Canada's lead agency in the negotiations. CIDA, along with the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), will implement the Convention on Canada's behalf. Current initiatives under the Convention respond to the Urgent Action for Africa Resolution supporting preparation of National Action Programs and Public Awareness Raising. Both CIDA and IDRC have ongoing programs addressing land degradation in dryland areas.

Decision Making: Legislation and Regulations

No information is available.

Decision Making: Strategies, Policies, and Plans

A component of IDRC's programming is directly in support of the Convention. It is intended to support the processes of selected African countries' preparation of National Action Plans. Support programmes of this type are currently underway in Burkina Faso. CIDA is exploring the use of an umbrella program in the West African region which would permit support to a variety of small scale national initiatives related to the consultative processes for the preparation of National Action Programs. CIDA supports the efforts of Southern Africans in a community drought mitigation program. In addition, Canada also provides support through multilateral partners.

Decision Making: Major Groups Involvement

No information is available.

Programmes and Projects

Some of CIDA's programming deals directly with the problem of land degradation by focusing on natural resource management techniques. In Burkina Faso, programs focus on improving soil fertility through composting, drought preparedness, small scale irrigation, and plant and tree protection. Action on desertification often reflects the place of poverty alleviation as a core programming theme for CIDA. The agency undertakes programming which focuses on education, popular participation, and the promotion of alternative livelihoods. In China, CIDA is running a desertification related program focusing on alternative livelihoods and income generation to reduce poverty and improve the situation of women.

Other CIDA programs focus on the role of grass root organizations in the process. In Burkina Faso and Mali, CIDA is working with the Canadian NGO Solidarit?Canada- Sahel (SCS) and local non-governmental organizations to encourage communities to get involved in the preparation of their countries' National Action Programs. In partnership with CIDA, other organizations such as CARE Canada and the Unitarian Service Committee of Canada (USC-Canada) work with their counterparts in developing countries to encourage and promote action at the grass-roots level. CIDA supports the work of the Developing Countries Farm Radio Network (DCFRN). This organization uses radio broadcasts and the distribution of reading material through its network in Africa and around the world to provide a forum for partners to increase public awareness and initiate dialogue.

Status

No information is available.

Challenges

No information is available.

Capacity-Building, Education, Training, and Awareness-Raising

Canada has been raising domestic public awareness about international desertification. Supported by CIDA or through SCS and USC-Canada, activities marked World Day to Combat Desertification in 1996 across the country. In addition, public service announcements in French and English were also produced for national television to reach out to the Canadian public.

Information

No information availble.

Research and Technologies

IDRC's activities focus on research and knowledge sharing. Programming includes: fostering local community participation through sponsored workshops, research on coping and adaptive strategies, indigenous production, and social and environmental indicators. Research is also taking place on integrated decision-support systems and information networks for future reporting. CIDA supports United Nations organizations and international research networks that deal with desertification issues. It also provides bilateral funding for research on pest control, agriculture, and drought mitigation.

Financing

No information availble.

Cooperation

Canada demonstrated a strong commitment to combatting the world-wide desertification problem by ratifying the International Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Drought and/or Desertification Particularly in Africa on December 1, 1995. Canada is responding primarily through its participation in the negotiation and implementation of the Convention related to the monitoring of regions prone to desertification and drought in order to develop comprehensive drought relief schemes and integrated anti-desertification programs to eradicate poverty. In addition, Canada is offering to host the Permanent Secretariat of the Convention in Montreal.

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This information was provided by the Government of Canada to the fifth session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last Update: 1 April 1997.

For access to the Web Site of the Convention to Combat Desertification and Drought, click here:

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ENERGY

Decision Making: Coordinating Bodies

In Canada’s constitution, jurisdiction over energy is divided between the federal and provincial/territorial governments.

Federal powers

Federal powers in energy are primarily associated with the interprovincial and international movement of energy and energy-using equipment, and with works extending beyond a province’s boundaries. This arrangement permits the federal government to develop policies and to regulate interprovincial and international trade, pipelines, and power lines. For example, the federal government governs the energy-efficiency standards of equipment that crosses interprovincial or international borders.

The federal government is responsible for the management of oil and gas resources in Canada’s frontier lands, both northern and offshore. In these areas, an independent offshore petroleum board regulates oil and gas exploration, development, and production on behalf of federal and provincial/territorial governments; legislation and regulation are enacted both federally and provincially/territorially.

The federal government is also responsible for uranium and nuclear power; trans-boundary environmental impacts; and policies in the national interest, such as economic development and energy security. It has a leading role in areas such as energy science and technology and energy-efficiency research. Federal taxation in the energy field is currently limited to conventional corporate taxation, excise taxes, and the Goods and Services Tax.

Natural Resources Canada (NRCan) conducts research and development, and advances policies and programs, for the stewardship of Canada's natural resources. Protection of the atmosphere is major consideration for NRCan’s Energy Sector and its Forest Service. The Energy Sector coordinates energy policy development and conducts programs in the areas of energy efficiency,renewables and alternatives, hydrocarbons, and nuclear energy. NRCan also coordinates energy technology research and development, operates the Energy Technology Branch, and manages the Program of Energy Research and Development. This program supports and complements the energy-related activities of the following federal departments and agencies: Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Industry Canada, Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, Environment Canada, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Health Canada, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, National Defense, National Research Council of Canada, Public Works and Government Services Canada, and Transport Canada. Other federal agencies whose mandates affect or include the energy sector include the National Energy Board, the Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency, the National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy, and the Commissioner of the Environment and Sustainable Development.

At the federal level, Environment Canada cooperates with Natural Resources Canada, Transport Canada, and the Climate Change Secretariat in making decisions protecting the atmosphere on issues such as acid rain, smog, fuel quality standards and emissions arising from the use of generators, engines and motor vehicles, including equipment such as farm machinery. Cooperation with federal and provincial/territorial partners has led to the recent development of a national strategy on climate change, as well as a business plan. Dealing effectively with climate change requires the establishment of extensive linkages within and across governments, with the public and industry, and with other countries – extensive consultation and cooperation are required on all major initiatives.

Provincial powers

Provincial/territorial governments have jurisdictional responsibility for energy resources and policy management within their borders, which includes taxes, resource royalties, utility regulation, intra-provincial trade, and environmental impacts. Responses in this questionnaire reflect mainly the national or federal perspective, with occasional reference to provincial/territorial and municipal initiatives. Further information on provincial/territorial perspectives can be found at their government Web sites, which can be found through http://www.gc.ca.

Cooperation

Canada’s constitutional division of powers requires that federal and provincial/territorial governments work together in such areas as climate change, environmental assessment, and the regulation of Canada’s energy infrastructure. Industry associations, energy producers, energy users, and environmental organizations are major stakeholders that contribute to the policy development process.

In general, energy policy is developed and implemented using a consultative and iterative approach, in cooperation with the energy industry and other key parties at the federal, provincial/territorial, and local government levels, with First Nations, and with environmental and other non-government organizations. This approach ensures that energy initiatives are thoroughly reviewed and enables all parties to use their resources more efficiently.

The federal and provincial/territorial governments cooperate on energy matters through the Council of Energy Ministers. This Council cooperates with the corresponding Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment on matters concerning both energy and environment through Joint Ministers’ Meetings. Officials from the federal and provincial/territorial governments cooperate on air issues at the technical level through the National Air Issues Coordinating Committee.

Coordination among federal departments is achieved in part through interdepartmental committees. For example, Natural Resources Canada and two auto industry representatives co-chair the Government Industry Motor Vehicle Energy Committee, which includes representation from Environment Canada, Transport Canada, and Industry Canada.

Decision Making: Legislation and Regulations

Energy regulatory policy in Canada is shaped by the constitutional division of powers between federal and provincial/territorial governments. It is further influenced by significant differences in resource endowments, development patterns, and the varying objectives of governments. Harmonizing the objectives of Canada’s 14 jurisdictions is a challenging process that must recognize differences in the perspective of government versus private ownership, industrial and regional benefit objectives, and a range of social, environmental, and health objectives.

In Canada, the regulation of energy covers export approvals and rate setting in regulated monopoly situations. Health, safety, and environmental issues are also covered. Canada’s energy markets operate within a framework of regulations and treaties. Key federal elements include:

·             the National Energy Board and the National Energy Board Act, by which the export of oil, gas, and electricity are regulated in the public interest. The Board also regulates  interprovincial commerce in oil and natural gas, but not in electricity.

·             the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act, which requires an environmental assessment of all federal projects or projects that a federal department or agency proposes, funds, or otherwise authorizes by issuing a permit or licence

·             the North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which limits the use of export restrictions and ensures that imports receive national treatment

·             the Agreement on Internal Trade (Energy chapter), which, when completed, will provide limited uniform access to cross-territory transmission of electricity

·             the Energy Supplies Emergency Act, which allows the allocation of energy supplies in Canada during a state of emergency

·             the Energy Efficiency Regulations, under the Energy Efficiency Act, which relate to energy-performance levels and energy labelling for products that use energy, and to collection of data on energy use and alternative energy.

·             the Nuclear Safety and Control Act, which provides a modern framework for regulating the nuclear industry. The Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission is the federal regulator that ensures health, safety, security, and environmental protection.

For more information on these and other energy-related acts, please visit the following Web site: http://canada.justice.gc.ca/bireg/index_en.html

Tax measures and other economic instruments

Recent changes in the federal tax system support sustainable energy efforts related to climate change, renewable energy, and energy conservation. These include recent increases in the capital cost allowance for some electrical field equipment in use in oilfields, and the accelerated capital cost allowances provided to various energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies. Favourable tax treatment is also provided for the use of alternative transportation fuels such as propane and natural gas, as well as ethanol from biomass.

The use of economic instruments to achieve environmental goals has remained fairly limited in Canada. Product charges/taxes and deposit refund systems tend to be the most frequently used instruments and have been used by all levels of government in Canada. For example, Canadian consumers pay several taxes on fuels to run their vehicles and equipment: federal, provincial/territorial, and municipal excise taxes, the federal goods and services tax, and in some instances, provincial sales tax. Consumers who purchase more-fuel-efficient vehicles benefit from an effective reduction in the total excise tax required. Alternative fuels, such as ethanol produced from renewable sources, propane, compressed natural gas, and methanol, are exempted from the federal excise tax. For blended fuels, the tax exemption applies only to the proportion of the exempt fuel in the product.

The government will undertake analytical work to explore the potential of future policy approaches such as emissions trading, in which the private sector is able to trade the right to emit within an established cap on emissions.

Subsidies

The use of subsidies can be justified in some situations, but in general they tend to create economic distortions and undermine the efficient working of the economy. They can also encourage pressures on resources by disguising the real costs of economic activity, thereby serving as a barrier to sustainable development. As part of the effort to reduce federal spending and to improve economic efficiency by ensuring that economic activities are financially viable on their own wherever appropriate, steps have been taken since 1994 to substantially reduce or eliminate many government subsidies, grants, and contributions. In particular, direct government subsidies and other supports to the transportation and agriculture sectors have declined significantly. In the 1995 federal budget, the government also indicated that direct financial support for energy mega projects would end after 1995–1996. Natural Resources Canada has taken steps to increase the share of grants and contributions for energy efficiency and alternative energy in the past decade.

Decision Making: Strategies, Policies, and Plans

Sustainable development of the energy economy requires that Canada’s present energy needs be satisfied without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. Sustainable development means that the energy sector performs well economically and environmentally – that sound economic performance is balanced with appropriate consideration of the environmental effects of producing and consuming energy. The challenge for governments is to establish an economic framework in which Canadians enjoy maximum benefit from the country’s natural resources, technology, labour, and capital, while consuming and producing energy in ways that meet the principles of sustainable development.

Canada’s approach to sustainable development is to build on the strength of markets while addressing their limitations through carefully targeted initiatives. Well-functioning markets balance the competing benefits and costs of alternative activities. They also channel resources to maximize the welfare of Canadian society. Sustainable development requires efficient resource allocation, which is often accomplished best by competitive markets. Governments can foster competitive markets by establishing essential market conditions (institutions, laws, regulations, etc.) that ensure transparency, predictability, and fairness to all market participants, and provide a stable basis to encourage investment. Governments also have general laws intended to promote competition and deter anti-competitive practices. Energy infrastructure that has the characteristics of a natural monopoly, such as pipelines or electricity transmission and distribution systems, is generally provided either by government enterprises or by private companies subject to public regulation.

There are possible adverse environmental and social consequences of energy production and use that markets do not address. To correct for such limitations, Canadian jurisdictions use a mix of policy instruments, such as information and suasion; voluntary measures (e.g., encouraging firms and other organizations to achieve ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 certification, or to register their climate change action plans with the Voluntary Challenge and Registry, Inc.); scientific research and technological development; economic instruments; and various types of regulations to ensure high standards of environmental stewardship and social responsibility at all stages of energy development and use. Canada’s experience affirms that jurisdictions require the flexibility to select policy instruments that best address their own circumstances.

Natural Resources Canada (NRCan) tabled its first sustainable development strategy in December 1997, committing to work with Canadians to implement activities that will “enable us to protect the health of the natural environment and landmass, while efficiently meeting human needs for energy, forest and mineral based products, and providing similar opportunities for future generations.” The action plan under the strategy identified 68 action commitments to further the four goals of sustainable development. In 1999, NRCan reported on its progress in meeting the objectives outlines in the Strategy. It is now preparing its second sustainable development strategy, to be tabled in December 2000. For more information, consult http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/dmo/susdev

Canada’s energy policy objectives are to:

·             implement a framework that promotes a competitive and innovative energy sector

·             ensure that the environmental impacts of energy development, transportation, and use are adequately and responsibly addressed

·             ensure that future generations of Canadians have secure access to adequate supplies of competitively priced energy.

Energy supply, access, and distribution

As markets evolve, the need for and nature of economic regulation is being questioned, as well as the appropriate roles for federal and provincial governments.  For electricity, which is in the midst of restructuring in jurisdictions across North America, open access to markets will necessitate new regulatory approaches. For natural gas, which has entered a period of significant pipeline expansion and construction, the regulatory system is being challenged to examine new approaches to pipeline regulation.

At the same time, globalization and industry restructuring exert pressure on the federal government to exercise its energy responsibilities in a different manner. Similarly, identifying new resources may require innovative approaches. Developing agreements with the provinces and territories (with adjacent offshores) to delegate or administratively share responsibility for resource development is an important evolution of regulatory activity in Canada.

Energy efficiency

The Government of Canada has had programs to promote energy efficiency for many years. Many of its market transformation programs have been consolidated and new programs have been added in Natural Resources Canada’s (NRCan) Office of Energy Efficiency. The Office of Energy Efficiency was established to renew, strengthen, and expand Canada’s commitment to energy efficiency, particularly in relation to the Kyoto Protocol. The Office’s programs are aimed at overcoming market barriers posed by inadequate information and knowledge about energy efficiency and alternative transportation fuels, and at addressing institutional deterrents in energy-use markets and economic constraints facing energy users. Many of its programs are noted in the responses to Questions 12 and 13. NRCan’s National Energy Use Database initiative is helping to track changes in energy consumption at a disaggregated level, including the development, where possible, of quantified progress indicators for program outcomes. For information on its programs, publications and data development, please consult the following Web site: http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca

Energy consumption and production in relation to environmental protection

In early 1998, federal and provincial/territorial governments established a National Climate Change Process to examine the impact, costs, and benefits of the Kyoto Protocol and the various implementation options open to Canada. Recommendations resulting from this work formed the basis for a national climate change implementation strategy.

The Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment also consults widely to develop Canada-wide standards concerning air emissions, including many emissions related to energy production and use.

Research & development on cleaner fossil fuel, nuclear energy, and renewable energy technologies

Canada is taking steps to make more use of alternative energy sources and to make other changes in the ways we use energy in order to increase energy diversification and efficiency and reduce environmental impacts. In November 1996, Natural Resources Canada released a new renewable energy strategy. The department allocates most of its support for renewable energy to R&D to reduce costs, improve performance, develop safety and performance standards, and increase the scope of renewable energy technologies. It also disseminates reliable information to consumers and assesses economic and environmental aspects of renewable sources of energy. The federal government has implemented a number of market-based initiatives to promote greater use of renewable energy sources, such as:

 ·             the Renewable Energy Development Initiative, to help industry gain experience with renewable energy sources and develop and implement marketing strategies

 ·             the Renewable Energy Technologies Program, to fund industrial research and development

 ·             RETScreen, a software program to assess the cost-effectiveness of using renewable energy technologies available for free at the following Web site:  http://retscreen.gc.ca

The Program of Energy Research and Development supports activities focussed on the area of distributed electricity generation. The program provides the science and technology necessary to improve the economics and efficiency of conversion of non-renewable energy to electricity. Areas under examination include storage, hybrid and systems technologies.

Because fossil fuels will continue to contribute significantly to the total global energy mix for the foreseeable future and the demand for these fuels will increase, Canada recognizes the importance of the promotion, transfer, research and development, and use of advanced and cleaner fossil fuel technologies. Important developments to date include advanced gas turbines, fuel cells, advanced syngas production technologies, alternative transportation fuels, next-generation power plants and vehicles, and new methods of oil and gas extraction. Examples of federal government initiatives to promote the development of advanced fossil fuel technologies are:

·             the Advanced Combustion Technologies Program, which supports the development of new combustion and pollution-abatement technologies

·             the Processing and Environmental Catalysis Program, which assists in solving industrial process problems and in researching selected chemical conversion processes

·             the Alternative and Future Fuels Program, which promotes the development and use of ATFs through reductions in market barriers to ATF vehicles and the establishment of a refuelling infrastructure.

Nuclear energy has helped Canada reduce emissions from the electricity sector by 50 per cent over the past 30 years and continues to be an important option in our energy mix. Canada places utmost priority on safety and responsible management of nuclear energy, and is committed to ensuring that nuclear waste is managed in a safe, environmentally-sound, comprehensive, cost-effective, and integrated manner.

Decision Making: Major Groups Involvement

Increasingly, Canadians participate in the decision making and economic activities related to sustainable use or development of land and natural resources. Natural Resources Canada and Environment Canada are working in partnership with provinces, territories, and municipalities to improve local access to clean air and clean water and to reduce the threat of climate change in urban and rural centres by providing $25 million to create the Green Municipal Enabling Fund and $100 million to create the Green Municipal Investment Fund. These funds will provide grants, loans, and loan guarantees for projects that increase the energy and environmental efficiency and cost-effectiveness of municipal water, wastewater, waste, energy, and public transportation facilities and services. Projects include energy-efficient retrofits of buildings, district energy systems, deployment of renewable energy technologies, improved public transportation services, and upgraded waste- and water-management services.

Municipal governments have been involved in greenhouse gas reduction for more than a decade. More than 60 Canadian communities have joined the Partners for Climate Protection Program, a joint program of the Federation of Canadian Municipalities and the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives, committing themselves to reducing greenhouse gas emissions in their own operations and communities. These municipalities are developing local action plans to guide their actions. Municipalities are actively involved in the national climate change process through their work on the Municipalities Table and as active participants on other tables as well. For further information, please visit the following Web site: http://www.fcm.ca

Canada recognizes the need to incorporate the views of all stakeholders in energy issues, including project proponents, beneficiaries, and affected groups, including the nine groups identified in Agenda 21. Canada has steadily improved the openness, accessibility, and responsiveness of its governance processes and invested substantially over the past decade to promote decision making compatible with sustainable development in government and industries, and among individual citizens and consumers. Public participation is encouraged at all levels of decision making, from legislative committees to regulatory and judicial hearings and environmental assessment processes.

Women, youth, indigenous people, NGOs, local authorities (e.g., the Federation of Canadian Municipalities), and business and industry have all been represented on the Canadian delegation to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

Canada and its provinces exercise ownership over a large part of the natural resources of Canada. However, the development of energy resources and provision of energy services are conducted primarily by private companies under agreements with governments, which monitor the implementation of these agreements and collect appropriate resource royalties. These companies operate in competitive markets, which help to ensure the efficient resource allocation necessary to sustainable development. Governments can foster competitive markets by establishing essential market conditions (through institutions, laws, regulations, etc.) that ensure transparency, predictability, and fairness to all market participants. Governments may also have general laws intended to promote competition and deter anti-competitive practices.

A notable exception to this general pattern of private provision of energy services in Canada is electricity, which has been provided by government-owned corporations or regulated monopolies throughout most of the country. Until recently, competitive provision of electricity services has not been considered technically feasible, but this is now changing. Some jurisdictions are now restructuring their electricity sectors, and moving toward wholesale and retail competition where feasible, e.g. in electricity generation and service provision. Transmission and distribution, dependent as they are on a single set of wires for greatest efficiency, will continue to be regulated as a natural monopoly.

Fossil fuel pipelines require similar government regulation or ownership to ensure that supply is not unduly restricted nor prices excessive. At the same time, there must be adequate rates of return to attract investment in these important elements of energy infrastructure.

Companies involved in energy production and distribution are represented by various organizations, such as Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers, Small Explorers and Producers Association of Canada, Canadian Petroleum Products Institute, Canadian Electricity Association and Independent Retail Gasoline Marketers Association, to name a few. These organizations engage in dialogue from time to time with the federal and provincial/territorial governments on issues pertinent to their members. The governments and these organizations maintain a good working relationship with each other.

NGOs, consumer groups, and other interest groups can influence the energy use of the Canadian public through public awareness activities. Through the Climate Change Action Fund, the Government of Canada is working in partnership with NGOs, community groups, business and industry, and other levels of government to raise awareness of climate change and encourage action to reduce energy use and greenhouse gas emissions. In some cases, government programs are delivered through or in cooperation with regional groups or associations. For example, Natural Resources Canada manages the R-2000 HOME program, and more than 30 industry partners across Canada (e.g., energy utilities, home builders’ associations, and financial institutions) deliver it at the provincial level. In the industrial sector, the Canadian Industry Program for Energy Conservation (CIPEC) has task forces for a majority of industrial sectors to determine their potential for energy efficiency improvement, establish targets for improvement, create action plans for reaching these targets, and track and report on progress. CIPEC’s Executive Board provides “top-down” leadership for associations, task forces, and member companies.

These groups can also exercise an influence on energy-consumption patterns in Canada by participating in public consultations that help shape government energy policy and practice.

For example:

·           Public consultation is a key element of the sustainable development strategies required of all federal departments.

·           The federal Minister of Finance receives advice in the form of pre-budget submissions from environmental groups, business, and other interested parties on various ways to integrate environmental considerations into the budget process.

·           The National Energy Board holds public hearings in order to hear all sides and points of view before making decision on specific matters. It also conducts inquiries, issuing news releases to publicize the process; all correspondence on the matter becomes part of inquiry records.

·           The National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy takes an impartial, inclusive approach, with open and free debate. They invite input from key stakeholders and assimilate research and consultation to clarify the debate.

Programmes and Projects

The development of near universal access to electricity in Canada was achieved over an extended period from 1920 to 1960. Steps taken to achieve this goal were: electrification of cities; connection of major consumption centres through a grid; extension of that grid to feasible load centres; and finally, the provision of electricity, through various means, to areas considered otherwise unviable mainly due to remoteness. In Canada, only about 1.3 percent of households are not currently connected to the grid, and all of these are in small, isolated communities.

Isolated areas provide their own electricity through independent sources. Today, more choices are available, including wind turbine generators, solar photovoltaic cells, biomass sources, and smaller-scale gas turbines and hydroelectric. These new technologies are being gradually adopted in a number of currently off-grid communities. In addition, grid extension is continuing; in the past decade, the number of off-gird communities has been reduced from 380 to 300.

Canada does not recognize the concept of “unsustainable energy sources”.  The role of energy in sustainable development must be seen in an integrated way, considering the availability and costs of various energy sources and technologies in different locations and at different stages of development. However, Canada is committed to enhancing its energy diversification, improving the efficiency of energy production and use, and steadily increasing the role of renewable energy in order to improve the sustainability of its energy economy.

Canadian jurisdictions have income support and welfare programs so that all members of society can afford essential energy services, as well as other basic items. Direct subsidies for energy consumption are generally avoided, as they can promote inefficient use and exacerbate environmental impacts. However, in some cases, Canadian jurisdictions have instituted subsidies or authorized cross-subsidies, notably for electricity, in order to ensure access, especially in rural and remote areas. Some energy companies also maintain voluntary funds to help particularly needy households with the costs of winter heating.

Canada has started to slow the growth in greenhouse gas emissions. In the mid-1990s Canada’s emissions were increasing at a rate of about 3 percent per year. In 1998, the last year for which complete data are available, the increase had slowed to 1 percent per year. Climate change is a “horizontal” issue that cuts across all economic sectors, affects all ecosystems, and involves every political jurisdiction. A step-by-step path for reducing Canada’s greenhouse gas emissions is documented in the National Implementation Strategy and the first national climate change business plan, released in October 2000.

For a comprehensive listing of Canadian initiatives taken on climate change, please see A Compendium of Canadian Initiatives: Taking Action on Climate Change (found under “What’s new” at http://www.nccp.ca). All federal programs related to the energy sector include some component of greenhouse gas reduction.

The Climate Change Action Fund, announced by the federal government in 1998 and renewed in the 2000 federal budget, will invest $150 million in climate-change projects over three years. Federal government investments through the fund are also leveraging significant funding from project proponents and other private sector and government partners. For a complete listing of energy-related projects funded under the Climate Change Action Fund, please visit the Government of Canada’s climate change Web site at http://www.climatechange.gc.ca 

In addition, the federal government recently committed $500 million over five years as  its contribution to the First National Climate Change Business Plan, which can be found under “What’s new” at the following Web site: http://www.nccp.ca

Federal and provincial governments have put a large number of measures in place to reduce vehicle emissions. The most recent measures include vehicle inspection and maintenance programs in two provinces, vapour pressure limits for gasoline in most provinces, implementation of new national vehicle emission standards for 1998 and subsequent model years, and federal regulations to reduce the sulphur content in diesel fuel and the levels of sulphur and benzene in gasoline.

In 1997, the federal government put into place regulations to limit the benzene content of gasoline to less than 1 per cent by volume and to restrict the amount of sulphur in diesel fuel for on‑road vehicles to a maximum of 0.05 per cent by weight. The federal government has also announced its intention to further reduce sulphur in diesel to 15 parts per million (ppm) by 2006 in line with similar requirements for diesel sold in the United States. It will also limit the average level of sulphur in Canadian gasoline to 30 parts per million (ppm) in 2005, with a phase‑in of 150 ppm in 2002. The reductions are especially important in Ontario, which has the highest sulphur levels in gasoline in Canada.

Canadian emissions standards for new vehicles generally match those of the U.S. and are among the most stringent in the world.  Canada has fuel quality standards that are comparable in many respects with standards in Europe and the U.S., although there are differences.   The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is setting new standards for cars and light duty trucks, including SUVs to be phased in from 2004 to 2009. As well, Europe has already taken action to reduce sulphur in diesel fuels and the U.S. is considering similar measures. In April 2000 Environment Canada began nation-wide consultations concerning future vehicle emission and fuel standards in Canada. A discussion paper, “Future Canadian Emission Standards for Vehicles and Engines and Standards for Reformulation of Petroleum-based Fuels,” was distributed to stakeholders prior to the Cleaner Vehicles and Fuels Workshop held in Toronto in May 2000. Submissions received during the consultation process have now been reviewed, and Environment Canada will proceed in 2001 to publish a Notice Of Intent to set the agenda for vehicles, engines, and petroleum fuels for the next decade. 

In June 2000, the Government of Canada, the provinces, and the territories adopted new Canada-Wide Standards for Particulate Matter (PM) and Ozone. These standards set ambient air quality concentration targets for ground-level ozone and fine particulate matter for the year 2010. These standards commit all jurisdictions to reaching specific reduction targets, which will lead to a significant reduction in smog- causing emissions by that date or earlier. Meeting these new standards will require a wide range of emission reduction actions by the Government of Canada, the provinces, and the territories. In addition to measures for vehicles and fuels and solvent-containing products, the Government of Canada is working with provinces and territories to develop comprehensive emission reduction strategies for a number of major industrial sectors in Canada.

Other important air quality-related Canada-wide standards were also either adopted or accepted in principle by federal and provincial/territorial ministers in June 2000. These include standards to deal with mercury, benzene, dioxins, and furans. For further information, consult the following Web site: http://www.ccme.ca

In October 2000, Canada and the United States finalized a draft of the Ozone Annex to the 1999  U.S.– Canada Air Quality Agreement. Health, environment and industry representatives were on the Canadian negotiating team.  The Annex defines the region in each country to which the agreement applies. In Canada, this region includes central and southern Ontario and southern Quebec, representing more than 50 percent of Canada’s population. In the United States, the region includes 18 states and the District of Columbia, representing about 40 percent of the country’s population. The draft Ozone Annex is a significant milestone in bilateral relations with the U.S.  The Annex embeds a commitment to Canada to implement an aggressive U.S. emission reduction program that will have direct air quality and health benefits for millions of Canadians living in central and eastern Canada.  Commitments under the agreement relate to the control and reduction of emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOX) and volatile organic compounds (VOC), which are precursors of ground-level ozone, a major component of smog.

As well, the following federal programs have the reduction of emissions from petroleum-based fuels as one of their aims:

·             The Motor Vehicle Fuel Efficiency Program encourages automobile manufacturers to voluntarily meet the Company Average Fuel Consumption targets, which are sales-weighted fuel consumption averages for new cars, vans, and light-duty trucks sold by each manufacturer.

·             Auto$mart encourages motorists to buy, drive, and maintain their vehicles in ways that reduce fuel consumption, save money, and benefit the environment.

·             FleetWise (federal fleet operations) gives federal fleet managers the information and tools needed to improve the operational efficiency of fleets, reduce greenhouse gas emissions from fleet operations, and accelerate the use of alternative transportation fuels.

·             FleetSmart (commercial and fleet operations) provides fleet managers in the private sector with information, workshops, technical demonstrations, and training programs on fuel-efficient practices for fleet vehicles.

·             The EnerGuide for Vehicles program encourages manufacturers voluntarily attach an EnerGuide label to new cars, vans, and light-duty trucks sold in Canada. The label indicates the vehicle’s fuel consumption rating and estimated annual fuel costs to help consumers select the most fuel-efficient vehicle that meets their needs.

Canada focuses on energy efficiency. Over the past ten years, there has been a major expansion of federal programs designed to improve energy efficiency and to increase the use of alternative energy sources. The Energy Efficiency and Alternative Energy (EAE) program, launched by Natural Resources Canada in 1991 supports economically feasible increases in energy efficiency and the use of alternative energy sources. It encourages investment in corporate and consumer EAE opportunities and seeks to engage all sectors of the economy and Canadian society in rethinking and improving energy use.  It aims to

·             increase the energy efficiency of new and existing buildings, equipment, systems, and vehicles, and persuade individuals and organizations to purchase these products

·             ensure that energy-consuming equipment is used in the most energy-efficient way

·             influence the energy-use practices of individuals and organizations

·             develop new technologies to give consumers, industry, and communities new opportunities to improve energy efficiency.

This program

·             uses a variety of policy instruments, including leadership, information, voluntary actions, financial incentives, research and development, and regulation

·             helps the demand side of the energy market move toward more-energy-efficient capital stock, production processes, and operating practices, without reducing service levels or comfort

·             ensures that Canada participates in the development of technology for tapping renewable energy sources and alternative transportation fuels, as well as increasing the energy efficiency of energy production

·             provides a foundation for long-term processes that can respond to evolving environmental and economic development priorities.

In 1992, Canada signed and ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. In 1995, federal and provincial Ministers of Energy and Environment approved the National Action Program on Climate Change, tabled at the 1st Conference of the Parties (CoP) in April 1995. To reinforce voluntary action, Ministers of Energy and Environment agreed in February 1995 to establish the Climate Change Voluntary Challenge and Registry, which broadens awareness of the need to act and publicizes the plans and accomplishments of organizations with respect to reducing their greenhouse emissions. It was incorporated in October 1997 as a non-government, not-for-profit organization.

The 1997 federal budget announced an additional $60-million over three years to fund new programs to stimulate energy efficiency and use of renewable energy sources. In December 1997, Canada participated in the 3rd CoP, agreeing to reduce greenhouse gas emission to 6 percent below 1990 levels by 2008–2012. In early 1998, federal and provincial/territorial governments established a National Climate Change Process to examine the impact, costs, and benefits of the Kyoto Protocol and the various implementation options open to Canada. The 1998 federal budget provided $150 million over three years for a Climate Change Action Fund to help Canada develop its response to the Kyoto Protocol. In addition, the federal government recently committed $500 million over five years as its contribution to the First National Climate Change Business Plan, which can be found under “What’s new” at the following Web site: http://www.nccp.ca

In April 1998, the Office of Energy Efficiency (OEE) was created in Natural Resources Canada to renew, strengthen, and expand Canada’s commitment to energy efficiency, particularly in relation to the Kyoto Protocol. Programs delivered by the OEE target all final energy consumers and emphasize partnerships and economic investments. A new National Advisory Council on Energy Efficiency assists in identifying opportunities for new and greater energy efficient measures. The OEE reports annually on the state of energy efficiency in Canada and manages Canada’s new annual Energy Efficiency Conference, an energy efficiency technology products and services trade show, and Canada’s Energy Efficiency Awards ceremony. For further information on OEE programs, please visit the following Web site: http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca

Natural Resources Canada’s Office of Energy Research and Development coordinates and funds non-nuclear, energy-related R&D. More than 50 percent of its annual R&D budget is devoted to studying options related to energy efficiency and alternative energy.

 The following are examples of programs aimed at promoting energy efficiency in Canada.

 Energy efficiency in buildings

·             The R-2000 HOME Program is an industry-endorsed, voluntary certification program for new houses that features a technical performance standard for energy efficiency, indoor air quality and environmental responsiveness, and a quality assurance process for industry training, house evaluations, and inspections.

·             EnerGuide for Houses is an energy-performance evaluation and rating program that provides homeowners with the facts they need to make informed decisions about energy efficiency when buying a house or making improvements to their existing homes.

·             The Commercial Building Incentive Program provides financial incentives to eligible building owners who construct new commercial, institutional and multi-unit residential dwellings that are at least 25 percent more energy efficient than similar buildings constructed to meet the Model National Energy Code for Buildings.

·             The Energy Innovators Initiative encourages investment in energy-efficient equipment and practices to reduce the operating costs of commercial and institutional buildings. Financial incentives may be available for retrofit pilot projects that can be replicated in other facilities.

·             The Federal Buildings Initiative is a voluntary program that helps federal government departments and agencies improve the energy efficiency of their buildings and heating equipment.

·             The Buildings Energy Technologies Program is developing a new generation of technologies that improve energy efficiency, indoor air quality, durability and comfort, while making the environmentally responsible design, construction, operation, and renovation of energy-efficient buildings easier.

·             The Federal Industrial Boiler Program offers advisory and project-management services related to maintaining, selecting, and installing equipment to owners and operators of heating and cooling systems in buildings.

Energy efficiency  in equipment

·             Under the authority of the Energy Efficiency Act, the Energy Performance Regulations require that specified types of energy-using equipment meet or exceed minimum levels of energy performance.

 ·             The Energy Performance Regulations also require that specified major household appliances must display an EnerGuide label that shows the yearly energy consumption rating of an appliance and positions it on a scale between the most and least efficient comparable models.

 ·             The voluntary EnerGuide Heating, Ventilating and Air-Conditioning (HVAC) Energy Efficiency Rating System provides consumers with the information they need to purchase energy-efficient home HVAC products and provides contractors with the tools to increase sales of energy-efficient HVAC equipment.

 ·             The Refrigeration and Intelligent Buildings Program focuses on the development and deployment of technologies in the areas of ground source heat pumps, refrigeration, and intelligent buildings.

 Energy efficiency in industry

·             The Advanced Combustion Technologies Program supports the development of novel combustion and pollution abatement technologies.

 ·             The Canadian Industry Program for Energy Conservation (CIPEC) and the Industrial Energy Innovators Initiative (sectoral and company-level initiatives, respectively) help Canadian industries identify energy efficiency potential, establish energy efficiency targets and programs, and report on progress.

 ·             The Heat Transfer and Storage Systems Program develops and improves industrial and commercial heat transfer and storage technologies.

 ·             Energy Systems Analysis and Modelling explores the use of state-of-the-art methodologies that promote more efficient use of energy in a variety of sectors and environmentally safer industrial practices.

 ·             Industry Energy Research and Development encourages and supports industry proposals for developing and applying leading-edge, energy-efficient, and environmentally responsible processes, products, systems, and equipment.

 ·             Energy Technologies for High-Temperature Processes strives to improve coke-making and iron-making processes by researching coal injection into blast furnaces.

·             The Processing and Environmental Catalysis Program aims at solving industrial process problems, and also researches selected chemical conversion processes for natural gas, biomass-derived oils, petroleum products, and engine emissions.

 ·             The Minerals and Metals Technologies Initiative helps Canada’s minerals and metal industries improve energy efficiency and reduce energy costs.

·             Voluntary Challenge and Registry, Inc., a stand-alone, not-for-profit corporation, encourages private and public sector organizations to voluntarily limit or reduce their net greenhouse gas emissions, as a step towards meeting Canada's climate change goals. More than 700 organizations from all sectors of the economy have joined the initiative (for further information, investigate http://www.vcr-mvr.ca).

Energy efficiency in transportation

·             The Alternative Transportation Fuels Market Development Initiative promotes propane, natural gas, methanol, ethanol, electricity, and hydrogen as automotive fuels.

·             The Transportation Energy Technologies Program has programs for alternative fuels and advanced propulsion systems, advanced energy storage systems, emissions control technologies, vehicle transportation systems efficiency, and fuelling infrastructure.

Status

Canada has extensive energy resources and is one of the world’s largest energy producers and exporters of resources, particularly oil, natural gas, uranium, and hydropower.

Primary energy production by commodity in 1998 was: 37.5 percent gas; 36.1 percent petroleum; 12.0 percent electricity (generated mainly from hydro, coal and nuclear energy); 11.1 percent coal; and 3.3 percent waste wood, spent pulping liquor, and firewood, for a historic high of 16,292 petajoules. Alberta accounted for 68 percent of total production; British Columbia, 13 percent; Saskatchewan, 9 percent, Quebec, 4 percent; and Ontario, 1 percent.

Primary energy consumption by commodity in 1998 was: 39.7 percent petroleum; 24.0 percent gas; 17.9 percent electricity; 13.2 percent coal; and 5.2 percent waste wood, spent pulping liquor, and firewood, for a total of 10,414 petajoules. Ontario accounted for 34 percent of total consumption; Quebec, 21 percent; Alberta, 20 percent; British Columbia, 12 percent; Saskatchewan, 5 percent; Manitoba, 4 percent; and the Atlantic Provinces, 4 percent.

For a discussion of the availability and consumption of renewable energy resources, please refer to Questions 28 and 29.

Natural gas: Remaining established reserves at the beginning of 1997 were: natural gas, 64.9 trillion cubic feet (Tcf): 64.6 Tcf in conventional areas and 0.3 Tcf in frontier areas, for a reserves-to-production ratio of 12.2 years. The total in-place raw undiscovered potential of natural gas in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin is estimated at 275 Tcf. Marketable production of natural gas in 1998 was 5.7 Tcf. In 1997, natural gas exports were valued at $8.7 billion, and almost no natural gas was imported. Canadian gas consumption in 1997 was 79 billion m3. Canadian gas exports to the United States are slightly higher than domestic consumption, having quadrupled since 1986.

Oil: Crude oil reserves in 1997 were estimated at 8.6 billion (B) barrels consisting of: conventional, 3.5 B barrels; oil sands, 3.8 B barrels; and frontier, 1.3 B barrels (of which 0.85 B barrels are off the east coast), for a reserves-to-production ratio of 10 years. The ultimate recoverable potential from the Alberta oil sands is more than 300 B barrels. Canada is a net exporter of crude oil. Canadian total crude oil and equivalent production in 1999 was 2.1 million barrels per day (BPD). Crude oil demand in 1999 was 1.8 million BPD. Net exports in 1999 were 0.436 million BPD (1.253 million BPD of exports minus 0.817 million BPD of imports).

 

Source: Canada’s Energy Outlook 1996-2020, Annex C-6

Coal: Coal reserves are estimated at 6,294 million tonnes (Mt) for a reserves-to-production ratio of 84 years. Total coal resources are estimated at well over 200 gigatonnes (Gt). Most of these resources (90 percent) occur in the three western provinces. Canada produced 75 million tonnes of coal valued at $1.8 billion in 1998, broken down as: 33 percent Alberta sub-bituminous, 15 percent Alberta bituminous, 33 percent British Columbia bituminous, 16 percent Saskatchewan lignite, and the remainder from the Maritime Provinces. Of the coal available in Canada, including that imported, 90 percent was used to produce electricity. In 1998, Canadian coal provided 70 percent of all coal consumed in Canada. That year, coal accounted for about 19 percent of Canadian electricity generation. Coal exports fell by about 6 percent in 1998 to a value of about $2.3 million. Canada’s 1998 imports rose by 39 percent between 1997 and 1998, mostly due to Ontario’s increased consumption.

Summary of Coal Supply and Demand, 1990 to 2020  (Million Tonnes)

 

 

 

1990

 

1995

 

1998

 

2000

 

2010

 

2020

 

Production

 

66

 

77

 

74

 

75

 

79

 

88

 

Imports

 

14

 

10

 

19

 

8

 

13

 

23

 

Total Supply

 

80

 

87

 

93

 

83

 

92

 

111

 

Domestic Consumption

 

49

 

53

 

59

 

48

 

55

 

74

 

Exports

 

31

 

34

 

34

 

35

 

37

 

37

 

Total Demand

 

80

 

87

 

93

 

83

 

92

 

111

 

Net Exports

 

17

 

24

 

15

 

27

 

24

 

14

                                                                                                                                           Source: Energy in Canada, p.93

Electricity: Electricity generation in 1998 was 543 net terawatt hours. Quebec accounted for 39 percent of total generation (97 percent from hydro), and Ontario for 24 percent (42 percent from nuclear sources). Hydroelectricity, a renewable energy source, is the dominant form of electricity in Canada (67 percent), reaching a production of 344,201 gigawatt hours in 1997. Canada is the world leader in hydroelectricity, and significant potential remains for further development. The gross remaining potential is estimated at 182,832 megawatts. There is about 1,500 megawatts of installed small hydro capacity in Canada, with the potential for another 1,200 megawatts of economically feasible development.   

 Estimates of Primary Energy Production from Renewable Sources, 1997 (Input in Petajoules)

 

Hydro

 

1255.0

 

Tidal

 

0.1

 

Biomass

 

 

 

    -Industrial Pulp and Paper (P&P) Electricity from Wood Waste

 

144.4

 

    -Industrial Pulp and Paper (P&P) Electricity from Black Liquor

 

357.9

 

    -Independent Power Production (IPP) Electricity from Wood Waste

 

37.5

 

    -Electricity from Landfill Sites

 

7.2

 

    -Electricity from Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)

 

0.5

 

    -Municipal Waste Incinerators

 

12.5

 

    -Biogas from Sewage Plants

 

n/a

 

    -Industrial Pulp and Paper (P&P) Heat from Wood Waste

 

393.0

 

    -Residential Space Heating

 

95.0

 

    -Commercial and/or Institutional Heating

 

n/a

 

    -Thermal Energy from Landfill Sites

 

2.4

 

    -Thermal Energy from MSW

 

12.0

 

    -Ethanol from Biomass*

 

4.1

 

    -Energy Crops Plantations

 

n/a

 

    -Agriculture Waste

 

n/a

 

Earth Energy Systems

 

1.5

 

Geothermal

 

0.003

 

Wind Electric

 

1.2

 

Wind Mechanical

 

n/a

 

Solar Thermal (Water and Air)

 

0.2

 

Solar Photovoltaic

 

0.01

 

Total Renewable Energy

 

2424.51

                                                                                * Includes output from a plant opened in 1998

                                                                                                     Source: Energy in Canada, p.96

Nuclear: Twenty-two CANDU nuclear reactors are owned and operated by utilities in Canada, producing about 15 percent of Canada’s electricity. CANDU reactors are also in operation or under construction in Korea, China, Argentina, and Romania.

The following table shows Canada’s energy export standing in 1998.

 

1998 Commodities

 

Canada’s production ranking

 

Exports

 

Country of destination

 

Total energy

 

 

 

$26.3 B (100%)

 

U.S. $23.8 B (90%)

Japan $1.2 B (5%)

S. Korea $0.4 B (2%)

Brazil $0.2 B (0.8%)

 

Petroleum*

 

10th in the world (3.5%)

 

$13.3 B (50%)

 

U.S. $13.1 B (99%)

 

Natural gas

 

3rd in the world (6.9%)

 

$8.9 B (34%)

 

U.S. $8.9 B (100%)

 

Coal**

 

9th in the world (1.8%)

 

$2.6 B (10%)

 

Japan $1.2 B (46%)

S. Korea $0.4 B (15%)

U.S. $0.3 B (12%)

 

Electricity

 

4th among OECD*** countries

 

$1.5 B (6%)

 

U.S. $1.5 B (100%)

* trade data include crude oil, liquefied petroleum gases (LPGs), and petroleum products. Production ranking includes crude and LPGs.

** Includes coal and coal products.

*** Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

Electricity is available in Canada on a reliable and affordable basis for all sectors of the economy.

The primary sources of energy in Canada have changed over time. In the 19th century, wood was the primary energy source. At the turn of the 20th century, coal was on the rise, replacing wood as the primary source for the next 50 years. With the proliferation of the automobile and the growing demand for gasoline to power it, petroleum and its associated products have become the primary source of energy in Canada. A substantial portion of Canada’s electricity generation is from hydro and nuclear energy.  Today, energy is produced as a mix of all energy sources. That mix changed in the past, is changing now, and will change in the future. Therefore, sustainable energy development challenges us to examine the present mix of energy sources in Canada; to develop new, more environmentally benign energy technologies; and to ensure that the generations that follow enjoy an equally secure energy future.

Natural Resources Canada’s Office of Energy Efficiency (OEE) collects and analyses data on energy use and each year publishes an annual review of trends in energy use and related greenhouse gas emissions in Canada since 1990. Between 1990 and 1998, the amount of energy used by Canadians to heat and cool their homes and workplaces and to operate their appliances, vehicles, and facilities, including the energy used to generate the electricity, increased by about 9 percent. Greenhouse gas emissions associated with this energy use increased by about 10 percent. However, the OEE Energy Efficiency Index indicates that, over the same period, Canada’s energy efficiency improved by 6 percent, saving Canadians about $5 billion per year in energy costs and reducing energy-related greenhouse emissions to 5 percent below what they otherwise would have been.

Globalization is about the dramatic increase in the level and speed of exchanges which have been facilitated by recent technological advances, and the further integration of communication and market networks worldwide.  Trade liberalization is both the result and a driving force of this globalization process.  From a Canadian energy producer perspective, more open and freer markets allow Canadian firms to specialize in what they do best, particularly in the areas of technological innovation, energy efficiency and specialized energy applications.  From an energy consumer perspective, it allows Canadians to increase their standards of living by having access to a wider range of products and services at competitive prices.  Privatization, on the other hand, is another means by which markets are made more transparent and responsive to changes.

Energy-producing industries are capital intensive and need access to international capital markets for investment, technology transfer, risk sharing, and the development of new export markets.  Canadian energy firms also invest more and more abroad and require better access to investment opportunities in other countries so they can maintain their diversified portfolio. Moreover, the growing services sector allows Canadian energy firms to participate more in international trade activities through the provision of energy services.

Environmental considerations are playing a growing role in Canada’s trade liberalization efforts, notably through the North American Free Trade Agreement and bilateral trade agreements, and multilaterally, through the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. To this end, Canada has developed a framework to review the environmental impact of trade liberalization and will be conducting a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) of WTO negotiations.

The larger exports that come from positioning the Canadian energy industry in the global marketplace will strengthen the industry and create jobs for Canadians. A stronger industry will in turn improve existing technologies, reduce costs, and lead the way in technological development.  On the environmental side, Canadian firms can introduce their innovations internationally, especially in the areas of energy efficient and alternative energy technologies and services, helping other nations meet their energy-related goals.

Challenges

All energy production and consumption brings about some degree of environmental impact. The most widespread environmental degradation caused mainly by energy production and consumption is from atmospheric emissions.

Atmospheric emissions

Canada contributes about 2 percent of the world’s total greenhouse gas emissions. In 1997, Canada emitted about 692 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent. Canada ranks eighth in the world for energy-related CO2 emissions, and fourth for per-capita greenhouse gas emissions. With the second-highest population growth rate among industrialized nations, Canada can expect a growing demand for goods and services, with the resulting increase in greenhouse gas emissions.  However, Canada is answering this challenge with broad-based actions designed to improve our use of energy, introduce alternative forms of energy, and develop and deploy innovative climate change technologies.

Acid rain     

 In 1995, acid rain deriving from SO2 emissions totalled 2.7 million tonnes, broken down by source as: industrial sources, 61 percent; electric utilities, 21 percent; fuel combustion, 13 percent; and transportation, 5 percent.

In 1995, acid rain deriving from NOx emissions totalled 2.0 million tonnes, broken down by source as: transportation, 59 percent; fuel combustion, 23 percent; electric utilities, 11 percent; and industrial sources, 7 percent.                                                             

Air quality

The transportation sector is the single most important contributor to urban air pollution in Canada. Smog levels in Canada are measured against National Ambient Air Quality Objectives and Provincial Standards (air quality objectives), which are developed jointly by federal, provincial/territorial, and municipal governments. These objectives aim to protect the health of humans and the environment by specifying target levels for key air pollutants. Through the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, governments have recently developed Canada-wide standards for particulate matter and ozone.  On October 13, 2000 delegations of Canada and the United States finalized a draft of the Ozone Annex to the 1999 U.S. - Canada Air Quality Agreement. The commitments in the final draft relate to the control and reduction of emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOC) which are precursors of ground-level ozone, a major component of smog and unhealthy air over major regions of eastern North America.

The use of vehicles, engines and petroleum fuels contributes significantly to air pollution in Canada and consequently has major impacts to the environment and on the health of Canadians.  Emissions from vehicles and engines are primarily a function of vehicle/engine technology and the properties of the fuels. Since the performance of vehicle emission control systems can be impaired without the right fuels, fuel standards and vehicle/engine emission standards must be considered as an integrated system in developing policies and programs to reduce emissions.  In recent years because of more sophisticated equipment being installed in new vehicles, fuels have become more of an issue in the challenge to reduce vehicle emissions.  In some cases, vehicle technology to achieve lower vehicle emission standards requires cleaner fuels. Emissions from gasoline and diesel-powered vehicles and engines are a major source of air pollution, on a national basis contributing 65 percent of carbon monoxide, 50 percent of nitrogen oxide, 25 percent of VOCs, 25 percent of greenhouse gases and 65 percent of benzene emissions.  In urban areas, the vehicle contribution to air pollution is higher.

Emissions of fine particulates come directly from the exhaust of engines, and also result from secondary formation of aerosols from SOx, NOx and VOC emissions.  In urban areas vehicles are a major contributor (greater than 20 percent) to emissions of fine particulates. 

The table below presents the contribution of the sources of interest as a percentage of national inventories. The contributions of vehicles and light fuel oil combustion (primarily in residential furnaces) are much larger in urban areas.  It should also be noted that heavy fuel oils are almost entirely combusted in central and eastern Canada, areas that are sensitive to acidic deposition.

Percent Contribution to Total Canadian Emissions in 1995

 

 

 

Direct

PM2.5

 

SO2

 

NOx

 

VOCs