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NATURAL RESOURCE ASPECTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN CANADA

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AGRICULTURE

Decision Making: Coordinating Bodies

In order to address environmental issues in agriculture effectively, producers, processors, and governments must work together. Federal/provincial agreements on environmentally sustainable agriculture are helping producers design and implement activities focused on issues such as water quality, waste management, and soil conservation. The key decisions about investing in more environmentally sustainable practices are being made at the farm level. As such, it is the farm sector that must ultimately decide on how to protect the resources upon which it relies and in so doing, minimize environmental degradation.

Decision Making: Legislation and Regulations

No information is available.

Decision Making: Strategies, Policies, and Plans

The Canadian vision of sustainable agriculture was expressed in Growing Together, the discussion paper that initiated the comprehensive Agri-Food Policy review in 1989. The vision provided a framework to integrate economic, social, and environmental goals and was endorsed by governments and a variety of stakeholders. Building on this framework, the 1990 Report of the Federal/Provincial Agriculture Committee on Environmental Sustainability translated the concept of integration into recommendations that include adjustments to agricultural practices, and policy and programme reform to strengthen economic viability and environmental sustainability. The Report also identified eight main environmental and natural resource issues facing Canada's agriculture and agri-food sector: conservation of soil resources, surface and groundwater quality, water quantity management, sustainable management of wildlife habitat, air quality and climate change, energy efficiency, pollution and waste management, and conservation of genetic resources.

Agriculture and Agri-food Canada has completed a national consultative process to examine the challenges of environmental sustainability facing the sector and to develop a federal departmental strategy and action plan. A new Strategy for Environmentally Sustainable Agriculture and Agri-Food Development in Canada will provide the key underpinning for the department's post-Green Plan environmental activities, will be completed early in 1997. It will reflect an increased emphasis on pollution prevention and environmental stewardship among farmers and agri-food industries.

In support of sustainable agriculture, farmers are forming rural conservation clubs and developing environmental farm plans in Ontario, Atlantic Canada, and Quebec. In the Prairie Provinces (Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta) the farmer-owned Wheat Pools (grain marketing cooperatives) have developed guides to environmental farm planning to be used in conjunction with other on-farm conservation planning processes. These initiatives help farmers identify their successes in effective environmental management and develop work plans to address potential risks. It is projected that from 5,000 to 6,000 of these plans will be completed in Ontario alone by the year 1997. Alberta has launched a campaign, Growing Alberta, to increase the awareness of the impact of agriculture on the environment and the economy. Producers in a number of provinces are developing management standards that guide the implementation of environmental stewardship. For example, British Columbia and Alberta have established codes of practice for the management of animal waste, and Ontario has produced 10 booklets on Best Management Practices. In Quebec, initiatives include a Sustainable Development Policy for the agricultural sector and new regulations respecting the reduction of agricultural pollution. A component of the St. Lawrence Vision 2000, an action plan between the governments of Canada and Quebec designed to conserve, protect and restore the St. Lawrence River, supports projects that contribute to reducing agricultural pollution.

Decision Making: Major Groups Involvement

Industry and public advisory committees play a key role in working with governments to determine priorities and establish programmes. Farm organizations, conservation groups, and the larger agricultural extension community are driving forces behind the sector's plans for adopting best management practices that reduce environmental impacts, such as using pesticides more efficiently and shifting to conservation tillage practices. Certain non-governmental organizations are working to accelerate development and implementation of sustainable agriculture practices and to promote awareness of the need for an agriculture that is based on sustainable principles.

Programmes and Projects

Industry has developed tools for environmental stewardship, such as programmes to reduce environmental impacts and health risks in the agri-chemical industry, publications promoting improved water quality, and videos on best management practices. Canada has instituted a number of soil conservation and habitat conservation programmes over the years, such as the Permanent Cover Programme, that will ultimately convert some half-million hectares of marginal, erosion-prone land in parts of western Canada from annual crops to sustainable land uses under permanent cover. In most provinces, Federal Green Plan programs are addressing the links between pesticides and water quality, wildlife and biodiversity. Part of a new federal agricultural adaptation initiative, that is managed by farmers, is addressing issues such as water quality and waste management.

Status

The agricultural sector has made progress in achieving its environmental objectives. In 1991, low-till and no-till practices accounted for nearly one-third of the seeded cropland in Canada compared to negligible amounts only 20 years ago. Summer fallow has decreased almost 30% in the last two decades. Through federal and provincial efforts aimed at reducing toxins, some 29 compounds affecting more than 2000 agriculture-related products have been controlled or eliminated. Also, the agricultural sector is working towards meeting the terms of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer by reducing production and use of methyl bromide, a fumigant. The sector has demonstrated a willingness and an ability to adapt to its environmental challenges.

In the future, farmers will continue their shift to sustainable management practices and industry will improve its ability to self-regulate through initiatives such as environmental codes of practices and self-assessment guides. Industry and governments will continue to promote environmental sustainability and improve the understanding of the links between the sector's activities and their impacts on the environment. Provincial and federal governments will continue to work towards ensuring that policies and programs contribute to sound environmental practice by, for example, adapting their initiatives to the ecosystem approach and addressing issues at the rural-urban interface.

Challenges

No information is available.

Capacity-Building, Education, Training, and Awareness-Raising

Through the Green Plan, the federal government has established new projects to strengthen the national capacity to conserve plant and animal genetic resources.

Information

Federal efforts to support sustainable agriculture include the development of agri-environmental indicators that help evaluate the sector's environmental performance, provide information on key trends, and facilitate the integration of environmental considerations into the sector's decision-making processes.

Research and Technologies

Research efforts by governments, universities, and industry, through biotechnology as well as conventional techniques, include the development of disease- and pest-resistant crop varieties, reduction of pesticide use, and the development of practices that integrate disease and pest control with crop and soil management practices (integrated pest management).

Financing

Through the sustainable agriculture component of the Green Plan, the federal government is providing $138 million over six years (1991/92-1996/97) to help the sector continue to make the transition to more environmentally sustainable practices. Of this amount, $34 million has been earmarked for national initiatives; $104 million has been matched by equal funding from provinces under joint agreements. Province/producer/industry-led councils may also allocate funds for environmental projects under the $240 million Canadian Adaptation and Rural Development Fund (1995/96-1998/99).

Cooperation

Internationally, Canada is working to help other nations meet their Agenda 21 objectives. The International Development Research Centre (IDRC) is supporting research on food systems in regions where problems of food insecurity, poverty, and environmental degradation are most urgent. Indigenous knowledge and coping mechanisms at the household level will be incorporated in efforts to find local sustainable solutions. For example, the use of natural biological pesticides, which can be made locally at little or no cost, has been identified as a key area of research. The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) has a number of projects in place promoting environmentally sound farming practices and rural economic diversification in developing countries. Much of this work is carried out through community-level education and the introduction of appropriate technologies.

* * *

This information was provided by the Government of Canada to the fifth session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last Update: 1 April 1997.

For country reports on Plant Genetic Resources, click here.
To access the FAOSTAT Data Base for information by country, item, element and year, click here:
Click here to link to biosafety web sites in Canada.
Click here to link to the Biosafety Information Network and Advisory Service (BINAS), a service of the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), which monitors global developments in regulatory issues in biotechnology.
Click here to link to Country and Sub-regional Information on Plant Genetic Resources of the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.
Click here to go to Web Site of the Codex Alimentarius Commission, which includes information on the Codex Alimentarius and the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme.
Click here to access the Web Site of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR).
Click here to access the sixteen international agricultural research centers that are members of the CGIAR.

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ATMOSPHERE

Decision Making: Coordinating Bodies

Under Canada’s Constitution, the responsibility for clean air is shared among the federal and provincial/territorial governments. The federal government is responsible for domestic transboundary air pollution (e.g., smog, particulate matter), and international air pollution. Provincial/territorial governments have been traditionally responsible for regulation of emissions from stationary sources.

At the federal level, Environment Canada cooperates with Natural Resources Canada, Transport Canada, Health Canada, and the Climate Change Secretariat in making decisions protecting the atmosphere (see Question 2 for their areas of focus). Environment Canada also facilitates the development of a shared environmental agenda with other federal departments, and with the provinces/territories.

In addition to the shared jurisdiction of the environment among governments, self-government and comprehensive land claim agreements point to the new law-making powers of Aboriginal peoples in the area of environmental management.

Environment Canada is looked on as the leader in safeguarding the Canadian environment, including the atmosphere; developing regulations on substances such as those that deplete the ozone layer; informing Canadians; and providing the science needed to understand and respond to atmospheric issues such as climate change. The Meteorological Service of Environment Canada carries out scientific research to better understand such areas as stratospheric ozone, long-range transport of persistent organic pollutants, and local air quality issues, which helps to guide policy-making groups at Environment Canada and other federal departments.
Environment Canada is responsible for regulating  emissions from vehicles and engines, including pollutants that are deemed toxic to human health (e.g., lead in gasoline), as well as fuel quality standards.  Both Transport Canada and Natural Resources Canada are responsible for managing the voluntary motor vehicle fuel consumption program. Natural Resources Canada, Environment Canada, and Transport Canada are involved to varying degrees in education and awareness that aim to reduce vehicle fuel use and emissions.

Natural Resources Canada (NRCan) conducts research and development, and advances policies and programs, for the stewardship of Canada's natural resources. Protection of the atmosphere is major consideration for NRCan’s Energy Sector and its Forest Service. The Energy Sector coordinates energy policy development and conducts programs in the areas of energy efficiency,renewables and alternatives, hydrocarbons, and nuclear energy. NRCan also coordinates energy technology research and development, operates the Energy Technology Branch, and manages the Program of Energy Research and Development. This program supports and complements the energy-related activities of several federal departments and agencies. The Canadian Forest Service conducts research on forests and forestry practices, including their effects on the atmosphere, and promotes sustainable forestry, which takes these effects into account.

The Climate Change Secretariat, established in February 1998, reports to Natural Resources Canada and Environment Canada. Besides its involvement in developing the National Implementation Strategy for Climate Change, its primary objectives are to: 

Generally speaking, emissions from air, rail, and marine engines are covered by the Aeronautics Act, the Canada Transportation Act, and the Canada Shipping Act, which are administered by Transport Canada. Natural Resources Canada and Transport Canada manage fuel economy ratings for vehicles.

Federal and provincial/territorial cooperation is also facilitated through a number of committees and working groups. For example, federal and provincial/territorial governments cooperate on air issues at the technical level through the National Air Issues Coordinating Committee. The First National Climate Change Business Plan, announced in October 2000, will create new mechanisms over the next year for federal, provincial/territorial, and municipal collaboration.

The Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) is the major intergovernmental forum in Canada for discussion and joint action on environmental issues of national and international concern. The CCME comprises environment ministers from the federal, provincial, and territorial governments, who meet twice a year to discuss national environmental priorities. In 1998 the CCME committed to a new approach to environmental management in Canada when all jurisdictions (except Quebec) signed the Canada-Wide Accord on Environmental Harmonization, under which many sub-agreements are being struck on a wide range of important environmental management issues. For example, the Canada-Wide Environmental Standards Sub-Agreement sets out principles for governments to jointly agree on priorities, to develop standards, and to prepare complementary work plans to achieve those standards, based on the unique responsibilities and legislation of each government. The guiding principles in this Accord were further reinforced in February 1999 when all provincial/territorial governments (except Quebec) and the federal government signed the Framework to Improve the Social Union for Canadians. Environment Canada’s work to facilitate cooperation on the environment among provincial/territorial governments is guided by principles articulated in the Accord.

The regulation of ozone-depleting substances in Canada provides an example of federal–provincial/territorial cooperation. Both levels of government are responsible for regulating various aspects of ozone-depleting substances in the country. Their regulatory programs are complementary, forming an integral part of Canada's Ozone Layer Protection Program. The federal government is generally responsible for issues deemed to be in the national interest, and as such is responsible for implementing the provisions of the Montreal Protocol, including controls on the manufacture, import, and export of ozone-depleting substances under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act. Provincial/territorial governments are responsible for regulating emissions and discharges to the environment, governing the implementation of ozone-depleting substances recovery and recycling programs, and setting emission controls under provincial regulations.

Decision Making: Legislation and Regulations

The Canadian Environmental Protection Act 1999 (CEPA), administered by Environment Canada,  provides the Government of Canada with new enforcement tools and powers to reduce pollution and to eliminate and regulate emissions of toxic substances. Under CEPA, the federal government has the authority to set national emissions standards for new on-road, off-road and non-road vehicles and engines, as well as the authority to set national fuel quality standards.   For more information on this Act, please consult the following Web site: http://www.ec.gc.ca/cepa

The Ozone-depleting Substances Regulations under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act ensure Canada’s compliance with the Montreal Protocol. Amendments to these regulations are made as required to reflect changes in reduction and phase-out schedules adopted by the Parties to the Montreal Protocol. At present, only the consumption of HCFCs and methyl bromide are still allowed. Both substances are controlled under regulations by a system of allowances and permits similar to the systems that were used for other ozone-depleting substances before they were phased out. A second regulation, the Ozone-depleting Substances Products Regulations, deal with the control of certain manufactured products containing ozone-depleting substances, such as small pressurized CFC containers, aerosols, and plastic foam food packaging.

As well two environmental codes of practice have also been developed under CEPA. They serve as valuable references for both the private and public sectors, recommending practices for pollution prevention, emission reduction, environmental management, and preventive maintenance. The Environmental Code of Practice for the Elimination of Fluorocarbon Emissions from Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Systems provides national guidelines for the reduction and eventual elimination of emissions of ODSs used in these systems. The Environmental Code of Practice on Halons provides direction to halon owners and users on managing halon stocks in a manner to reduce, and eventually eliminate, halon emissions to the atmosphere.

In June 2000, the Government of Canada, the provinces, and the territories adopted new Canada-Wide Standards for Particulate Matter (PM) and Ozone. These standards set ambient air quality concentration targets for ground-level ozone and fine particulate matter for the year 2010. These standards commit all jurisdictions to reaching specific reduction targets, which will lead to a significant reduction in smog- causing emissions in Eastern Canada by that date or earlier, subject to successful negotiations with the United States for equivalent reductions through an ozone annex to the Canada-U.S. Air Quality Agreement. Meeting these new standards will require a wide range of measures by the Government of Canada, the provinces, and the territories. In addition to measures for vehicles and fuels and solvent-containing products, Environment Canada is working with provinces and territories to develop comprehensive emission reduction strategies for a number of major industrial sectors in Canada. Other measures focusing largely on existing commercial and industrial sources are being undertaken by provinces and territories to ensure that the new particulate matter and ozone standards will be met by 2010. For further information, consult the following Web site: http://www.ccme.ca

Other important air quality-related Canada-wide standards were also either adopted or accepted in principle by federal and provincial/territorial ministers in June 2000. These include standards to deal with toxic air contaminants, including mercury, benzene, dioxins, and furans.

Generally speaking, emissions from air, rail, and marine engines are covered by the Aeronautics Act, the Canada Transportation Act, and the Canada Shipping Act, which are administered by Transport Canada. Natural Resources Canada and Transport Canada manage fuel economy ratings for vehicles.

The Weather Modification Information Act requires that any person proposing to engage in weather modification activities in Canada inform the Atmospheric Environment Service in advance, provide full details on those activities, maintain a daily record, and submit reports to the administrator of the Act.

The Canadian Environmental Assessment Act sets out responsibilities and procedures for the environmental assessment of projects involving the federal government. Environmental assessment provide a systematic approach for identifying the environmental effects including air emissions associated with proposed projects. By identifying adverse environmental effects before they occur, environmental assessments allow decision-makers to modify plans so that the effects can be minimized or eliminated. For further information on this Act, please visit the following Web site: http://www.ceaa.gc.ca/index_e.htm

Most Canadian provinces have now implemented mandatory recovery and recycling of ozone-depleting substances legislation. Provincial regulatory requirements to minimize emissions of ozone-depleting substances include proper labeling of equipment containing ozone-depleting substances; training for equipment service providers; and methods to be used to install, remove, repair or service products containing an ozone-depleting substance. Provincial regulations also prohibit the recharging of leaking equipment, and products containing or made with ozone-depleting substances. Many of the provincial regulations reference the codes of practice and make compliance with the codes mandatory under the law. For a list of provincial regulations on ozone-depleting substance, please visit the following Web site: http://www.ec.gc.ca/ozone/regs/prov/indexE.htm

Tax measures and other economic instruments

Recent changes in the federal tax system support sustainable energy efforts related to climate change, renewable energy, and energy conservation. These include recent increases in the capital cost allowance for some electrical field equipment in use in oilfields, and the accelerated capital cost allowances provided to various energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies.

The use of economic instruments to achieve environmental goals has remained fairly limited in Canada. Product charges/taxes and deposit refund systems tend to be the most frequently used instruments and have been used by all levels of government in Canada. For example, Canadian consumers pay several taxes on fuels to run their vehicles and equipment: federal, provincial/territorial, and municipal excise taxes, the federal goods and services tax, and in some instances, provincial sales tax. The purpose of these fuel taxes is to raise revenue for general government use, and to use market-based approaches to increase the energy efficiency of Canada's transportation system for environmental and energy policy purposes. The largest tax burdens are on sales of gasoline and diesel fuel to consumers. Various industrial and commercial users typically pay a reduced level of tax on the fuels they consume. Consumers who purchase more-fuel-efficient vehicles benefit from an effective reduction in the total excise tax required. Alternative fuels, such as ethanol produced from renewable sources, propane, compressed natural gas, and methanol, are exempted from the federal excise tax. For blended fuels, the tax exemption applies only to the proportion of the exempt fuel in the product.

As an example of a special regional tax, purchasers of motor fuel inside the greater Vancouver transportation service region pay an additional tax of 5¢ per litre compared with those from outside the region. Outside the region, the tax paid to the government is 7.25¢ per litre, whereas inside the region the tax paid to government is 4.25¢ per litre and the tax paid to the Greater Vancouver Transportation Authority (for air management programs) is 8¢ per litre. The additional tax monies are collected, kept  and redistributed by the Greater Vancouver Regional District.

There is growing interest in more innovative instruments, such as tradable permit schemes, in which the private sector is able to trade the right to emit within an established cap on emissions.

Subsidies

The use of subsidies can be justified in some situations, but in general they tend to create economic distortions and undermine the efficient working of the economy. They can also encourage pressures on resources by disguising the real costs of economic activity, thereby serving as a barrier to sustainable development. As part of the effort to reduce federal spending and to restructure the role of the federal government, steps have been taken since 1994 to substantially reduce or eliminate many government subsidies, grants, and contributions. In particular, direct government subsidies and other supports to the transportation and agriculture sectors have declined significantly. In the 1995 federal budget, the government also indicated that direct financial support for energy mega projects would end after 1995–1996. Natural Resources Canada has taken steps to increase the share of grants and contributions for energy efficiency and alternative energy in the past decade.

Other incentive measures

Methyl bromide is being phased out under federal regulations by 2005.  To ease the transition, companies that use methyl bromide have been assigned allowances on a yearly basis.  These users are permitted to trade whatever portion of their allowances that they do not use. Approximately 30 percent of methyl bromide allowances (on a kilogram basis) are transferred annually, with the majority of these transfers taking place between users and the supplier. The result has been to keep a more competitive supply of methyl bromide for the smaller applicators, however, cost savings have not been quantified.

Decision Making: Strategies, Policies, and Plans

Environment Canada focuses on three broad categories of air pollutants, although all air issues are closely interconnected and have common sources and common health and environmental impacts. These categories are:

In general, Environment Canada will continue research and development to evaluate greenhouse gas mitigation technologies; assess the impacts of climate change on northern water resources; understand the importance of various sources of hazardous air pollutants, and their concentrations, interactions, and effects in the Canadian environment; identify factors delaying recovery of aquatic ecosystems in response to lower emissions of acid rain; and assess the risks to human health and the environment posed by particulate matter and other contaminants. Through its Weather and Environmental Predictions business line, Environment Canada is supporting adaptation to influences and impacts of atmospheric and related environmental conditions on human health and safety, economic prosperity, and environmental quality. It is doing this through research into adaptation to day-to-day and longer-term changes in atmospheric, hydrological, and ice conditions.

Increasingly, Environment Canada seeks to take actions with its partners, other federal and provincial ministries and key stakeholders such as industrial, health and environmental associations to address several pollutants simultaneously, thus providing multiple benefits from the same investment. Over the next three years, Environment Canada will continue to focus its actions to reduce adverse human impact on the atmosphere and on air quality in the following ways.

Climate change

The National Climate Change Process established 16 Issue Tables/Working Groups involving 450 experts from industry, academia, non-governmental organizations, and government. The Tables reviewed seven key sectors of the economy and eight cross-cutting strategies. An analysis and modeling group integrated the results into a comprehensive preliminary analysis of the implications of options for meeting Canada’s Kyoto target. No other country has adopted such an open, inclusive, and comprehensive process. Among other issues, the National Process identified:

In 2000, building on the work of the National Process and acknowledging the considerable contributions of the Issue Tables, the Energy and Environment Ministers moved forward a coordinated national approach to climate change that includes the National Implementation Strategy for Climate Change and the First National Climate Change Business Plan, the federal component of which is reflected in the Government of Canada Action Plan 2000 on Climate Change.

The Strategy outlines five themes or priority areas for its first phase, which are:

The Strategy will be implemented through a series of three-year business plans. These action-based plans will be continually monitored, reviewed, and updated to reflect new understandings and opportunities, and presented to Ministers on an annual basis. The Government of Canada Action Plan 2000 on Climate Change (found at the following Web site: http://www.climatechange.gc.ca), approved in October 2000, is the federal government’s contribution to the First National Climate Change Business Plan that is being implemented with the provinces and territories. Over the next few months, the Government of Canada will work with provincial/territorial governments and stakeholders to fine-tune the measures and seek partnerships.

Under Action Plan 2000, the Government of Canada announced in the mini-Budget of October 18, 2000, that it intends to invest $500 million,  in measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Combined with the $625 million for climate change-related activities for the next five years that was announced in the 2000 federal budget, this investment results in a commitment of $1.1 billion to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in Canada. This builds on the $850 million the Government of Canada has spent on climate change since 1995. The Plan reflects the Government of Canada's contribution to the First National Climate Change Business Plan that is being developed with the provinces and territories. Federal, provincial, and territorial ministers of energy and the environment have now met to discuss their respective plans for addressing climate change.

The five-year Action Plan 2000 targets key sectors and includes initiatives in transportation, energy (oil and gas production and electricity), industry, buildings, forestry and agriculture, international projects, technology, science, and adaptation. These sectors account for more than 90 percent of Canada’s greenhouse gas emissions. The initiatives in Action Plan 2000 will achieve greenhouse gas emissions reduction of about 65 megatons per year during the commitment period of  2008 to 2012. The following graph outlines the key areas that are expected to contribute to these emissions reductions.

Substances that deplete the ozone layer

Canada is a Party to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer and is subject to the controls prescribed to under the Protocol. Charged with developing a coordinated national strategy to eliminate emissions of ozone-depleting substances in Canada and to harmonize the control measures taken by governments, the working group (described under Question 2), led by Environment Canada, prepared the National Action Plan for the Recovery, Recycling, and Reclamation of CFCs. This plan, endorsed by the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment in October 1992, identifies the tasks necessary to ensure that harmonized, progressive actions take place to control all ozone-depleting substances. To date Canada has banned the production and consumption of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) since 1996, carbon tetrachloride since 1995, trichloroethane since 1996 and halons since 1994, and is phasing out other ozone-depleting substances in accordance with the Protocol. Canada is committed to implementing the Protocol both domestically and internationally and contributes to the Multilateral Fund, the financial mechanism for aiding developing countries in their quest to comply with the Protocol. 

Air quality

Canada-wide standards for particulate and ozone were approved by federal and provincial/territorial ministers of the environment in June 2000.  These standards commit all jurisdictions to reaching specific reduction targets by 2010. For further information, please visit: http://www.ccme.ca

On October 13, 2000 delegations of Canada and the United States finalized a draft of the Ozone Annex to the 1999 U.S. - Canada Air Quality Agreement. The commitments in the final draft relate to the control and reduction of emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOC) which are precursors of ground-level ozone, a major component of smog and unhealthy air over major regions of eastern North America.

To improve air quality, Environment Canada is also

Hazardous air pollutants

For Persistent Organic Pollutants, a protocol has been negotiated under the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution.  With the signing of this regional Protocol, the stage has been set for the next step:  a global agreement on Persistent Organic Pollutants under the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP).  Canada has already prohibited the manufacture and import of new PCB equipment and instituted management controls that have led to an overall decline in the level of PCBs in the Canadian environment.  Canada is also engaging in cooperative projects with developing countries and economies in transition to reduce or eliminate the release of persistent organic pollutants that may endanger the health of Canadians, particularly Aboriginal peoples living in the North.

Dioxins and furans, released into the environment as by-products from various manufacturing and industrial processes, were declared toxic under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act in 1990.

In 1995, the Canadian government adopted the Toxic Substances Management Policy which provides a science-based framework to identify toxic substances that are bioaccumulative, persistent and predominately released as a result of human activity.  The policy calls for the virtual elimination of these substances from the environment.

The Arctic, one of the world's most sensitive ecosystems, is being further protected by projects under the Arctic Council fostered by Canada, Denmark/Greenland, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and the United States.  Results of the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program form a data source for those involved in Arctic contaminants research.

Canada, the United States and Mexico have developed joint regional action plans on PCBs, DDT and chlordane. 

Persistent Organic Pollutants are included in the great Lakes Binational Toxics Strategy (Canada/U.S.) and other complementary agreements.    

Terrestrial and marine resource development for greenhouse gas sinks

Canada recognizes that promoting terrestrial and marine resource development for greenhouse gas sinks has both atmospheric and other environmental benefits. For example, the soil management practices that build up the carbon sink in agricultural soils have other benefits with respect to soil fertility, soil structure, erosion control, crop yields, and ultimately, farm profitability. The recently announced first business plan under the new National Implementation Strategy for Climate Change calls for concrete action to enhance carbon storage in agricultural soils and forests. See Question 8 for activities being carried out in Canada to enhance carbon sinks.

Canada has a continuing interest in the recognition of greenhouse gas sinks with respect to its Kyoto obligations, and will be actively involved in the discussion of this issue.

Substances that deplete the ozone layer

Canada is a Party to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer and is subject to the controls prescribed to under the Protocol.  To date Canada has banned the production and consumption of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) since 1996, carbon tetrachloride since 1996, trichloroethane since 1996, and halons since 1994, and is phasing out other ozone-depleting substances in accordance with the Protocol. Canada is committed to the implementation of the Protocol both domestically and internationally and is a contributor to the Multilateral Fund, the financial mechanism for aiding developing countries in their quest for compliance with the Protocol.

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions

The Government of Canada Action Plan 2000 on Climate Change, described under Question 6, sets out a package of initiatives to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in key sectors. The Plan includes a number of measures to develop and deploy emerging renewable and alternative energy sources to meet the demand for energy while decreasing emissions. The renewable and alternative energy industries have been extensively involved in the two-year consultation process. Action Plan 2000 captures many of the best ideas resulting from this process.

Specific initiatives to support the research, development and deployment of renewable and alternative energy technologies include:

Conserving and increasing greenhouse gas sinks

Terrestrial: Agriculture

Canada’s agricultural soils have lost about 25 percent of their original carbon content since cultivation began approximately 100 years ago. These soils accounted for about 7 percent of agricultural emissions of carbon dioxide in 1996. The carbon content of soils can be influenced by management practices, such as tillage systems. According to model predictions, if Canadian farmers continue to convert from conventional tillage to conservation tillage systems with less summerfallow at the present rate, agricultural soils will become a net sink for carbon by 2010. This trend will continue as long as carbon‑enhancing land management practices are adopted, until the soil reaches a new equilibrium for the new practices.

Federal and provincial agriculture departments will continue to promote land uses and soil management practices that build carbon soil by adding organic matter or reducing the rate at which soil carbon decays. Such practices include:

 Terrestrial: Forestry

Forests cover 45 percent of Canada’s landscape and are a dominant component of our economy and culture. Forests and forest soils remove and store large amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Sustainable forest management can enhance the amount of carbon that is stored, or sequestered. Canada’s Action Plan 2000 identifies afforestation (planting trees where they previously did not exist, in this case on marginal farmland) and expansion of the farm shelterbelt program (particularly on the Prairies) as two ways to increase carbon storage in forests.

Marine

In order to provide a firm scientific basis for the development of governmental policy on the reduction of fossil fuel CO2 emissions, Canada's marine greenhouse gas research programs are designed to:

As a member nation in the Climate Technology Initiative to mitigate CO2 emissions, Canada will participate in 2001 in the first international CO2 disposal experiment, which will use PVC pipe to inject 100 tons of liquid CO2 at a depth of 850 m off Kona coast of Hawaii. Canada will also participate in the international program in 2002 to determine the influence of iron on the sea-to-air flux of climatically active gases in an iron fertilization experiment in the northeast subarctic Pacific.

Mitigating ozone layer depletion

Short-term goals for mitigating ozone layer depletion are:

Long-term goals for mitigating ozone layer depletion are:

Mitigating transboundary air pollution

Canada-wide standards for particulates and ozone were signed by federal and provincial/territorial ministers of the environment in June 2000. These standards commit all jurisdictions to reaching specific reduction targets by 2010. For further information, please visit the Web site of the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment: http://www.ccme.ca

 In October 2000, delegations of Canada and the United States finalized a draft of the Ozone Annex to the 1999 U.S.– Canada Air Quality Agreement, with the assistance of health, environmental, industry, and labour representatives. The Annex defines the region in each country to which the agreement applies. In Canada, this region includes within central and southern Ontario and southern Quebec, representing more than 50 percent of Canada’s population. In the United States, the region includes 18 states and the District of Columbia, representing about 40 percent of the country’s population. Commitments under the agreement relate to the control and reduction of emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOX) and volatile organic compounds (VOC), which are precursors of ground-level ozone, a major component of smog and unhealthy air over major regions in Eastern North America. Emission control measures for emissions of these compounds are specific to each country:

In Canada:

Aggressive annual caps by 2007 of 39 kilotonnes of NOX emissions from fossil-fuel power plants in southern Ontario and 5 kilotonnes of NOX  in southern Quebec aligned with U.S. standards year-round.

Implementation of stringent emission reduction regulations, aligned with the United States for:

Estimated total NOX reductions in the Canadian transboundary region of 44 percent year-round by 2010.

The agreement also provides for:

Canada is leading the negotiation of a global agreement under the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to reduce and eliminate the release through the atmosphere of the world's most toxic persistent organic pollutants (POPs), such as DDT and PCBs. Canada is affected through the global transport of these and other pollutants in the atmosphere. In its Budget 2000, Canada committed $20 million over the next five years to projects that will help developing countries and countries with economies in transition to reduce or eliminate the release of POPs into the environment.

Canada was the first country to ratify the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Protocols on POPs and Heavy Metals.

Canada has signed the Canada-Wide Acid Rain Strategy for Post-2000, and is currently working in collaboration with the provinces and territories on its implementation. The Strategy calls for new emission reduction targets in eastern Canada, pursuing emission reduction commitments from the U.S., ensuring the adequacy of acid rain science and monitoring, and minimizing growth in emissions in areas where deposition is still below levels that cause harm.

Additional resources of $8.7 million over five years ($2.1 million in 2000) have been allocated for enhancing the science and monitoring programs on Acid Rain. Efforts are made to continually improve and expand the National Pollutants Release Inventory, each year providing Canadians with more information on pollutants released in their communities. Canada has doubled funding for federal–provincial air pollution monitoring with an additional $1.2 million for the National Air Pollution Surveillance Network. In 1999, Canada initiated the first program on smog forecasting in New Brunswick. This program was expanded to Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island in 2000. A pilot project is currently underway to share smog forecasting information with provincial and municipal governments in the Vancouver area. The program will be fully operational in 2001. Canada is strengthening the science of clean air through the provision of $60 million to create the Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences to strengthen science capacity in air quality, climate change and extreme weather issues.

Other

For further details on what the Canadian government is doing to protect the atmosphere, please visit the following Web site: http://www.ec.gc.ca/air/gov-efforts_e.shtml

Decision Making: Major Groups Involvement

Increasingly, Canadians participate in the decision making and economic activities related to sustainable use or development of land and natural resources. Environment Canada and Natural Resources Canada are working in partnership with provinces, territories, and municipalities to improve local access to clean air and clean water and to reduce the threat of climate change in urban and rural centres by providing $25 million to create the Green Municipal Enabling Fund and $100 million to create the Green Municipal Investment Fund. These funds will provide grants, loans, and loan guarantees for projects that increase the energy and environmental efficiency and cost-effectiveness of municipal water, wastewater, waste, energy, and public transportation facilities and services. Projects include energy-efficient retrofits of buildings, district energy systems, deployment of renewable energy technologies, improved public transportation services, and upgraded waste- and water-management services.

Municipal governments have been involved in greenhouse gas reduction for more than a decade. More than 60 Canadian communities have joined the Partners for Climate Protection Program, a joint program of the Federation of Canadian Municipalities and the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives, committing themselves to reducing greenhouse gas emissions in their own operations and communities. These municipalities are developing local action plans to guide their actions. Municipalities are actively involved in the national climate change process through their work on the Municipalities Table and as active participants on other tables as well. For further information, please visit the following Web site: http://www.fcm.ca

Several Canadian municipalities have also established regulations to protect the stratospheric ozone  layer. For example, the city of Burnaby has passed by-laws mandating the recovery of CFCs and halons. Fines are assessed to individuals and companies that ignore by-law provisions. The city of Montreal has developed a purchasing policy that mandates the use of alternative ozone-friendly products and technologies.

Decisions on suburban development, public transit, municipal sewage, garbage dumps, and other areas with a bearing on air quality are all made municipally, giving municipalities great scope for contributing to improvements in air quality and reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. For example, the Toronto Atmospheric Fund (http://www.city.toronto.on.ca/taf) was established in 1992 with an endowment of $23 million from the sale of city property. The Fund was created to help Toronto meet its goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 20 percent by 2005. It is managed by a board of directors made up of city councillors, city staff, and citizens, who direct funds to finance projects that save energy and money, cut greenhouse gas emissions, create jobs, and make the city a healthier place to live and work. Loans and grants are made to community groups, government organizations, and businesses, which work in partnership with Fund to reduce emissions.

Canada recognizes the need to incorporate the views of all stakeholders in atmospheric issues, including project proponents, beneficiaries, and affected groups, including the nine groups identified in Agenda 21. Canada has opened up its governance processes and invested substantially over the past decade to promote decision making compatible with sustainable development in government and industries, and among individual citizens and consumers. Public participation is encouraged at all levels of decision making, from legislative committees to regulatory and judicial hearings and environmental assessment processes, for example for adopting the Canada-wide standards on particulates and ozone, and for the Ozone Annex.

Women, youth, indigenous people, NGOs, local authorities (e.g., the Federation of Canadian Municipalities), and business and industry have all been represented on the Canadian delegation to the United Nations Framework on Climate Change.  Please refer to Question 6 (Climate Change section) for more details on the consultation process on climate change.

Working groups also ensure the participation of a variety of stakeholders in decision making. For example, the Methyl Bromide Industry Working Group was established to provide a consultative forum where interested stakeholders such as growers, end users, fumigators, pesticide manufacturers, research organizations, and government and non-government organizations can discuss and provide strategic direction on effective implementation of Canada's program for the control of methyl bromide. The mandate of the group is also to identify priorities for research and registration of alternatives in each end use; discuss, review and make recommendations on the adoption of alternatives, including institutional barriers, if any, to such adoption; and to discuss opportunities for joint researching, demonstration and adoption of new alternative technologies. The group is co-chaired by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Environment Canada, and an industry representative. This informal group acts as a supplement to, but not a replacement for, other consultative mechanisms and related advisory bodies.

Programmes and Projects

Industrial activities

Industry Canada’s Canadian Business Environmental Performance Office is a one-stop centre for information and services to help Canadian companies improve their environmental performance. A public–private sector partnership, the office demonstrates the importance of environmental performance to profitability and competitiveness by providing quick, easy and integrated access to major providers of sources of information, services and advice on emergency, health and safety management, resource conservation and pollution prevention, waste management, resource centre and policy development, climate change, and industry-specific information.

Canadian Environmental Solutions provides a comprehensive database that matches organizations with an environmental problem with profiles of Canadian firms and their technologies that can solve them. CES describes almost 2,000 environmental problems, including climate change and other air qualityissues, and profiles 900 companies that can provide solutions to them.

Industrial activities that contribute to reductions in greenhouse gas emissions in Canada are varied and extensive. For example, energy-efficiency gains are being investigated, including the recycling of materials. Expert working groups in each industrial sector are devising and testing process modifications and new technologies.

The following federal government programs stimulate the use of renewable energy sources by industry, thus reducing greenhouse gas emissions:

Other federal initiatives directed at industry and related to reduction in greenhouse gas emissions include:

Voluntary Challenge and Registry, Inc., a stand-alone, not-for-profit corporation, encourages private and public sector organizations to voluntarily limit or reduce their net greenhouse gas emissions, as a step towards meeting Canada's climate change goals. More than 700 organizations from all sectors of the economy have joined the initiative (for further information, investigate http://www.vcr-mvr.ca).

Agricultural activities

The first step in reducing agricultural greenhouse gas emissions is developing a reliable inventory of these gases, both sources and sinks. In 1998, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada reported the results of preliminary work to create such an inventory in The Health of Our Air: Toward Sustainable Agriculture in Canada. Measurement and modeling methods continue to be refined to improve this inventory. A national agri-environmental indicator, the Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Budget, first published in 2000, provides a baseline against which to measure future changes and to assess our success in achieving emissions reductions. According to the most recent estimates, agricultural emissions of nitrous oxide, methane, and carbon dioxide make up about 10 percent of Canada’s total emissions of these gases. These amounts include all sources associated with farming except food processing and transportation, and reflect an increase of about 4 percent between 1981 and 1996. 

Between 1981 and 1996, agricultural emissions of nitrous oxide rose by 21 percent, mainly because of more-intensive farming practices and increased use of nitrogen fertilizer. Nitrous oxide emissions can be reduced by using methods of nitrogen application that improve plant-uptake efficiency, reduce nitrous oxide release per unit of nitrogen applied, and reduce the amount of nitrogen in manure by changing the composition of livestock feed. Current research and agricultural extension focuses on:

Emissions of methane remained relatively constant between 1981 and 1996. Current work to reduce methane emissions involves improved livestock feeding and better manure management.

Emissions of carbon dioxide dropped by 13 percent, mainly the result of adopting conservation farming practices. Reducing the amount of carbon dioxide emitted by the soil by increasing the amount stored by the soil is being achieved through management practices cited in Question 8.

Examples of agricultural programs that contribute to reductions in greenhouse gas emissions are:

Canada recognizes that land-use planning and practices have an impact on protecting the atmosphere. Through various programs, initiatives and partnerships with industry, government, non-profit partners, Canada undertakes research on housing technology, and type in addition to land-use and transportation planning.

The two main changes in agricultural land use in the past 15 to 20 years that have contributed to atmospheric protection are reduction of summerfallow and an increase in permanent cover.

Summerfallow, the practice of tilling cropland (using mechanical or chemical tillage, or a combination of these) and leaving it unplanted for a whole year, was once widely practised in western Canada because it helped control weeds, replenish soil moisture, and increase available nutrients in the soil. Soils frequently under summerfallow usually have a lower carbon content than those cropped annually. Fallow both hastens decomposition of soil carbon and reduces carbon inputs into the soil. Between 1971 and 1996, the area of summerfallow in Canada dropped from about 11 million hectares to about 6 million hectares and is expected to continue to drop until it stabilizes at 4.5 million hectares by about 2050. This steady reduction in summerfallow area contributed to the 20 percent decrease in bare-soil days (the number of days a soil is left without a crop and is thus exposed to the elements) in Canada between 1981 and 1996, which in turn contributed to reduced risk of soil erosion.

Returning cultivated land to permanent cover, such as grass, is another way to increase the amount of soil carbon. This land-use option reduces agricultural productivity, so it is currently practised only on marginal lands and, to a lesser extent, in small areas of cultivated lands planted to shelterbelts or grassed waterways for the control of wind and water erosion. Afforestation, or planting trees on marginal lands, including marginal farmland, is gaining interest in Canada.

In addition to activities outlined under Question 8, proposed amendments to the Ozone-Depleting Substances Regulations include:

Cooperative research and demonstration projects between government and industry have already reduced the use of methyl bromide in Canada by about 40 percent. In agriculture and agri-food production, some alternatives to methyl bromide have been identified, including different chemicals and methods. For example, a guideline has been prepared to encourage the use of integrated pest management, combining preventative and treatment practices, to control pest problems in food-processing facilities.

In 1990, Canada’s concern about its greenhouse gas emissions spurred a major expansion of federal programs to focus on this issue.

The Energy Efficiency and Alternative Energy (EAE) program, launched by Natural Resources Canada in 1991, supports economically feasible increases in energy efficiency and the use of alternative energy sources. It encourages investment in corporate and consumer EAE opportunities and seeks to engage all sectors of the economy and Canadian society in rethinking and improving energy use.  It does this by

In 1995, federal and provincial ministers of energy and environment approved the National Action Program on Climate Change, tabled at the 1st Conference of the Parties (CoP1) in April 1995. To reinforce voluntary action, the Joint Ministers of Energy and Environment agreed in February 1995 to establish the Climate Change Voluntary Challenge and Registry, which broadens the awareness of the need to act and publicizes the plans and accomplishments of organizations that reduce their greenhouse emissions. It was incorporated in October 1997 as a non-government, not-for-profit organization.

The 1997 federal budget announced a $60-million, three-year program to stimulate energy efficiency and use of renewable energy sources. In December 1997, Canada participated in the 3rd CoP, agreeing to reduce greenhouse gas emission to 6 percent below 1990 levels by 2008–2012. In early 1998, federal and provincial/territorial governments established a National Climate Change Process to examine the impact, costs, and benefits of the Kyoto Protocol and the various implementation options open to Canada. The 1998 federal budget provided $150 million over three years for a Climate Change Action Fund to help Canada develop its response to the Kyoto Protocol.

Activities under the Climate Change Action Fund have been divided into four components:

Operation of the Climate Change Action Fund is based on a number of principles:

For more information on this program, visit this Web site:  ccaf@climatechange.gc.ca

In April 1998, the Office of Energy Efficiency (OEE) was created in Natural Resources Canada to renew, strengthen, and expand Canada’s commitment to energy efficiency, particularly in relation to the Kyoto Protocol. Programs delivered by the OEE target all final energy consumers and emphasize partnerships and economic investments. A new National Advisory Council on Energy Efficiency assists in identifying opportunities for new and greater energy efficient measures. The OEE reports annually on the state of energy efficiency in Canada and manages Canada’s new annual Energy Efficiency Conference, an energy efficiency technology products and services trade show, and Canada’s Energy Efficiency Awards ceremony. For further information on OEE programs, please visit the following Web site: http://oee.nrca.gc.ca

Environment Canada’s EcoAction Community Funding Program provides financial support to community groups for projects that have measurable, positive impacts on the environment. Non-profit groups and organizations (including community groups, environmental groups, Aboriginal groups and First Nations councils, service clubs, associations, and youth and seniors’ organizations) are eligible to apply for funding under the program. EcoAction encourages projects that protect, rehabilitate, or enhance the natural environment, and build the capacity of communities to sustain these activities into the future. Projects require matching funds or in-kind support from other sponsors. Priority for funding is given to projects that will achieve results in the areas of clear air and climate change, clean water, and nature. 

The Canadian Climate Program Board oversees research activities and facilitates cooperation in Canada in the area of climate and climate change. The Board, with membership from federal, provincial and territorial governments, universities, private industry, and environmental organizations, was responsible for preparing the science, impacts, and adaptation components of Canada’s National Implementation Strategy on Climate Change. The federal government sponsors an innovative research program called the Climate Research Network in 16 universities across the country, aiming to increase understanding of the chemical, physical, and biological changes related to climate change.

The Atmospheric and Climate Science Research Directorate of the Meteorological Service of Canada conducts research in the atmospheric and hydrological sciences related to meteorology, climate, air quality, and the associated environmental impacts and adaptations, and carries out science assessments.

The Canadian Centre for Climate Modeling and Analysis (CCCma) has developed one of the most advanced General Circulation Models in use today to predict future climate, study climate change and variability, and better understand the various process that govern our climate system. Selected data from CCCma simulations are contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Data Distribution Centre to facilitate their use for climate impact studies. Work to refine the models is ongoing.

Canadian scientists participate in international research on the climate system under the auspices of the World Climate Research Program (WCRP). Within the WCRP, Canada is participating in the Global Energy and Water Experiment by studying hydrological processes in the permafrost- saturated and largely snow-covered lands of the Mackenzie River Basin. For further details, please consult the following Webcsite: http://www.gc.ca/initiatives_e.cfm

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada conducts a National Agri-Environmental Indicator Project (http://www.agr.ca/policy/environment) that, among other goals, assesses Canadian agriculture’s greenhouse budget using national five-year census data. It also carri es out ongoing research to answer the questions of how farming practices affect the composition of the atmosphere and how these emissions can be reduced. Canadian experts on agricultural adaptation and mitigation currently sit on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

Status

Canada expects long-term shifts in average climate conditions and/or a change in the frequency of extreme climate events as a result of climate change. Both will have significant direct and indirect impacts on our lands, our oceans, and our resources. In some areas of the country, current changes in climate are impacting upon natural resources, water resources and the associated socio-economic systems. Examples of the types of effects that may be felt in the various regions of Canada follow.

British Columbia and Yukon

Climate change will have significant impacts in British Columbia and the Yukon, including increased flood dangers in some areas, drought in others, and widespread disruption to forests, fisheries and wildlife. Sea levels are expected to rise up to 30 cm on the north coast of British Columbia and up to 50 cm on the north Yukon coast by 2050, mainly due to warmer ocean temperatures. This could cause increased sedimentation, coastal flooding and permanent inundation of some natural ecosystems, and could place low-lying homes, docks and port facilities at risk. In winter, increased winter precipitation, permafrost degradation and glacier retreat due to warmer temperatures may lead to landslides in unstable mountainous regions, and put fish and wildlife habitat, roads, and other man-made structures at risk. Increased precipitation will put greater stress on water and sewage systems, while glacier reduction could affect the flow of rivers and streams that depend on glacier water, with potential negative impacts on tourism, hydroelectric generation, fish habitat and lifestyles. Spring flood damage could be more severe both on the coast and throughout the interior of British Columbia and the Yukon, and existing flood protection works may no longer be adequate. Summer droughts along the south coast and southern interior will mean decreased stream flow in those areas, putting fish survival at risk, and reducing water supplies in the dry summer season when irrigation and domestic water use is greatest.

 Prairies

Current projections suggest that climate change would result in increased air temperatures and decreased soil moisture. There is less confidence about whether precipitation will increase or decrease or about how climate change may affect severe weather events. Most scenarios suggest that the semi-arid regions of the Prairies can expect an increase in the frequency and length of droughts. Some of the potential impacts of these changes include: Average potential crop yields could fall by 10–30 percent due to higher temperatures and lower soil moisture. However, higher temperatures could lengthen the growing season, and may increase crop production in northern regions where suitable soils exist. Increased demand for water pumping and summer cooling, due to drought, and decreased winter demand due to higher temperatures, could push electrical utilities into a summer peak load position at the same time as hydropower production is reduced by decreased water flow. This could result in increased thermal power production with an increase in fossil fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.Semi-permanent and seasonal wetlands could dry up, leading to reduced producti