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Economic Aspects | Natural Resource Aspects | Institutional Aspects | Social Aspects | Austria

NATURAL RESOURCE ASPECTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN AUSTRIA

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• Agriculture
• Atmosphere
• Biodiversity
• Desertification and Drought
• Energy
• Forests
• Freshwater
• Land Management
• Mountains
• Oceans and Coastal Areas
• Toxic Chemicals
• Waste and Hazardous Materials

AGRICULTURE

Decision-Making: Coordinating Bodies   

The Austrian Federal Ministry for Foreign Affairs and the Federal Chancellory are responsible for the development cooperation. Activities concerning food relief have been carried out by the Federal Ministry for Agriculture and Forestry.

Decision Making: Legislation and Regulations 

Due to Austria’s membership in the European Union Council Regulation 2092/91 on organic production of agricultural products is applied to Austria.

Integrated Pest Management

"Integrated pest management" was implemented into national law with the "Plant Protection Products Act 1997" in August 1997. According to this Act plant protection products have to be used taking into account the principles of integrated pest management.

Sustainable plant nutrition

According to the "Fertilizer Act 1994" the marketing of fertilizer which endanger the fertility of the soil or the health of humans and animals is forbidden.

The "Fachbeirat für Bodenfruchtbarkeit und Bodenschutz" ,a body of independent experts related to the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, worked out "Guidelines for appropriate fertilization". These Guidelines made Austria one of the countries with the most moderate use of fertilizer in Europe.

Decision-Making: Strategies, Policies and Plans  

The so-called "ecologically and socially orientated market economy" which was developed in Austria in 1987 followed the same targets. The goal of this concept was to renew the Austrian agricultural policy, to improve the situation of the environment and to maintain farms of small scale (70% of all farms in Austria have less than 20 ha). Within this concept Austria recognized the multifunctional role of agriculture from production of food to the conservation of rural landscapes and the protection of the environment. Agriculture’s contribution to the viability of rural areas became indisputable.

Food security

Austria does not publish a national policy review related to food security. Within the FAO, a „committee for food security„ will edit a questionnaire concerning the „increase of nutrient security„ by the end of this year. Till then, it will be clear, which measures have to be taken, following the World Food Summit.

Integrated Pest Management

Financial support for the use of warning systems to determine a potentially necessary and/or exact application of plant protection products: The Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry supports the installation of climate observation systems in order to estimate more precisely the pressure of pest infestation. Depending on the crop this brings about a reduction of chemical plant protection products up to 50 %.

Supply and breeding of healthy plant material (preventive measures): The examination of plant material for the freedom from specific diseases and pests is an important preventive measure in integrated plant protection.

Promotion on the use of beneficial organisms: In order to encourage biological measures of pest control the first Austrian breeding station for beneficial organisms was completed in Vienna with the financial support of the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry a few years ago. Biological pest control is practiced in Austria not only in horticulture, but also in maize, fruit growing and viniculture. All in all an area of about 12.000 ha were treated with beneficial organisms in 1998.

Financial support for organic farming: There has been an enormous boom in organic farming in the course of the last years. In 1998 there were already about 20.000 farms in Austria cultivating according to this method.

Austria started the "Austrian Environmental Programme" in 1995 according to Council Regulation (EEC) No 2078/92 on agriculture production methods compatible with the requirements of the protection of the environment and the maintenance of the countryside.

Irrigation

Irrigation policy in Austria has to cope with the following issues:

• High quality levels for protection of all ground water resources are set up by the Austrian Water Law;
• poor quality status of ground water resources in eastern parts of Austria coincides to a large extent with irrigation areas; contamination by non-point sources (nitrate, pesticides) is one of the reasons;
• modern irrigation methods and reliable control mechanisms have to be implemented to safeguard ground water quality;
• significantly lowered ground water tables in some regions (e.g. Marchfeld - see case study 1) and insufficient water resources for irrigation locally restrict the development of agriculture;

• ground water withdrawals for irrigation need better quantitative control.

Water Availability

The Federal Water Law sets the legal framework for irrigation in Austria by regulating water withdrawal from ground water or from superficial water bodies on the one hand and by (ground) water quality regulations with high priority.

Federal and provincial authorities control irrigation development by means of legal measures laid down in the Federal Water Law. Ground water withdrawals for irrigation have to be approved by the Water Authorities. Water Authorities on district level are responsible for minor and medium size irrigation projects (ground water withdrawal up to 300 l/s, water withdrawal from other sources up to 1000 l/s). Projects with a bigger amount of water use have to be approved by the provincial authorities (Landeshauptmann).

Water use efficiency

Provincial authorities grant financial subsidies for sustainable and legally approved irrigation systems. One of the main targets of funding irrigation projects is to implement reliable control mechanisms for better water quality and water saving irrigation methods. Individual water users join to medium size irrigation systems under the management of a water users' association. Organizational structures for water users' cooperatives or associations that are defined by the Water Law are the so-called "Wassergenossenschaften". The associated water users are controlled by the water authorities.

Adverse effects of agriculture on water quality

The existing irrigation practice puts severe impacts upon water quality protection by contamination of ground water by pesticides and nutrients (esp. nitrate). Measures to ameliorate these impacts by agricultural management methods are examined in case studies for ground-water-restoration. Several measures of the Austrian Agri-Environmental Programme aim at reducing negative effects of agriculture on (ground) water quality.

The lowering of the groundwater tables is a problem only in some Austrian regions. The implementation of the Marchfeld Canal System improved low-flow problems in the main tributaries in the Marchfeld. Artificial wetlands of value for flora and fauna were created. The major area for future development of irrigation plants in Austria is the so-called "Marchfeld - Hochterrasse". Public discussion of the pros and cons led to the elaboration of a study, discussing also measures appropriate to improve environmental impacts of irrigation in the planning region.

Rural Development

As part of the of the Trade Regulation 1997, direct marketing by farmers is promoted. Within the concept of Agenda 2000, „rural development„ became the second pillar within the Common Agricultural Policy. Cooperation between agriculture, commerce, crafts and services is promoted within this concept. Among other things, projects which improve the environment, landscape or habitat of wild animals are supported financially.

Biodiversity

Nutrition of human beings only can be safeguarded with useful plant species which are fruitful, resistant and suited to the location. It is of highest importance to maintain a big variety of agricultural plants to preserve the local genetic resources.

Organic farming is most compatible to environment and plays an important role in preservation of old local varieties and races. This kind of agriculture is supported by the agri-environmental programme according to EU Regulation 2078/92.

Decision-Making: Major Groups involvement

Initially all in conservation activities for endangered breeds of livestock in Austria were based on private initiative. Idealistic farmers and other enthusiasts kept and bred these animals. Breeding activities were not well directed and in most cases no records were kept. Only a few cattle breeds (Murboden, Carinthian Blond, Waldviertel Blond, Tux-Zillertal) tried to establish a breeding programme in close co-operation with the ÖNGENE which was based on blood typing and calculation of heterocygosity.

Information and communication technology offer further possibilities for the development of the rural society. The Federal Ministry for Agriculture started the project „profit – Paket„. This project promotes the distribution of computers, software and internet to farmers, to take the opportunity of tele-working, tele-learning, electronic publishing and internet publication.

With the accession of Austria to the European Union a comprehensive agri-environmental programme was established according to EU–Regulation 2078/92. The environmental programme consists of 36 measures. Austrian farmers can select and combine measures in a suitable manner. Main objective of the agri-environmental programme is the reduction of harmful impacts of farming to the environment. The programme promotes agricultural intensification and by doing so the conservation of resources like water, soil, landscape, genetic variety and habitat.

Short description of measures of the Austrian agri-environmental programme:

• Basic premium:

creation, maintenance and care of valuable and unique landscape elements;

compliance with the rules of "good agricultural practice"

The maximum animal quota for 1 ha farmland is 2 LSU

• Organic farming:

creation, maintenance and care of valuable and unique landscape elements; green-covering or covering with straw in fruit growing and viniculture; legal basis: EU regulation 2092/91

Means of production like chemically synthesized plant protection products and fertilizers, fertilizers with chlorine, sewage sludge and the use of seed disinfections are banned. The maximum animal quota for 1 ha farmland is 2 LSU.

• Renunciation of means of production which increase yield (arable land and grassland)

Means of production like chemically synthesized plant protection products and fertilizers, fertilizers with chlorine, sewage sludge and the use of seed disinfections are banned. The maximum animal quota for 1 ha farmland is 2 LSU.

• Integrated controlled fruit growing, viniculture and horticulture:

compliance with the rules of "integrated controlled production";

restricted use of fertilizer and plant protection products; rules for green covering have to be obtained

• Stabilization of crop rotation:

protection of water resources; green covering (15%, 25%, 35%) during autumn and winter against erosion and leaching of nitrogen into groundwater

The share of maize and cereals must not exceed 75% of the whole arable land.

• Extensive cereal cropping:

cultivation of extensive varieties; inhibitors and fungicides are forbidden; limitation of nitrogen fertilizer (for instance: wheat max. 120 kg N/ha)

The use of sewage sludge is banned. Farmers have to record their use of fertilizers, plant protection products and varieties. At least 10% and 40% for most of the whole arable area have to be managed in this manner.

• Renunciation of certain means of production (growth inhibitors, freely soluble commercial fertilizers, chemically synthesized pesticides, fungicide, sludge sewage) on arable land:

It is forbidden to use these means for to increase the yield.

• Integrated controlled vegetable production (market gardening):

compliance with the rules of „integrated controlled production„ in the area of vegetable production; ban of sludge sewage

• Renunciation on freely soluble commercial fertilizers and chemical – synthetic pesticides on grassland:

extensification of grassland management; in maximum 2 LSU/ha farmland allowed; ban of freely soluble commercial fertilizers, chemical – synthetic pesticides and sludge sewage; in general, conversion of grassland into arable land or permanent crops is forbidden

• Extensive use of grassland in traditional areas:

ban of freely soluble commercial fertilizers, chemical – synthetic pesticides, silage fodder and sludge sewage

• Complying with reaping time conditions:

Reaping times have to be defined in accordance with the Institute for Nature Conservation; renunciation on freely soluble commercial fertilizers, chemical – synthetic pesticides and sludge sewage

• Erosion protection on fruit growing and viniculture:

ground coverage over winter for at least 10 month (green covering, mulch, straw or other organic compounds); the use of sludge sewage is forbidden

• Erosion protection on arable land (I) – Ground coverage:

promotion of ground coverage of arable land by means of direct seeding

• Erosion protection on arable land (II) – switching to feed on arable land:

diversion to forage area

• Erosion protection on arable land (III) – switching to permanent grassland:

diversion from silage maize to permanent grassland

• Keeping and rearing of endangered species:

keeping of pure-bred species in accordance with a „breed list„; keeping of livestock recordings in form of herd – books; confirmation by a breeding society; rearing only with pure-bred animals

• Mowing in steep and mountainous areas:

annual mowing and harvesting of steep slopes at least every second year; category of steepness: 25 – 35%; 35 – 50%; >50%

• Alpine premium and pastoral premium:

maintenance and care of alpine pasture to avoid forest coverage (brushwood and wood); farmers do have the commitment to pasture their cattle, sheep and horses for at least 60 days. They get an additional premium for pastoral and higher premiums for milk cows.

• Care of ecologically valuable surfaces:

management of valuable agricultural areas, e.g. dry – meadows, water – meadows, meadows with extensive fruit trees, rare plant coverings, meadows with larches; promotion of projects, which are accepted by nature protection authorities; freely soluble commercial fertilizers and chemical – synthetic pesticides are forbidden

• Cultivation of rare agriculturally cultivated plants:

cultivation of valuable, endangered varieties of regional importance, in accordance with the catalogue of varieties

• Landscape elements/biotope developing on permanent fallow land (20 years):

management of valuable agricultural areas for at least 20 years in accordance with restrictions by nature protection authorities; Promotion of single projects; it isn’t allowed to use the sward nor to burn off the promoted areas. The use of chemical – synthetic pesticides, fertilizers and sludge sewage is forbidden; applied on arable areas and grassland

• providing areas with ecological goals:

management of valuable agricultural areas for at least 5 years in accordance with restrictions by nature protection authorities; promotion of single projects; it isn’t allowed to use the sward nor to burn off the promoted areas. The use of chemical – synthetic pesticides, fertilizers and sludge sewage is forbidden; applied on areas of arable land and grassland, e.g. arable field margins, food patches on fallow- or arable land

The Austrian „National Environmental Plan„ (NUP) is an important guideline to establish ecological long-term goals in different economic areas. With this concept Austria accomplished an essential demand of the outcome of the UNCED – conference in Rio and the 5. Environmental Action Plan of the European Union. These proposals should be implemented, within the next 20 years. As part of the National Environmental Plan, the Austrian government describes a series of proposals to promote sustainable agriculture in Austria.

Further conversion concerning organic farming is suggested due to the fact that it is the most environmentally compatible form of agriculture. Environmentally friendly farming methods have to be taken into consideration in the context of education and training of school teachers and advisors.

Animal biodiversity

Austria’s membership in the EU and the ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1995 started more coherent actions in the field of animal genetic resources. 5 years ago a conservation programme for endangered breeds of livestock was launched by the Austrian Ministry of Agriculture. This program is part of the Österreichisches Programme zur Förderung einer umweltgerechten, extensiven und den natürlichen Lebensraum schützenden Landwirtschaft (ÖPUL). It is based on the EU directives 2078/92 and 1467/94 and targeted at the in situ conservation of cattle, horses, sheep and goats.

In this action 23 breeds were classified as endangered according to the guidelines of the European Commission. Farmers keeping pedigree stock of such breeds received a bonus for each female breeding animal if they granted to keep this or a replace animal for 5 years. For heavily endangered cattle breeds (less than 200 females) an additional bonus was available if the owner used a pedigree male of the same breed. A yearly census based on the applications for bonuses made by the farmers and confirmed by the breeders associations (partly private, partly organizations of the agricultural boards) was made by the Ministry for Agriculture.

The positive results of the ÖPUL programme were:

• For the first time reliable population data on the breeds in the program (BIP) were available.
• Most BIP showed stable or increasing population size after launching of the programme.
• No BIP became extinct during the programme.
• Herdbooks were established or re-established for all BIP.
• Marketing programs for special products were launched by breeders associations for some BIP.
• Research concerning animal genetic resources increased.

To take care of ex situ conservation in 1997 the Institute for Biological Agriculture and Biodiversity was founded. In this institute semen of all BIP is stored in the Austrian Gene Bank for Farm Animal Genetic Resources. The gene bank is owned by the Federal Ministry for Agriculture and provides breeding material to farmers as well as keeping semen in long time storage. A gene data bank registering and monitoring population size and management by the breeders associations completes the steps taken for ex situ conservation.

Problems not taken into consideration by the existing ÖPUL programme:

• The 200 head limit for highly endangered BIP was set too low.
• Some breeds were not included in the initial program.
• Breeders organizations were not obliged to present a breeding standard and breeding programme.
• Effective population size and degree of inbreeding was not mentioned in the program.

The next version of ÖPUL starting in 2000 (ÖPUL 2000) was established in close co-operation with the ÖNGENE and the Verein zur Erhaltung gefährdeter Haustierrassen (VEGH) and tries to cope with these problems.

With an organic farm share of 9% of all agricultural farms and of 10% of the utilized agricultural area, Austria, in relative terms, ranks first among the European countries. Most of the organic farms in Austria are members of organic farm associations applying even stricter guidelines than those of the corresponding EU-Regulation.

In Austria irrigation is primarily used as supplemental irrigation to compensate for a lack of rainfall during the vegetation period. The main irrigation regions are in the north-eastern lowlands (Marchfeld, Parndorfer Platte, Seewinkel, Südliches Wiener Becken, Tullner Feld, Retzer und Laaer Becken, Wachau), where natural precipitation reaches appr. 450 - 700 mm/y (appr. 300 - 450 mm in the vegetation period).

Other irrigation areas in southern and western parts of Austria are of minor importance. In the renowned wine-growing region "Wachau" (Danube valley section) drip-irrigation of vineyards (ca. 1000 ha) is being developed.

Statistical data on irrigated area and irrigation water demand are available for the year 1995 (W. Hüttler, 1996): 

(potentially) irrigable area: 96000 ha

(actually) irrigated in 1994/95: 45.000 ha

water used in 1994/95: 53,1 Mio m³

Total energy need in Austria: 1200 Petajoule (PJ)

Renewable energy share: 323 PJ (27%)

hydro-electric power: 164 PJ (14%)

other energy source: 159 PJ (13%)

other sources of energy (100%):

firewood: 120 PJ (76%)

waste: 8 PJ (5%)

heat pump: 6 PJ (4%)

industrial spent liquor, waste liquor: 21 PJ (13%)

solar power: 2 PJ (1%)

bio gas, bio fuel: 2 PJ (1%)

geothermics, wind energy: < 1 PJ (< 1%)

All relevant data about agriculture in Austria are available at FAO.

No information is available

There is strong acceptance of the environment programme (ÖPUL), which results in a greening of the Austrian agriculture. About 70% of all domestic farms and 90% of Austria’s utilized agricultural area take part in this programme. This shows strong a development of environmental awareness in Austria.  The intention to support the greening of the Austrian agriculture is recorded in national laws, special guidelines and a so called "advisor contract". This contract stipulates the subsidizing of personnel costs by the Federal Ministry for Agriculture and district chambers of agriculture.  The further development of environmental awareness to promote sustainable agriculture practice is backed up by a well organized education and training system.  

Main objective in training and education of school teachers and special advisors of the district chambers of agriculture, is to maintain and ensure sustainable development in the Austrian agriculture under a social, ecological and economic point of view.  As part of the federal training and further development of teachers and advisors, courses are offered continuously, concerning the promotion of organic farming, direct marketing, accomplishment to the project "holiday on the farm" promotion of renewable energy sources, environmental protection at farm level, biological sewage treatment, plants, environmentally friendly production methods for foodstuffs.

A systematic mapping of soil under agricultural use is carried out in Austria since 1958. Up to now, almost 98% of the area to be mapped is already surveyed in the field. Soil survey is done from both a pedagogical and an agricultural point of view. It also considers geological, geomorphological and climatically conditions. Out of 220 districts, 150 districts have been published as soil maps 1: 25 000 and further 50 districts as manuscript maps 1: 25 000; 15 districts remain for editorial work and 5 for field survey. For the digital capture of these soil data a GIS – based soil information system was installed. A three years program to convert geometric and attribute data to a digital form has already been started. Further on, available soil information is completed by a large set of data referring to distinct sampling points. Most of these points are arranged in grids of different densities, covering almost all the country.

Within the EU, according to EU Regulation 2078/92, Austria realized the most comprehensive agri-enviromental programme. The economic and ecological impacts of this programme are under current observation. An evaluation group by researchers, civil servants, and experts of different non governmental organizations, was founded. The results of the periodical investigations concerning effects of the environmental programme to the environmental situation furnish information's to revise and improve the programme.

The first environmental programme was elaborated in Austria in 1995. According to the first evaluation report, in 1998 an improved environmental programme was edited. In the year 2000 the next version of the Austrian agri-environmental programme will be established. The impacts of the environmental programme to soil, water, air, biodiversity and landscape are monitored. Some indicators follow:

Soil - development of the use of manure, commercial fertilizers, pesticides, fungizides, growth inhibitors; estimations about the quantity of toxic agents in soil. Valuation of soil erosion and the quality of soil (quantity of humus, activity of soil enzymes, stabilization of the soil);

Water - reasons for water-pollution; mutual effects between water, soil and methods of farm- management and practices;

Air - description of the initial position; continuing of measurements (CO2, CH4, NH3);

Biodiversity - description of domestic flora and fauna and determination of the population data of endangered species and varieties; description of the naturalness of Austria’s forests and forest eco-systems;

Landscape - description of initial position and expectations about the development of the landscape dependent on ÖPUL – measures.

Each criteria is evaluated in an single scheme:

• Evaluation of the initial position in Austria before establishment of the environmental programme (also international comparison)
• Description of every ÖPUL – measure and valuation of the environmental effects. Participation to each measure. Proposals for further improvement of the programme

No information is available

Since UNCED, financial support for energy use of biomass, has increased strongly. Supported projects are for instance, biomass heatings for single farms and communities (long – distance heating-systems), biogas plants.

In 1998 about 740 million ATS, were spent for projects concerning renewable energy. There was a financial support of about 300 million ATS paid by the Ministry for Agriculture, district governments and the European Union. (Federal ministry of agriculture and forestry: 144 million ATS; District governments: 97 million ATS; European Union: 59 million ATS).  A general 2% admixture of  biofuel to diesel is foreseen for the near future.

The European Union emphasizes the crucial importance of sustainable, multifunctional and competitive agriculture within the model of European agriculture. With the concept of Agenda 2000, the European Council established the promotion and the development of rural areas as second pillar within the Common Agricultural Policy. Europe’s main objective is to protect the social structure of rural areas and to promote the establishment of environmentally friendly farm management systems.

In 1992 the Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio Convention) was signed to improve international cooperation in this field. Austria ratified this agreement and established an adequate national law in 1995. To coordinate activities and programmes the „national biodiversity commission„ was founded. In 1996 Austria signed the „global plan of action„. This ratification initiated new tasks for Austria:

• building of security storehouses (cold storage)
• membership to the EWS (early warning system)
• Intensification of „in-situ„ conservation
• Article 203e putting on local strains to the open market

The „Index Seminum Austriae„ published by the Federal Ministry for Agriculture contains a general view of the gene-pool of old and typical Austrian varieties. In the „Austrian strategy to implement the Convention on Biological Diversity„ agriculture and forestry are represented.

The chapter on agriculture consists of several groups:

• farm animals
• cultivated plants
• fruit variety
• grape
• landscape

*    *    *

This information is based on Austria's submission to the 5^th and 8^th Sessions of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last update: October 1999.

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Click here to go to Web Site of the Codex Alimentarius Commission, which includes information on the Codex Alimentarius and the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme.
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ATMOSPHERE

Decision-Making: Coordinating Bodies   

The Federal Ministries of: Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management;  Transportation, Innovation and Technology; and Economic Affairs and Labor are responsible for atmosphere-related activities.  With regard to climate change, action is coordinated within committees  including ministries and social partners (“Inter-ministerial Committee for the Coordination of Measures to Protect Global Climate”) and the federal provinces (“Kyoto-Forum”). Measures have been developed at the level of expert working groups. For decision making on air quality regulations, the ministry responsible must coordinate decisions with other ministries, social partners and federal provinces.  Depending on the subject, competences are at provincial or local level (e. g. licensing process for plants and installations, building codes, regional planning).

Decision Making: Legislation and Regulations 

Legislation to protect the atmosphere has been reviewed and revised in part in the light of Agenda 21.  Already in place are energy and emission-related taxes including a mineral oil tax, a car registration tax and a motor vehicle tax. The introduction of a CO2/energy tax on natural gas and electricity was planned for 1996. The Government encourages industries to develop safe technologies through strict legislation and incentives such as subsidies and tax exemptions.

One of the fundamental provisions for protection of the atmosphere lies within the Industrial Code and the Clean Air Act for Steam Boilers, where a license for each new or modified installation is required. The determination of emission limit values and/or measures according to best available technology is carried out in the licensing procedure. For several categories of (new and existing) stationary emission sources explicit emission limit values and BAT requirements have been set by ordinance (boilers, waste combustion, solvent use, production and casting of iron and non-ferrous metals, production of bricks, glass, cement); emission limit values exist for cars, lorries and motor cycles. Details about these regulations can be found in the UN/ECE Major Review. Product regulations have been set with respect to sulphur content of fuels, heavy metals, several persistent organic pollutants and ozone depleting substances. The Ambient Air Quality Law prescribes air quality standards, the Smog Alert Act and the Ozone Law alert thresholds for several pollutants.

 The motor vehicle tax increases with engine power, surcharge for cars without catalytic converter. A general road use duty exists for heavy-duty trucks > 12 t. The fuel consumption levy applies to newly registered passenger cars and depends on the standard fuel consumption of the vehicle. Taxation on energy products exist for electricity, natural gas, petrol, diesel and fuel oil (part of the revenues earmarked for environmental and energy-saving measures and funding of public transport).   Measures for emission reduction, energy-saving and renewable energy in the commercial/industrial sector can receive financial support according to the federal Environmental Support Act. Subsidies for the construction and rehabilitation of residential buildings are increasingly coupled to energy efficiency parameters. Subsidies exist for the installation of solar collectors and heat pumps, for the purchase of electric vehicles, for biomass for energy use and district heating projects. In the agricultural sector, subsidies for organic and extensive (integrated husbandry and reduced fertilizer use) farming are granted.

Decision-Making: Strategies, Policies and Plans  

The Government promotes policies and programmes in the area of energy efficiency, environmentally sound and efficient transportation, industrial pollution control, sound land-use practices and management of toxic and other hazardous waste.  Greenhouse gas emissions shall be reduced mainly by domestic measures. Currently the strategy is being revised with regard to the Kyoto-Protocol; main focus is put on increased energy efficiency for residential housing, increased share of renewable energy sources, measures in regard to transport, waste and HFCs. The relatively high share of forested land and the use of sustainable forest management practices shall be ensured for the future and enhanced where possible, by implementing the Pan-European Criteria for Sustainable Forest Management, by preserving and increasing biodiversity and by reducing air pollution.  Regarding substances that deplete the ozone layer, the strategy comprises bans on production, placing on the market and use.

Some 137 municipalities and communities (including almost all major cities) as well as eight Austrian laenders have formed a "Climate Alliance". Municipalities in the neighboring countries also participate in this Alliance. They have committed themselves to reducing their carbon dioxide emissions by the year 2010 through concrete measures in the field of traffic, energy, procurement, etc. and to supporting their partners in the Amazon region in the active preservation of rainforests.

Representatives of local authorities as well as of farmers, workers unions, business and industry (“social partners”) are involved in the process of law making. Decisions on licensing procedures, regional planning etc. happen at local level involving neighbors and people affected respectively.  Air quality standards are generally oriented towards the protection of the most sensible groups of the population, e. g. children. Climate change impacts could particularly hit inhabitants of the alpine regions and farmers; main policy focus is to take early action against climate change. 

Programmes and Projects   

There is a climate change programme which is coordinated on the experts level, not on the political level yet (October 2000).   A mix of measures related to energy supply, domestic energy consumption, industry and transport was considered essential. Regarding industry and agriculture, measures comprise a. o. promotion of combined heat and power generation, consulting services for efficient energy use in industry, favorable conditions for growing biofuels and for the use of biogas, support of organic farming as well as extensive farming in general (integrated husbandry and reduced fertilizer use, leading to a. o. reduced energy demand), preservation of the existing structure with a large share of small farms (favorable for local sale, leading to lower transport needs). The average size of an Austrian farm is about 13,7 hectare (agricultural areas) respectively 26,8 hectares (agricultural and wooded areas).

Ban of CFCs, halons, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform and methyl bromide; HCFCs are only permitted as refrigerant in refrigeration and air conditioning equipment; exemptions are restrictively given for certain essential or critical uses. Maintenance of a vital forest as carbon sink (protection against air pollutants detrimental to forests, reduction of game damages, development of biological diversity, sustainable forest management); extension of the forest area.

The implementation of the 1991 Master Transportation Concept is in progress, and transportation issues are an important part of the Austrian National Environment Plan. In order to have a less polluting and safer transportation system, issues such as relative cost-effectiveness of alternative systems, transportation technologies, mass transit systems, environmental impact assessment and safety have all been comprehensively addressed.  After a decrease at the beginning and an increase at the end of the 80s, CO₂ emissions have stabilized in the 90ies and show a slight increase within the last years. The CO₂ emissions per GDP index show a steady decrease for more than twenty years now. Other gases contribute to 20 per cent of total GHG emissions (in CO₂ equivalents); whereas CH₄ emissions have slightly decreased in the 90ies, N₂O emissions have risen due to increased use of catalytic converters in cars.

The Government supports the conservation and enhancement of sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases by promoting biological farming without the use of mineral fertilizers and by reforestation activities. The use of biomass is promoted through subsidies.  There is no production of CFCs in Austria, and the Government provides information on refrigerator maintenance. As of 1 January 1995, CFCs were completely phased out. The target date for completely phasing out H-CFCs is 1 January 2002.  Deposition of acidifying substances is above critical levels in a considerable percentage of the ecosystems; there are widespread exceedances of critical levels for eutrophication. Tropospheric ozone pollution exceeds the WHO air quality standards for human health and for protection of forests all over the country. These problems are mainly related to transboundary air pollution. The current level of air quality with regard to particulate matter is considered to have serious impacts on human health.  Impacts of climate change may predominantly have negative impacts on hydrology (and therefore on water and hydro power supply as well as agriculture), on alpine protection forests, on winter tourism (due to reduced snow cover) and on mountain communities (due to increased danger of landslides and torrents).

About 45 per cent of Austrias land area is forested area. Forest area has increased by 5 per cent and standing stock by about 20 per cent since the 60ies. CO₂ removal rates amounted to about 12 million tons at the end of the 80ies and about 8 million tons in the year 1998.  A 99% reduction of the total emission of ODS compared to the applicable base year (1986) has been achieved.  

Challenges  

The WHO air quality standard for NO₂ (40 µg/m³ as annual mean) is exceeded at sites influenced by road traffic; exceedances occur at several sites on a few days per year. Also air pollution by particulate matter is a problem mainly related to cities and agglomerations. Peak levels of ground level ozone (> 180 µg/m³ as one hour mean value) can be measured especially in northeast Austria on several days during the summer season; exceedances of the WHO standard (120 µg/m³ as eight hour mean value) on up to eighty days occur in urban and rural areas all over Austria.

While no major problems occurred with regard to eliminating the use of ozone depleting substances, the situation is different for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Rising demand for road transport inside and outside of Austria, international treaties as well as missing harmonization within the EU with respect to fiscal measures, an already high share of hydro power in electricity generation, the fear of competitive disadvantages in the EU internal market, legislative and administrative competences scattered between different ministries and different levels of administration pose problems for the reduction of greenhouse gases.  Austria already has a high share of forested area with sustainable forest management. Increases in quantity and quality can still be expected, but the possibilities for further improvement is limited. In addition to the direct reduction of CO₂-emissions much importance is attached to renewable resources.  

Several action programmes have been launched to raise public awareness concerning ground level ozone and climate change. Target groups were schools (information material for teachers, school competitions), decision makers at community level (regular exchange of information, community competitions for best solutions) and the general public (brochures, radio and TV spots). The campaigns aimed at scrutinizing day-to-day behaviour and switching to more environmentally sustainable products, modes of transport etc. Modern media as CD-ROMs shall give an incentive to deal with the problem and give playful access to detailed underlying information.

The “Ecologisation of Schools” programme is central for environmental education; it focuses on the school’s function as a role model, whose environmental classes will be only credible if the school is run in an environmentally friendly and sustainable manner. It includes an analysis of the ecological and technical state of the school and development of improvement plans (energy consumption, air emissions, waste...). It started with a pilot phase with 22 schools, followed by national competition with over 100 participating schools. Presently. Currently a regional infrastructure is being set up and the aim is to reach about 1000 schools in the next three years up to 2002 all over Austria.

The Austrian Academy of Sciences has published a study on the air quality criteria, and a GAW monitoring site has been established i.e.. for total ozone column at the Sonnblick (3,105 m a.s.l.).  The government participates actively in the strengthening of the Global Climate Observing system at the national level with seven observation stations and in the Global Ozone Observing System with one observation station. Austria supports the findings of the second assessment report of the IPCC concerning threshold levels of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations.

An air emissions inventory for a series of pollutants is maintained by the Austrian Federal Environment Agency. The inventory conforms to CORINAIR methodology and EMEP and IPCC reporting standards. Air quality measurements are performed at some 100 sites for several pollutants; annual reports allow an overview about ambient air quality and exceedances of AAQ standards. Both emission inventory and air quality measurement information are used for assessment and planning purposes.

 Emission inventory data and up-to-date air quality data are presented on the web site of the Austrian Federal Environment Agency (http://www.ubavie.gv.at). General information about air quality and climate change are published periodically (e. g. Report on ground level ozone, national communications to the UNFCCC) and is available in printed form as well as on the web (http://www.bmu.gv.at). Reports on special topics regarding air quality are published by the Federal Environment Agency. Information on climate change is compiled/distributed a. o. by the Austrian Council on Climate Change (http://www.accc.gv.at) and the climate change node of the Austrian Network Environmental Research (http://nuf.boku.ac.at/cc.htm).  Pollutant and GHG emission data and air quality measurement data provided within the framework of UN/ECE CLRTAP (EMEP) and UNFCCC as well as to the European Environment Agency. The climate change node of the Austrian Network Environmental Research is a platform for sharing scientific information on climate change at national and international level.

Research and Technologies 

Governmental activities in the field of energy, transport and industry concentrate on the development of safe technologies, R&D, development of new and renewable energy systems, public awareness- raising including product labeling, EIA and life-cycle analysis and environmental audits as well as introduction of economic instruments. The Austrian Federal Government publishes Energy Reports containing reviews of current energy supply mixes.  Fixed continuous measurement of CO, ozone, particulate matter, NO₂ and SO₂ respectively is performed at about 70–200 sites in Austria. Up-to-date information on air quality is made available to the public. Measurements of heavy metals and some persistent organic pollutants in soil have been carried out extensively in Austria throughout the last years; furthermore bio monitoring programs have been used for monitoring of deposition.

Research on renewable energy sources (e. g. biomass) is supported as well as the development of marketable products, e. g. by building „clusters“ of small producers to allow for an optimized exchange of know-how. In the framework of five-year research programs for environmentally sound transport (vehicle technology, integrated logistics concepts, improvement of public transport) and for sustainable economy (e.g. sustainable buildings, renewable raw materials, regional-scale economy) support for development and pilot-projects is granted.  he Austrian Network Environmental Research has established a “Climate Change” node to interlink Austrian research groups working in this field. Research is conducted at several universities and other institutes and covers a broad field of topics, e. g. evaluation of long-term climate data series, participation in the WMO Global Atmosphere Watch program, monitoring of stratospheric ozone, research about alpine regions (mesoscale weather effects, vegetation changes), glacier research, modeling of forest development in relation to climate change, development of a carbon balance model, etc.

The private sector is obliged to conform with emission limit values for stationary and mobile sources and other kinds of environmental standards and therefore contributes a great deal to the protection of the atmosphere. Public funds according to the Environmental Support Act is available for activities which are more ambitious than existing legal standards; funds are granted for the business sector a. o. for reduction of pollutant emissions, for use of renewable energy and for energy saving measures. Public funding, partly coupled to energy efficiency and related parameters, is granted also for the construction of residential housing. Agricultural subsidies are granted for sustainable farming practices which lead to decreasing emissions and energy consumption. Scientific research on air quality and climate change issues is funded by the public to a large extent.

 Subsidies, e. g. according to the Environmental Support Act, cover only a part of the necessary investments. They serve as an incentive for the private sector to spend money for measures which would otherwise not be implemented for economic reasons.

Several Austrian energy agencies participate in international activities directed at energy saving and use of renewable energy sources. The federal government also directly supports projects for information transfer like the „Multilingual Urban Network for the Integration of City Planners and Involved local Actors“ (MUNICIPIA, in the framework program TURA of the EU Commission), which provides a web based best practice database also for environmental technology, or like international summer schools on solar energy, which are held in Austria since 1982 and which foster the exchange of information at academic level. Direct funding of projects in neighboring countries in central Europe, related to flue gas cleaning and energy saving, has also benefited technology transfer issues.

Austria has concluded a series of bilateral treaties on cooperation in environment matters with its neighboring countries in the Eastern part of Europe since 1985, directed a. o. at enhancing energy efficiency and use of renewable energy sources, at collecting and exchanging environmental data and information and at developing educational capacities and structures. Austria plays an active role in multilateral and regional cooperations such as the Central European Initiative (C.E.I.), the Regional Environmental Center in Budapest and the Central European Environmental Data Request Facility (CEDAR).  The Montreal Protocol, London Amendment, Copenhagen Amendment, and Montreal Amendment have been ratified and implemented; the Beijing Amendment will be ratified within the next year, the measure to reach its objective have already been implemented successfully.  Austria has signed the Kyoto Protocol  and its target, according to the burden sharing agreement within the EU, is a GHG reduction of 13 % for the first commitment period compared to the emissions of the year 1990. Mitigation of ozone depletion shall be reached by a complete elimination of ODS. Air emissions should not exceed 39 kt for SO₂, 103 kt for NO_x, 159 kt for anthropogenic  MVOC and 66 kt for NH₃ in 2010; compared to the emissions of 1990 this represents reductions of 57 %, 45 %, 54 % and 18 % respectively.  

Austria takes measures to reduce emissions and protect sinks, is preparing a national plan to reach the Kyoto-Target, annually updates and communicates an inventory of greenhouse gas emissions, has submitted national communications according to the provisions of the protocol, has provided financial contributions to the GEF and bilaterally, promotes research and systematic observation as well as education and public awareness related to the climate system.   The country is party to the UN/ECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution and has ratified or signed its protocols (EMEP 1984, sulphur 1985, nitrogen oxides 1988, VOC 1991, sulphur 1994, persistent organic pollutants 1998, heavy metals 1998, protocol to abate acidification, eutrophication and ground-level ozone 1999). Questions of transboundary air pollution play an increasing role within the EU; besides existing and developing air quality directives for several pollutants and directives prescribing emission standards for stationary and mobile sources a directive on national emission ceilings for four pollutants is currently prepared.   Projects that target transboundary air pollution comprise a. o. model development for ground-level ozone concentrations, research on damage caused by ozone in alpine forests, monitoring of heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants in ecosystems.

Austria contributes US$ 1.5 million per annum to the Vienna/Montreal trust funds and the interim multilateral ozone fund (1996). Austria hosted the 1995 Conference of the European Transport Ministers, and will also be the host of the UN-ECE Conference on Transport and Environment (November 1997). In 1982, Austria ratified the LRTAP-Convention and its protocols. The government participates in the Global Observing System. A bilateral project with Romania was planned in 1996.  The Montreal Protocol (1987) was ratified in 1989, the London Amendment (1990) was ratified in 1992, and the Copenhagen Amendment (1992) was ratified in 1995. The latest reports to the Montreal Protocol Secretariat were prepared in 1995. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was ratified in 1994 and the latest report to the UNFCCC Secretariat was submitted in 1994. Austria has already fully complied with the obligations of the amendments, and national legislation concerning timetables for the reduction of ozone depleting substances is even stricter than in the Copenhagen amendments.

After UNCED, Austria signed the EU treaty to reduce on-road transit traffic through Austria. Strict emission thresholds and very low sulphur content in diesel fuel (0.05%) were established and, in 1993, leaded gasoline was phased out. There are obligatory annual emission controls of on-road vehicles and continuous controls of important (large) emitters.  The Government provides exchange of data and information on transboundary atmospheric pollution control at the national and international levels. Training opportunities are provided in the area of transboundary atmospheric pollution control. The national capacity to predict atmospheric changes and fluctuations is good. Early warning systems have been strengthened. There are ten background air quality monitoring sites (mostly near borders) and more than 300 sites for a nuclear radiation early warning system.

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This information is based on Austria's submission to the 5th and 9th Sessions of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, April 1997. Last update: March 2001.

For national information on air quality and air pollution, click here.
Click here for national information from the Web site of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
For the access to the Web Site of the Ozone Secretariat, click here:

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BIODIVERSITY

Decision-Making: Coordinating Bodies   

The Federal Ministry of the Environment, regional governments, the Austrian National Association for Gene Reserves (OeNGENE) and the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (Federal Agricultural Institute and Research Center and Federal Forestry Experimental Institute) are primarily responsible for the conservation of biological diversity and genetic resources in Austria. In Austria, regional governments are primarily responsible for nature conservation legislation and its implementation.

The Convention on Biological Diversity was signed in 1992 and ratified on 18 August 1994. The first report will be submitted in 1997. Austria acceded to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora in 1982. and the latest annual report was submitted in 1995.

Among the protection categories under the various regional nature protection laws (species protection, natural monument, landscape protection zone, nature park, national park), nature protection zones are the strictest form of territorial protection, emphasizing the protection and preservation of natural, self-regulating and self-maintaining ecosystems and ecosystem complexes with a high level of biological and structural diversity. As of 1991, some 375,000 ha were officially registered as nature protection zones in Austria.

Decision-Making: Strategies, Policies and Plans  

There is a national strategy for the preservation of traditional local varieties of plants, endangered biotopes and symbioses, agricultural fauna, and seven breeds of cattle.

No information is available

The objectives of the nature conservation programmes, which have to be approved by the local authorities and population, are the preservation and enhancement of biodiversity and the conservation of habitats, creation of combined biotope systems and preparation of biotope conservation programmes, water protection, biotope mapping and the mapping of endangered animal species. Particular attention is being paid to the identification of the RAMSAR reserves (Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitats) and biogenetic reserves as well as the creation of national parks.

Nature conservation programmes are implemented only if approved by local authorities and local population. Breeder organizations and individual farmers are involved in the decision-making when conserving agricultural fauna. The authorities also work in close cooperation with research associations and nature conservation societies. About 100 institutions are involved in biodiversity programmes. They carry out 124 protection and 644 conservation projects.

There is another research programme on soil resources and soil biology the objectives of which are to improve the basic knowledge about the functions of soil organisms and interactions between different species of soil organisms. The Research Against Forest Decline programme, on the other hand, focuses on the development of a central integrated stress hypothesis which will help to understand the multiple causes of forest decline. This theoretical understanding will be translated into practical methods of stress diagnosis, stress evaluation and forest stabilization. There is also a programme for the preservation of the genetic diversity of forest tree species.

A Research programme called Sustainable Development of the Austrian Man-Dominated Landscapes aims at minimizing the substance flow and exploitation of energy resources caused by humans. Top priority is given to the establishment of an indigenous regeneration reserve which is not subject to external sources and favors natural regeneration in conjunction with small-scale forest management.

Of the 790 species of fern and flowering plants growing mostly in forests, 12% are listed as endangered.

The estimates on the seriousness of the biodiversity loss of flora and fauna, gathered from the Federal States and from the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, vary because species which are generally not at risk at the national level may still be endangered at the regional level if they are isolated in small enclaves. At both regional and local levels, loss of fauna has been primarily the result of habitat destruction and pollution. Loss of flora has also been caused by habitat destruction as well as by the introduction of foreign plants and animals.

With regard to the global capacity-building cooperation, Austria participates in the GEF capacity-building Si-A-PAZ (Nicaragua/Costa Rica) and in different programmes for indigenous self-administration.

Information   

The latest comprehensive base line survey on the state of biodiversity in Austria was conducted in 1993. A survey on the biodiversity in forests is being carried out within the Austrian Forest Inventory. There is a special project (Hemerobia of Austrian Forest Ecosystems) gathering data for evaluating the anthropogenic impact (natural occurrence of various forms of vegetation) on the ecosystems of forests. The red lists provide information on territorial losses and endangered animal and plant species. In addition to the federal list of Endangered Plant Species in Austria, several federal regions have compiled their own red lists. With regard to the agricultural fauna, continuous evaluation is undertaken by blood-samples.  

No information is available

Public financial support has been provided to private initiatives aiming at the assessment, study and systematic observation of agricultural flora.

Austria has attempted to make Austrian financing facilities available for international programmes through the ECO Fund (foreign assistance) and within the financing mechanisms of the EBRD and World Bank trust funds.

Austria cooperates with other European institutes (in the case of capacity-building for agricultural flora) and has established contacts with the Danube riparian countries. A series of international programmes has been launched for Central and Eastern Europe within the framework of the OECD and with the support of international financing institutions. The most important of these are the Danube River Basin Programme, the Black Sea Programme, the Black Triangle programme, and the Danube Delta Programme. Within the framework of these programmes, Austria has tried to increase the input of its environmental technologies and know-how.

Austria became party to the Convention on the Preservation of European Wild Plants and Animals and their Natural Habitats in 1993.

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This information is based on Austria's submission to the 5th Session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, April 1997. Last update: 1 April 1997

For national information on nature conservation, click here.
For access to the Web Site of the Convention on Biological Diversity, click here:
For access to the Web Site of the CITES Convention, click here:
For the Web Site of the CMS Convention, click here:
For the Web Site of the Convention on the Protection of the World's Cultural and Natural Heritage, click here:
For the country-by-country, Man in the Biosphere On-Line Query System, click here:
Click here to link to the Biosafety Information Network and Advisory Service (BINAS), a service of the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), which monitors global developments in regulatory issues in biotechnology.
Click here to go to the Web Site of UNEP's International Register on Biosafety.
Click here for the International Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Biosafety WebPages

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DESERTIFICATION AND DROUGHT

Decision-Making: Coordinating Bodies      

No information is available

Decision Making: Legislation and Regulations 

No information is available

Decision-Making: Strategies, Policies and Plans  

No information is available

Decision-Making: Major Groups involvement

No information is available

Programmes and Projects   

No information is available

Status   

There are no deserts or areas in danger of becoming deserts in Austria.

Challenges  

No information is available

Capacity-building, Education, Training and Awareness-raising   

No information is available

Information   

No information is available

Research and Technologies   

No information is available

Financing   

No information is available

Cooperation

Austria has established regional desertification monitoring centers in Senegal and in Burkina Faso.

Austria is in the process of ratifying the UN Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa.

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This information is based on Austria's submission to the 5th Session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, April 1997. Last update: 1 April 1997

For access to the Web Site of the Convention to Combat Desertification and Drought, click here:

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ENERGY

Decision-Making: Coordinating Bodies   

Austria is a federal republic with nine states “Bundesländer”.  The Federal Constitution allocates responsibilities either to the federal level (e.g. energy taxation, energy statistics, energy metering, energy supply emergency regulations) or to both federal level and the level of the states (e.g. electricity, gas, district heating, energy conservation, subsidies, prohibition of nuclear power).

The Federal Ministry of Economic Affairs and Labour (BMWA) is the main body responsible for energy matters on the federal level. Other ministries involved in energy policy matters include: Agriculture and Forestry, Environment and Water Management; Transport, Innovation and Technology; and Finance. Energy policy – as all other policies – is formulated and implemented in close co-operation with the social partner organizations, i.e. organizations representing important groups of society (employers, employees, agriculture), and in dialogue with NGOs  and the public.

On the level of states the responsible bodies for energy matters are units of the authorities of State Governments. What was said of the role of social partner organizations and interaction with NGOs and the public on the federal level does also apply to the level of states.  Responsible public bodies at both federal and state level make use of the expertise of organizations usually referred to as “energy agencies” (in Austria mainly non-profit organizations dealing with energy efficiency and renewable energies) and academic institutions.

Decision Making: Legislation and Regulations 

Energy related aspects are negotiated in respective committees or working groups and legal acts (e.g. a draft of a law) are submitted to parliament for further treatment, or other cases (e.g. a political basis document as the Energy Report) have to be finalized by the council of ministers.

Residential/commercial sector

As far as the insulation of buildings is concerned the states are responsible for creating a regulatory framework that promotes energy efficiency.  In order to ensure a nation-wide coherent, strategy an agreement between the Federal State and the states under Article 15a of the Federal Constitution was concluded which obliges the states to adopt stringent energy efficiency legislation.  Since 1995, when this agreement entered into force, all states have adopted legal regulations which inter alia include provisions on k-values for buildings and efficiency standards for room heating and hot water supply.   A law on the individual metering of heat consumption of apartments in multiple-apartment residential buildings (Heizkostenabrechungsgesetz) now enables individual households to actually influence their energy costs (e.g. through consumption behavior or insulation measures) whereas before the total energy bill of the building was simply allocated in relation to e.g. the square meters of the various apartments.

In the area of household appliances the consumer is aided in his purchasing decision by – mandatory – energy efficiency labels. Products already covered by labeling regulations are refrigerators, washing machines and dryers. For dishwashers and household lamps directives have already been adopted at EU level. They will soon be transformed into national law. In addition an EU-directive for air conditioners is planned.

Transport:

In the transport sector apart from the taxation of fuels, vehicle taxation is used as a powerful tool to stimulate energy efficiency improvements.  In 1992 the fuel consumption tax (‘Normverbrauchsabgabe’) was introduced and is now imposed in addition to the VAT, which is 20 % . The fuel consumption tax has to be paid at the time of the purchase of a new car and depends on the fuel consumption of the vehicle. Before the introduction of the fuel consumption tax, the VAT rate for vehicles was 32 %.

As the fuel consumption tax increases the cost of vehicles depending on fuel consumption, this measure is an incentive for the purchase of energy efficient vehicles.  In addition to the fuel consumption tax a tax on engine performance, which is collected by insurance companies together with insurance premiums (Kraftfahrzeugssteuer), is a tool to stimulate energy efficiency improvements. As it depends on the performance of the engine it favors vehicles with a lower fuel consumption and therefore contributes to improving energy efficiency.

Industry:

Due to the considerable differences in energy consumption in the various industry branches caused by the different production processes, a general assessment of energy efficiency is impossible. That is why – in contrast to the residential/commercial sector and transport – no specific energy efficiency regulations exist for industry. However, the industry sector is subject to environmental legislation which also strongly affects energy efficiency.   Austria further trusts the effectiveness of other three instruments – i.e. RT&D, information dissemination and financial support instruments. These, together with the companies’ permanent endeavors to cut their energy costs has led to substantial efficiency improvements over the last years. Since 1990, industry’s total final energy consumption has decreased even in absolute terms.

The Austrian market for oil and oil products is a deregulated, open and competitive one. There is no regulation of prices.  However, there is price monitoring – and a complementary consultation structure – in order to try to avoid that fuel prices in Austria do not exceed a certain limit which is defined in relation to EU average fuel price level. Implementation of the EU internal market for natural gas is in progress in Austria. Currently natural gas is sold at tariffs which were approved by the responsible authority, the Federal Ministry of Economic Affairs and Labor.  According to new legislation – which should enter into force soon – the market is 50 % open as of 10 August 2000. That means end users with an annual consumption of more than 25 million m³ are free to chose their supplier. As of 1 October 2002 the natural gas market will be 100 % open with the possibility for every natural gas consumer to freely chose his supplier.

Implementation of the EU internal market for electricity is already well advanced in Austria. Currently all electricity consumers with an annual consumption of more than 20 GWh are free to chose their supplier. According to new legislation – which should enter into force soon – the market will be 100 % open as of 1 October 2001. Currently electricity is sold to consumers not yet entitled to freely chose their supplier at tariffs approved by the Federal Ministry of Economic Affairs and Labor. There are also fixed tariffs for providing the grid and for using the grid. On the level of states there are feed-in tariffs for electricity produced on the basis of renewable energy sources fixed through decrees.  he responsibility for regulation of district heat prices – in principle a federal responsibility – was transferred to the states. They have the possibility to regulate prices but only some of them – where district heat is of relevance – do this.

For all other energies there are no price regulations. For exceptional circumstances a federal law gives the Federal Ministry of Economic Affairs and Labor the possibility to regulate prices for grid bound energies, i.e. electricity, gas and district heat.

Relevant Levies and taxes

The following are the tax rates for mineral oil products:

•  unleaded gasoline: ATS 5.610,-- (EUR 407,69)/1.000 l  

• diesel oil: ATS 3.890,-- (EUR 282,70)/1.000 

•  fuel oil, extra light: ATS 950,-- (EUR 69,04 )/1.000 

• fuel oil, heavy, medium, light: ATS 500,-- (EUR 36,34)/t

•  fuel oil, heavy, medium, light (if not used for heating): ATS 3.890,-- (EUR 282,70)/1.000 l

• gaseous hydrocarbons: ATS 3.600,-- (EUR 261,62) / t

• liquid gas (if used as motor fuel): ATS 3.600,-- (EUR 261,62)/t

•  liquid gas (if not used as motor fuel): ATS 600,-- (EUR 43,60)/t

• fuels (instead of gasoline as motor fuel): ATS 5.610,-- (EUR 407,69)/1.000 l

• fuels (in all other cases): ATS 3.890,-- (EUR 282,70)/1.000

• heating materials: ATS 950,-- (EUR 69,04)/1.000 l

•  biogenous materials (incl. biogenous fuels) unmixed: tax free

•  mixes of biogenous materials with mineral oil: bio-diesel (2 %) tax free,  ethanol (5 %) tax free

There are tax exemptions for: 

                -   fuels made exclusively as aircraft fuel, 

                -  mineral oil used as aircraft fuel,

                -  mineral oil used as fuels for boat transport (on the River Danube and the Lake Constance),

                -  liquid gas used as fuels in urban transport and 

                -  some other fuels for certain purposes.

Fuel oil extra light used by railway companies for rail vehicles is effectively taxed at a rate of ATS 950,--(EUR 69,04)/1.000 l (instead 3.890,-- (EUR 282,70)/1.000l).    Mineral oil used in plants for the production of electricity, liquid gas and fuel oil for heating purposes (heavy, medium, light) is exempted from taxation.

In plants for the combined production of heat and power the part of liquid gas, fuel oil (heavy, medium, light) attributable to the production of heat is subject to taxation (ATS 500,-- (EUR 36,34)/t in case of fuel oil; ATS 600,-- (EUR 43,60)/t in case of liquid gas). The quantity used for electricity production is tax free.  Fuel oil extra light is taxed at a reduced rate of ATS 950,-- (EUR 69,04)/1.000 l (instead of (EUR 282,70) ATS 3.890,--/1.000 l).

Electricity (with some exemptions for companies in the electricity sector) is taxed at a rate of ATS 0,2064 (EUR 0,015)/kWh. Auto-producers are exempted from this tax if their annual production is not more than 5.000 kWh.

Natural gas (with some exemptions) is taxed at a rate of ATS 0,60 (EUR 0,04)/m³. Companies in the manufacturing sector can apply for a refund of that part of the electricity and gas taxes which exceeds an amount equivalent to 0,35 % of their value-added.   The use of solid and liquid biomass, of biogas, of thermal solar equipment and geothermal equipment for heat production is not taxed.   Furthermore see policies to promote energy efficiency and conservation in Annex II and policies to promote renewable in Annex III.

Decision-Making: Strategies, Policies and Plans  

Austria’s energy policy is committed to the following four goals:  security, (cost-) efficiency, environmental compatibility, and social acceptability of the energy supply system.  These energy policy goals are fully in line with those of the EU and the principles of the International Energy Agency.

In order to achieve these objectives the Federal Government especially makes use of the following strategies:

• promotion of rational use of energy (improvements in energy efficiency) and

•  promotion of renewable sources of energy.

These strategies are complemented by a number of activities in various energy policy action fields:  Liberalization of energy markets, Diversification of energy sources and suppliers, IEA crisis-mechanisms, Mandatory oil stocks, Prohibition of nuclear energy, and Price monitoring.   The Energy Report (and Energy Action Plan) of the Federal Government describes the Austrian energy supply situation and contains a forecast of energy consumption as well as energy policy goals and measures.  Austria will continue her way of energy policy whereby some pillars beyond the already mentioned ones are setting targets that need special attention.

  Referring to goals the process of energy market-liberalization has to be recalled. Regarding electricity this process is well advanced, regarding gas initial steps are set. Further implementation will continue basing on the Energy Liberalization Act from July 2000, which will enter into force soon.

Decision-Making: Major Groups involvement

Energy production and distribution are nearly completely organized in a private sector. The Federal Republic and the nine states (Bundesländer) respectively the governments of them in principle only set the (legal) framework for activities.

Programmes and Projects 

Most programmes aim at several goals:

The  Federal Ministries of Agriculture and Forestry, Environment and Water Management, have commissioned a projec Energy-/Emmissions-Prognosis and –Scenarios 2000-2020. First results are discussed at present. This study will be part of the next Energy Report of the Federal Government, respectively basis for modification of the Energy Action Programme of the last Energy Report.   The Energy Report of the Federal Government (and Energy Action Programme) is the basis-document of energy policy in Austria. The Energy Action Programme was set up in 1993 and is part of the 1993 Energy Report, which was approved by the Federal Government and taken note of by Parliament. A further Energy Report Action, which contains a review of the Energy Action Programme, was set up in 1996. It was also approved by the Federal Government and taken note of by Parliament. – The Austrian Energy Action Programme contains the following measures with relevance to energy efficiency:

 General measures with relevance to energy efficiency:

•  remuneration of energy policies of the state and the federal levels,

•  use quantitative models as basis for energy policy decisions,

•  improvement of energy statistics,

• setting up of regional energy balances,

•  reform of the laws for grid bound-energies,

• further improvement of education and training for energy consultants,

•  internalization of external costs of energy production and consumption

Room Heating and hot water preparation:

•  improvement of the thermal characteristics of houses,

• limitation of air conditioners,

•  increased passive use of solar energy,

• transparency of energy demand,

• decoupling of hot water preparation and room heating,

• increased use of modern combustion technologies,

• integrated control of systems,

•  improvement of control technologies of heating equipment,

• improvement of maintenance and checks of heating equipment,

• further improvement of the calculation of costs for hot water preparation and room heating according to actual consumption.

  Process heat:

•  improved information on energy flows in companies,

•  improvement of recycling.

Mobility:

-    co-ordination of aspects of transport policy relevant for energy with energy policy objectives,

-         information of drivers on energy saving,

-         improvement of the attractiveness of public transport,

-         increased co-operation of public transport companies,

-         integration of regional planning and planning of multi-modal transport infrastructure,

-         improvement of the attractiveness of walking and biking,

-         traffic information and control systems, co-operative transport management systems,

-         reduction of avoidable traffic peaks in professional and holiday traffic,

-         increased use of new communication technologies,

-         support of multi-modal transport,

-         improvement of the attractiveness of railways,

-         automatic road toll systems and road pricing,

-         programme for reduction of fuel consumption of passenger cars,

-         technological improvement of bus and railway transport,

-         support for electrical cars,

-         intensifying research.

Lighting and data processing:  optimization of lighting and electronic systems.

Biomass:

-         support of modern technologies for the combustion of biomass,

-         support of the use of biomass in CHP production.

Coal:

-         support of the use of new combustion technologies in small scale stoves.

Natural gas:

-         research concerning energy efficient use of natural gas,

-    support of modern, environmentally efficient technologies for small scale stoves.

Electricity:

-         exploitation of the potential for CHP,

-         energy saving through an ecologically optimized transmission line system,

-         efficient use of energy through a reform of pricing regulations.

District heat:

-         calculation of costs according to actual heat consumption.

Obviously the above mentioned programmes overlap partly.  For an overview over further programmes see Annex II (energy efficiency) and Annex III (renewables), for details by sectors and by states see Annex IV.

Due to the recent high oil prices, the Federal Government  - followed by the Governments of the States - decided on a subsidy to heating expenditures of low-income households.   Measures in the energy sector are considered essential for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. Measures include inter alia promotion of district heating (including biomass); increased utilization of renewable sources of energy as solar and wind energy, biomass, sewage gas and biogas (special promotion programs, installation of energy agencies for consulting purposes, increased feed tariffs for electricity); energy-saving in residential heating (tightened minimum requirements in building code, criteria for subsidies for residential construction and rehabilitation); combined heat and power generation; consulting programs for efficient energy use in industry.

Programs comprise inter alia enhancement of public transport systems and increase the quality of their services, improving conditions for pedestrians and cyclists, projects for car-free tourism and mobility management, fuel consumption levy for cars, favorable conditions for biofuels.

Status 

Availability of Renewable Energy Resources in Austria (present estimations)

See also enclosed figures „Indigenous Energy Production„, „Energy Imports„, „Net Import Tangent„, „Total Primary Energy Consumption„, and „Total Final Energy Consumption„ for the years 1973 to 1997.   With key-date 1 January 2000 the proofed reserves of oil come to 11,8 million tons, of natural gas to 26,4 billion cubic meters.

See enclosed figures „Electricity Consumption in GWh„ for the years 1973 to 1997 (ANNEX V).

-   Solar / hydro / wind energy;

-   Nuclear energy;

-   Others (Please specify).

The share of Renewable Energy Resources on Total Energy Consumption in Austria Development from 1993 to 

1998 (in PJ and %) 

Final Data (ÖSTAT 1998)

See also enclosed figures Total Primary Energy Consumption Total Final Energy Consumption and Decoupling of Energy Consumption and Economic Growth for the years 1973 to 1997 and Consumption and Structure of Renewable Energy Sources for the years 1995, 1996 and 1997 - preliminary data (ANNEX V).

The utilization of nuclear fission for energy supply is prohibited in Austria by a federal law that entered into force on 15^th December 1978 as a result of a referendum. Austria does not regard nuclear energy as a viable strategy-option to combat climate change as nuclear energy represents a hazardous technology that is potentially extremely expensive and which is incompatible with the principles of sustainable development.  Market liberalization in Austria (regarding electricity and gas) seems to be in a early stage too early for a reliable assessment of the situation.

Challenges

Energy related activities cause 80 per cent of CO₂ emissions (transport and space heating contribute 1/4 of total emissions each, energy industry less than 1/5), more than 85 per cent of NO_x emissions (more than half of total emissions by transport, about 1/5 by space heating), 80 per cent of SO₂ emissons (1/3 of total emissions by space heating) and about 35 per cent of anthrop. NMVOC emissions. (Sector assignment according to IPCC inventory reporting format.)  Measured at the total CO2-emissions (1997) the most immediate attention requires the transport sector (with a share of more than 29%) followed by the residential sector (with a share of nearly 21%).

Generally it could be seen as a barrier that in Austria measures are set both federal level and states levels. This leads to a variety of measures which are – in details – differently designed and makes it rather difficult to overview the whole landscape of activities. But this is a consequence of the constitutional reality in Austria which – on the other hand – has the great advantage that measures are tailor-made for needs at the regional and local levels. Since Austria’s accession to the EU the situation has become even more complex due to the fact, that with the European Commission there is now an additional player and that certain activities have to be co-ordinated among Member States. But on the other hand being embedded in the European context has also synergetic effects for activities on the national and sub-national levels in Austria.  A barrier for measures in most areas of energy and non-energy policy is certainly the permanent and increasing pressure to reduce public budgets and personnel resources.

Capacity-building, Education, Training and Awareness-raising 

Energy auditing services and agencies at the level of the states offer advice all over Austria in the fields of energy and environment to private organizations (housing companies, building societies, consultants, architects, suppliers, etc. See Information dissemination in Annex II (energy efficiency„) and Annex III (renewables).

Information 

Energy related information is disseminated either manually or electronically in form of bookletts, brochures (studies) etc. by responsible federal ministeries, state governments, agencies, private organisations and academic institutions.  Information which is available to the public is mostly tax-free (see information on dissemination in Annex II and Annex III).   In reaction on the White Paper refering to renewable sources of energy, the Federal Ministries of Economic Affairs and Labour and of Agriculture and Forestry, Environment and Water Management commissioned a study preliminarily called Renewable Strategies to prepare a campaign for take-off. The study will be presented and discussed at the end of November 2000 before completion.

Research and Technologies 

The enclosed figures „Structure of TPES in %, International Comparison„ and „Shares of Renewables in TPES in %, International Comparison„ show impressivly that Austria is very successful in development and utilization of renewables (ANNEX V). This aspect gains additional importance taking into account that Austria does not use nuclear energy (see answer to question 19.).   In 1997 29% of the total government energy research budget of 354,081 Millions ATS were spent on renewables with the following shares in detail:

 * Biomass 56%, Hydro: Large (capacity of 10 MW and above) 8%, Hydro: Small (capacity less than 10 MW) 2%, Solar: Heating and Cooling 16%, Solar: Photo electric 11%, Solar: Thermal electric 0%, Wind 6%, Geothermal energy 1% .  For detailed development of energy R&D Budget see enclosed figure „Energy Research, Development & Demonstration Budget 1995-1997„ (ANNEX V).

Financing 

 See information under Research and Technologies.

 Cooperation

Since the accession to the European Union the European Commission also has an important role in Austria’s energy policy. In a not so direct way – but nevertheless very important too – international organizations, e.g. IEA, UN-ECE and the Energy Charter Secretariat, do have an impact on Austria’s energy policy. Austria takes measures to reduce emissions and protect sinks, annually updates and communicates an inventory of greenhouse gas emissions, has submitted national communications according to the provisions of the protocol, has provided financial contributions to the GEF and bilaterally, promotes research and systematic observation as well as education and public awareness related to the climate system. As to the Montreal Protocol, Austria has issued bans on production, placing on the market and use of prohibited substances.

  In regard to the Kyoto Protocol, the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Environment and Water Management drafted a paper  Climate Strategy 2000-2008/2012 which covers seven areas of measures (room heating, electricity  and heat generation, waste management, transport, industry, agriculture and forestry, greenhouse gases other than CO₂). This draft strategy is at present subject of political discussion.

Kyoto Protocol to the UN-Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1997 Following COP 3 in December 1997 in Kyoto the EU committed itself to a legally binding emissions reduction target of –8% for six greenhouse gases (CO₂, CH₄, N₂O and the three fluorine compounds HFCs, PFCs, SF6) until the period 2008/2012 on the basis of the year 1990. According to the burden sharing within the EU set at the Council of EU-Environment Ministers in June 1998 Austria has to reduce its emissions by –13%.

White Paper for a Community Strategy and Action Plan, Communication from the European Commission ENERGY FOR THE FUTURE: RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY, 1997.  This White Paper required doubling of the share of renewable in the fuel mix (TPES) from 6% to 12 %, an amount Austria has surpassed long ago; nevertheless forcing of renewable will be continued currently and accompanied by a campaign for take-off.  White Paper “An Energy Policy for the European Union” from the European Commission, 1996.  The directives of the Austrian energy policy are fully in line with the directives in this White Paper.

ANNEX I

Provinces = States = Bundesländer = Länder

ANNEX II

Policies to promote energy efficiency and conservation

Policies to promote renewables

ANNEX IV

*    Indicate budget only if data are readily available.