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Decision-Making: Coordinating Bodies
Within the federal system of government, the State and Territory governments have prime constitutional responsibility for land management. All State and Territory governments have departments responsible for agriculture. Within the Commonwealth Government, the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry - Australia (AFFA) is primarily responsible for agricultural matters. Local government has a key "hands on" role in planning and land management in rural areas. Some local governments provide support and co-ordination or work directly with community based local Landcare groups.
The Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand (ARMCANZ), comprises the Commonwealth Government, six State and two Territory government Ministers and aims to develop integrated and sustainable agriculture, land and water management policies, strategies and practices for the benefit of the community.
Other Ministerial Councils that provide relevant policy co-ordination between the Commonwealth and the States include the Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC), the Ministerial Council for Forestry, Fisheries and Aquaculture (MCFFA) and the Australian and New Zealand Minerals and Energy Council (ANZMEC). The Murray-Darling Basin Commission (MDBC) and Murray-Darling Basin Ministerial Council (MDBMC) provide co-ordinated resource management in the Murray-Darling Basin, Australia's largest river system and the site of important segments of Australia's population and industry. Co-ordination is also promoted through intergovernmental committees of officials supporting the Ministerial Councils.
Decision Making: Legislation and Regulations
Formal structures at all levels of government provide community groups and non-government organisations with opportunities to participate in policy development and program implementation. The Commonwealth, States and Territories have established Regional and State Assessment Panels to advise on the selection and evaluation of projects funded from Natural Heritage Trust programs. Catchment Management Committees have been established under State government legislation and the Commonwealth Government has established the Australian Landcare Council. A Community Advisory Committee provides the Murray-Darling Basin Commission with advice from community and non-government organisations.
Community Landcare is an essential instrument for ensuring practical, relevant decision-making for natural resource management in rural Australia. By involving community members who naturally link the social, economic and environmental aspects of their lives and who have the greatest vested interest in change, an integrated and sustainable approach to natural resources management and rural development is being achieved. Some 4500 community groups are now involved in voluntary activities promoting sustainable land management and use, many of which are supported by the National Landcare Program and other programs supported by the Natural Heritage Trust. Landcare groups are becoming the most important source of information on local land management issues for members. About 30 per cent of farmers are now members of local landcare groups. Their activities are enhanced by the operations of local government councils who are increasingly implementing local strategies for sustainable land use.
Australia's National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development (NSESD) acknowledges the national and international dimensions of sustainable development, particularly the important nexus between international trade and its impact on the environment. At the national level, the NSESD calls for the provision of a policy framework, which supports the efficient and environmentally responsible development of the nation's resources. The NSESD provides the policy framework for the Commonwealth, State and Territory Governments to promote the ecologically sustainable management of Australia's environment and natural resources. The NSESD commits Australian Governments to ensure that land use decision making processes and land use allocations meet the overall goal of ecologically sustainable development and are based on a consideration of all land values, uses and flow on effects. Under the NSESD Governments are working to:
Within the framework of the NSESD a number of strategies and plans provide a focus for particular resource issues, including the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity, the revised National Overview for the Decade of Landcare Plan (the main strategic plan for the National Landcare Program), the National Water Quality Management Strategy, the Council of Australian Government (COAG) Water Reform Framework, the National Weeds Strategy and the National Strategy for Rangeland Management. In April 1999 all Australian Governments agreed to implement national principles and guidelines for rangelands management. Additional strategies and plans are being developed from 1999 between the three levels of Australian Governments and regional and community interest groups. These include a National Dryland Salinity Program, a Salinity Management Strategy for the Murray-Darling Basin, and a rehabilitation strategy for the Great Artesian Basin groundwater resource. A National Land and Water Resources Audit is underway to provide benchmark information for these and other initiatives.
The complex nature of the causes of sustainability problems within Australia and the range of participants requires a mix of instruments to provide effective solutions. Therefore, as part of the NSESD Australian governments are undertaking a range of measures to address sustainability issues. These include:
Decision-Making: Strategies, Policies and Plans
Agricultural Policy Review
The Commonwealth Government recognises economic growth as fundamental to alleviating poverty and ensuring food security for all, and has continued to pursue policies aimed at enhancing economic growth within the context of ecologically sustainable development and providing individuals with greater control over available resources, therefore increasing their access to sufficient safe food.
The Commonwealth Government is committed to trade liberalisation, regarding it as the key to promoting global food security, given that freer global trade will enable countries to exploit their comparative advantages and encourage economic growth in both developing and developed countries (see Food Security section). Accordingly, the Australian Government has contributed to world food security by pursuing the removal of international trade impediments to access of food imports through multilateral, regional and bilateral fora, and has also supported the efforts of developing countries to access the gains from free trade, consistent with the Marrakesh outcome.
In line with its stance on trade liberalisation, over the past decade, Commonwealth Government policy has shifted away from price-related assistance, towards market-oriented policies. The Government has progressively reduced protection measures and recast the role of statutory industry bodies who now concentrate on research and development activities, market information and promotion services largely funded by growers. Programs have been developed which raise awareness by farmers and rural communities of the nature and extent of the changes that they must make and that encourage them to acquire the skills and information necessary to manage those changes. Programs emphasise that farmers and communities are responsible for the management of their own affairs and must implement practices that are self reliant, ecologically sustainable and economically viable. Farmers support the new policy framework. They have improved their management and financial skills and adopted new technologies and innovative practices. They have become more flexible and better able to adapt to changing market conditions. Productivity has increased, management of the natural resource base has improved, and linkages with other sectors have been strengthened.
In September 1997, the Commonwealth Government announced an integrated rural policy package titled 'Agriculture - Advancing Australia'. The package is a positive and integrated approach by the Government to helping the farm sector and rural and regional communities successfully adapt to change. The package has as its foundation a desire to work with the people of rural and regional Australia to overcome the many challenges facing its rural industries and communities and secure the profitability, sustainability and competitiveness of the farm sector. Substantial opportunities for growth and development are emerging for Australia's rural industries.
The Commonwealth Government is also developing a comprehensive national Action Plan for Australian Agriculture, Food and Fibre, which will set out the vision for agriculture over the next ten years and identify the roles and responsibilities of all players. The Plan will develop closer links between agricultural producers and the processed food and fibre industries, thereby providing a framework for whole-of-chain planning in Australia. This will help guarantee quality along the entire production chain and position producers, consumers and processors to meet the needs of consumers in increasingly 'demand driven' international and domestic markets. As well as whole-of-chain planning the Action Plan will focus on trade and tax reform, rural infrastructure and communication, regulatory and research aspects of the use of gene technology in food.
Arising from a Land Management Task Force report on ways to improve the adoption of property management planning by the farm sector, the Government has undertaken the National Property Management Planning Campaign. The National Property Management Planning Campaign under the National Landcare Program aims to encourage better planning and management skills of individual farmers for all aspects of farm management, to ensure that planning is carried out on a catchment or regional basis, to take into account the needs of all users and the inter-relationships of land, water and vegetation consistent with the principles of the National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development. The Campaign is now well established and in 1999-2000 will be reviewed and evaluated.
Food Security
The need to improve food security at the global, national and individual levels is supported by the Commonwealth Government. Australia continues to pursue policies aimed at supporting the provision of safe and economically accessible food supplies, and to making an effective contribution to the eradication of hunger and malnutrition throughout the world. In particular, the Commonwealth Government, through the Australian aid program and in partnership with developing countries, has contributed to international efforts to improve world food security through:
Responding to Climate Variability
The Commonwealth Government recognises that there are exceptional circumstances, such as severe drought, that are beyond the scope of normal risk management. It has indicated in the Agriculture-Advancing Australia package that to help farming families in exceptional circumstances areas meet their day-to-day needs, an Exceptional Circumstances Relief Payment can be made, equivalent to welfare payments received by those on in other sectors of the economy facing natural disasters.
The Federal, State and Territory Governments have agreed to a National Drought Policy (NDP) aimed at encouraging primary producers and other sections of rural Australia to adopt self-reliant approaches to management for climatic variability, to maintain and protect Australia's agricultural and environmental resource base during periods of extreme climate stress. The Policy also aimed at ensuring early recovery of agricultural and rural industries, consistent with long-term sustainable levels. A Task Force comprising Commonwealth and State/Territory Government representatives reviewed the NDP following the serious impact of drought in 1994 and 1995 on rural businesses, families and communities. The Task Force recommended Revised Objectives for the National Drought Policy. These objectives are:
Australia has begun to implement energy-substitution strategies to reduce CO2 emissions.
A National Greenhouse Strategy developed in response to Australia's responsibilities under the Framework Convention on Climate Change is being implemented. The National Greenhouse Strategy is the primary strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In November 1997 the Prime Minister released a statement, 'Safeguarding the Future: Australia's Response to Climate Change'. The statement was driven by the need to abate the emission of greenhouse gases and increase the percentage of Australia's energy provided by renewable sources.
There are no programs with specific greenhouse objectives, although as indicated elsewhere in this Part, the Commonwealth Government does have a number of programs in sustainable land management, including the Natural Heritage Trust.
The National Greenhouse Strategy outlines measures in sustainable land management, and the recently announced Greenhouse Gas Abatement Program will be looking at deploying policies and programs in this area.
More information is needed regarding the greenhouse effects of various sustainable land management practices in the Australian context. This information is being compiled under the National Carbon Accounting System which will be compiling information on the effects of sustainable land management practices.
Integrated Pest Management and Control in Agriculture
The Commonwealth, State and Territory Governments have jointly agreed to a National Strategy for the Management of Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals, developed in consultation with a range of interest groups. The Strategy seeks to build awareness and understanding of the current management of agricultural and veterinary chemicals in Australia and to encourage co-ordinated efforts towards improving that management. The Strategy aims at achieving best practice management of agricultural and veterinary chemicals, an outcome that is recognised as essential for the ecologically sustainable management of primary industries. The Strategy provides a national framework for addressing a number of priority issues including chemical residues in produce, environmental contamination, worker safety, the management of spraydrift and the safety of food supplies. By addressing these issues the Strategy aims at minimising the risks to health, the environment and to trade; ensuring the long-term sustainability of agricultural production; and contributing to national prosperity.
The Global Integrated Pest Management Facility has not been used, but its application is being considered.
Water for Sustainable Food Production and Sustainable Rural Development
The issues of water quality, regulation and management (including water use efficiency and the quality of water coming out of the manufacturing processes) are clearly becoming increasingly critical to the food processing industry. The Government recognises that access to safe, clean water supplies is essential to achieving sustainable production practices in industry as well as underpinning Australia's international reputation as a reliable supplier of clean, safe and high quality food products.
In view of the wide ranging economic and ecological dimensions of the water industry the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) agreed that action was required to address the unsustainable use of water and accompanying widespread natural resource and environmental degradation. COAG agreed on a series of measures to reform Australia's water industry and to address the economic, environmental and social implications of reform. The fundamental principle underlying the COAG framework is that water use should be both economically viable and ecologically sustainable. The provision of either direct or indirect subsidies, for example to meet community service obligations, should be transparent. The major elements of the reform strategy include pricing based on full cost recovery, determination of water allocations and entitlements and trading for those entitlements, institutional reforms, and the provision of water for the environment. The implementation of this package by State and Territory Governments is critical for both the long-term viability and sustainability of rural industries and the quality of Australia's rural environment and natural resources. The implementation of these reforms also recognises that if land and water problems are not effectively managed then both economic growth and the state of the environment are jeopardised.
Water quality is being addressed through the National Water Quality Management Strategy, which encourages all responsible parties, including governments and the community, to contribute to better water management. The Strategy is based on policies and principles that apply nation wide and includes guidelines and other documents that focus on a part of the water cycle or a particular activity within the cycle (such as rural land uses and water quality). When fully implemented in 2001 the overall set of measures in the framework will safeguard the environment and ensure that the productive capacity of Australia's resource base is maintained.
The sustainable management of artesian water is a critical issue in Australia's arid and semi-arid rangelands. The Commonwealth Government is providing A$31.8 million over five years from 1999-2000 to rehabilitate bores drawing water from the Great Artesian Basin (GAB). Resources are being provided to implement the GAB Strategic Management Plan currently being developed by the GAB Consultative Council; a joint council representing and co-ordinating the Commonwealth and State Governments, industry and community natural resource management interests in the Basin. The funding will assist in restoring groundwater pressures in key areas of the GAB to support pastoral enterprises and mining and extractive industries in and around the Basin. The aim of the initiative is to provide capital works required in reducing a high level of water wastage and encouraging changes in institutional arrangements, practices and technology required for sustainable management in the future.
Decision-Making: Major Groups involvement
The administrative arrangements for the Natural Heritage Trust are designed to allow community groups to access ten of the Trust supported programs through a single application and assessment process. Projects for funding are selected on the basis of a single application form, then managed through a single payment schedule and an integrated process for monitoring, reporting and evaluation. This simplifies the process for applicants and ensures that projects can be developed that draw on a number of programs that address a range of issues and activities. The administrative process therefore both encourages community group involvement and the integration and co-ordination of environment and conservation programs.
This is in addition to the continuing major role played by the State Departments of Agriculture, Resource Management and Environmental Protection. These organisations are the major suppliers of 'on the ground' applied information and advice either directly via extension programs or indirectly via landcare groups.
Programmes and Projects
The following programs support integrated approaches to the planning and management of land resources underpinning agriculture:
The Commonwealth Government is implementing the National Weeds Program and the National Feral Animal Control Program as part of a co-ordinated effort with the State and Territory Governments for the management of feral animals and weeds. The National Weeds Program assists the States and Territories to strategically address a limited number of high priority weed issues. In excess of A$25 million over six years is being provided to this program, working through all levels of government, industry and the community. The Program has three objectives:
National Weeds Program funds may also be available to help facilitate the implementation of appropriate action plans. Funds may also be used to develop new screening arrangements to help reduce the risks of weeds being introduced through imported plant material, and to promote the co-ordination of effort against weeds through a more strategic approach by enhancing community landowner, land manager and land user acceptance of management responsibility for weeds.
The National Feral Animal Control Program has funding of A$16 million over 5 years, working through all levels of government, industry and the community and has three objectives:
Agricultural industry groups are themselves working to develop and implement strategies and management plans for integrated pest management and to reduce the impact of pesticides on the environment. The Australian cotton industry is addressing environmental management through the industry Pest Management Program, an initiative that encourages growers to take individual responsibility for environment protection and farm management. The program includes guidelines for farm management, integrated pest management and application of pesticides. The Cotton Research and Development Corporation, which has as its major objective bringing about a reduction of pesticide use, assists the program. The Sugar Research and Development Corporation and the Grains Research and Development Corporations also support activities that assist their industries to develop and implement strategies and practices to minimise the use of pesticides and fertilisers.
Status
The Government is committed to microeconomic reform in order to enhance Australia's international competitiveness and to raise living standards and, through improved allocative efficiency, a more sustainable pattern of resource use. The unilateral tariff reductions of recent years have seen the nominal rate of assistance to both the manufacturing and commodities sectors substantially reduced. Australian farm productivity continues to increase through advances in technology and improved farm management. Central to these achievements is the ability of farmers to make appropriate structural adjustments in response to market developments.
The National Rural Finance Summit was held in 1996 to develop a greater appreciation of farm financial issues and identify strategies that will contribute to the long term sustainability, profitability and international competitiveness of the farm sector. The Summit provided the basis for developing a coherent vision for Australian Agriculture with Government, industry, financial institutions and the community working in partnership to achieve a prosperous rural Australia. The Summit emphasised the need to ensure fair and equitable adjustment policies which will help agriculture through periods of adjustment. It acknowledged that arrangements are also needed which assist those in desperate circumstances and those who have no future in the industry to leave farming with dignity, and to support their families while in the process.
Challenges
No information is available
Capacity-building, Education, Training
and Awareness-raising
Awareness raising of the nature and extent of natural resource degradation, as well as stimulating the development and implementation of more sustainable policies and management systems, is a prime objective of a number of programs for sustainable agriculture and the environment that are funded from the Natural Heritage Trust (NHT). As well as funding the National Landcare Information Service which enables individual landholders to access information relevant to their particular needs, the NHT funds a number of publications designed to inform and raise awareness of landholders and the community more generally.
Under the National Heritage Trust, the National Landcare Program (NLP) raises awareness of farmers and rural communities of the nature and extent of resource degradation and assists them to acquire the skills and information necessary to address degradation that is a common concern. The NLP encourages landholders and land managers to adopt self-reliant, economically viable and ecologically sustainable land management practices. Key issues addressed by the programs include support for improved planning and management through the Property Management Planning Campaign and support for regional plans for land, water and salinity management. The NLP and associated programs for the environment and conservation are largely funded through the NHT.
Information
There has been important progress in improving the understanding of Australia's natural resource base. Several databases and geographical information systems have been developed and integrated. In addition the National Land and Water Resources Audit now being undertaken over four years as part of the Natural Heritage Trust has the goal of facilitating improved decision making in land and water resources management. The Audit will compile nationally compatible datasets of parameters which provide a measure of the status of Australia's land and water resources, and which over time will identify changes to that status. The Audit provides the opportunity for government agencies, industry and community groups to work closely to establish a framework for long term monitoring and assessment, providing data to support decision making, and for better understanding other relevant initiatives and investments in data gathering and information systems. It is intended that the Audit will provide a more robust natural resource management environment in Australia, in which decisions are made with the benefit of relevant and comprehensive data, with assessments of the likely costs and benefits from environmental, economic and social perspectives, and in the context of Australia's diverse and fragile natural resources.
Australia has a legislative requirement to prepare state of the environment reports every five years, with the next one due in December 2001. Seven reports recommending indicators - for the land, inland waters, biodiversity, estuaries and the sea, the atmosphere, human settlements, and natural and cultural heritage themes - provide a comprehensive set of indicators for the 2001 state of the environment report and form an important basis for development of sustainability indicators (see http://www.environment.gov.au/epcg/soe/soe.html).
Australia is developing indicators to assist in the sustainable management of its natural resources. Based on the Montreal Process, regional forestry agreements incorporate indicators to assist in the sustainable management of Australia's forest resources. The Bureau of Regional Science is also developing a framework of indicators to assist in the sustainable management of Australia's fisheries. The Standing Committee on Agriculture and Resource Management is also assisting in the development of indicators for Australia's agricultural industries.
The Australian States of Queensland and New South Wales have trial projects on bagasse conversion to electricity through direct combustion extended to year round generation through the use of natural gas and other fuels. Bagasse is only available for about 6 months of the year and natural gas is used for the remaining 6 months. Trials are shortly to commence in the use of wood waste to generate electricity and linked to bagasse based generation would produce year round electricity generation. Liddell electricity generation (power) station is currently trialing the use of waste biomass material in conjunction with the conventional coal based electricity generation system. The adoption of a mandatory target of sourcing an additional 2 percent of national electricity production from renewable source by 2010 will provide additional impetus to these developments.
Research and Technologies
Under the authority of the Primary Industries and Energy Research and Development Act 1989 the Commonwealth has established industry based research and development corporations that fund research designed to improve the profitability and ecological sustainability of a number of agricultural and pastoral industries. The Sugar Research and Development Corporation, for example is funding an Environment and Natural Resources Management program that addresses issues of integrated catchment management, the management of fertilisers and pesticides and the management of water tables and soil acidity. In addition the Corporation is supporting the development of industry practices which maintain and/or enhance the economic viability of sugar production and processing and the industry's natural resource base. This includes issues such the development of pest and disease resistant crop strains, integrated pest management and reduced pesticide systems and water conservation measures.
The Grains Research and Development Corporation is also funding programs designed to protect and enhance the environment. Research areas include factors constraining the adoption of conservation farming practices, integrating best practice farm management with catchment management efforts, integrated pest management practices to reduce control costs and pest resistance, the preservation of genetic resources in species of national significance, and sustainable soil and water management practices. The Cotton Research and Development Corporation also has a major objective of improving the quality and protection of the soil, water and riverine environment and enhancing soil productivity and health.
The Commonwealth, State and Territory governments have maintained an emphasis on support for rural electricity supply. A recent national initiative, 'Measures for a Better Environment' includes a major expansion of program support for remote rural electricity generation from renewable sources, which is to commence in the year 2000.
The Commonwealth Government is also developing an initiative, in collaboration with local government and non-government organisations, to develop a capacity to identify and implement cost effective energy efficiency measures.
Rural based communities and industries in the past eight years have received electricity generated from the introduction of a limited number of wind and photovoltaic based grid linked electricity generation systems. Examples of specific wind based grid linked electricity generation systems include Esperance in Western Australia and Crookwell in New South Wales. Examples of specific photovoltaic based grid linked electricity generation systems include Singleton and Queanbeyan in New South Wales and Kalbarri in Western Australia.
Stand-alone or grid linked fossil fuel based electricity supplies are readily available throughout rural Australia and depend only on household ability to access/use these services. The current available and projected supply is sufficient to meet current and projected industrial demand in urban as well as rural areas.
Government initiatives, technological developments and associated lower system installation costs have led to a gradual expansion in the number of households in rural areas that obtain electricity supply from wind or photovoltaic renewable energy sources. Current Government initiatives associated with the introduction of the new taxation system will, from 1 July 2000, produce a gradually expanded number of wind, photovoltaic and other renewable energy generation systems. The "Household Greenhouse Action" program and its associated publication can be found on the following web site: http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/household/.
A rigorous, efficient and transparent system of regulation for gene technology research and for genetically modified organisms and products is being developed to ensure that human health, biodiversity, sustainable agriculture and the environment are safeguarded. For further information please see the Department of Health and Aged Care homepage at http://www.health.gov.au/tga/gmac/links.htm.
Financing
Land conservation and rehabilitation issues are being dealt with by a number of programs under the Natural Heritage Trust (NHT). The Trust provides funding for the environment of about A$1.5 billion over six years from 1996-97 until June 2002. State and Territory governments provide 'matching' funds and 'on the ground' delivery. The Trust recognises the urgent need for action to address current degradation, and prevent the further decline in the quality of Australia's natural environment. The main objective of the Trust - to conserve, repair and replenish Australia's capital infrastructure - is directly relevant to the core objectives of ecologically sustainable development. The principles of ecologically sustainable development are embedded in the enabling legislation of the Trust. The Trust also recognises the need for the Commonwealth to provide national leadership and work co-operatively with other levels of government and the whole community.
The objectives of the Trust are to:
A substantial proportion of Trust funds is devoted to programs to support sustainable land management. The Trust provides funding for programs and initiatives including the Murray-Darling Basin Initiative, the National Landcare Program, the National Land and Water Resources Audit, the National Reserve System, the Great Artesian Basin Initiative, the National Feral Animal Control Strategy, the National Weeds Strategy, National Vegetation Programs, and the Endangered Species Program.
The Natural Heritage Trust is providing funding of A$1.5 billion over six years from 1996-97 for a number of programs for sustainable agriculture and the environment, including:
These Commonwealth funds are exceeded by State and Territory expenditure and by the investments of landholders themselves.
Trust programs promote regional approaches to project development based on co-operative Partnership Agreements between the Commonwealth and the State/Territory Governments, and involving local government. These agreements encompass the range of activities funded through the NHT and accommodate all relevant Government agencies. The agreements ensure that State and Territory policies and guidelines for environmental protection and sustainable development are consistent with national standards and priorities. In addition, as part of the agreements the Commonwealth seeks complementary and consistent State and Territory regulatory and administrative arrangements.
The most effective scale for the issues addressed by the Trust is usually regional, and funding priority is attached to projects that are an integral part of a regional strategy or plan. A network of Trust facilitators has been established to encourage co-ordination and integration of Trust activities for particular programs (such as Landcare) or interested parties (such as local government or indigenous groups).
Cooperation
Australia's agricultural environments, including tropical and dryland environments, are similar to many developing countries. Despite the challenges which agriculture and rural development present, this is an area where Australia has comparative advantage, with a wide range of relevant agricultural expertise. Under Australia's bilateral aid programs, about A$40 million is spent each year on agricultural production and services, agricultural storage and land survey and conservation. Another A$10 million is spent on forestry activities and A$5 million on fisheries. About A$40 million is spent annually on international agricultural research under the aid program. There are two main ways in which these funds are used: through the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) and through the international agricultural research centres such as the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines.
ACIAR promotes collaborative research among Australian scientists and their developing country counterparts on key aspects of sustainable agriculture including: better land, forest and water management; improved animal husbandry and health; improved management of coastal and marine ecosystems; more effective agronomic practices; minimization of toxic chemical inputs; and socio-economic aspects of sustainable natural resource development and management.
Many of AusAID's activities in other sectors contribute to rural development and poverty alleviation. These include activities in health and education, water resources, transport and communication infrastructure, good governance and micro-enterprise. Support for programs that directly benefit women and girls are also vital for increased agricultural production. These related activities are estimated to involve expenditure of well over $100 million per year.
In addition, the Commonwealth Government continues to pursue policies in line with the commitments it made during the World Food Summit to enhance global food security. Australia was a participant in the negotiation of the 1999 Food Aid Convention, which provides for a minimum food aid package of 4.9 million tonnes of grain from member countries. Under the Convention members will give priority in the allocation of food aid to Least-Developed Countries and Low-Income Countries, many of which are on the WTO list of Net Food-Importing Developing Countries. The Convention also maintains a mechanism for assisting in implementing the 1996 World Food Summit commitment to achieve food security for all and an ongoing effort to eradicate hunger. Australia's annual commitment under the Convention is 250 000 tonnes of grain (wheat equivalent).
* * *
This information was provided by the Government of Australia to the 5th, 6th, and 8th Sessions of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. Last Update: December 1999.
Click here for the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry
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Decision-Making: Coordinating Bodies
Commonwealth
Department of Environment and Heritage (Environment Australia – http://www.environment.gov.au)
is responsible for the development of national policies and programs relating to
environment protection (including atmosphere), but there are a range of other
portfolios and agencies that also make decisions relating to the atmosphere,
including:
Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry;
Foreign Affairs and Trade;
Industry, Science and Resources;
Transport and Regional Services; and
the Australian Greenhouse Office.
Environment Australia has primary responsibility for
implementing Australia's obligations under the Montreal Protocol on Substances
that Deplete the Ozone Layer, its Adjustments and Amendments.
This responsibility is discharged through its: administration and
enforcement of the Ozone Protection Act
1989; development and implementation of national strategies to phase out
ozone depleting substances (ODS); and representation of Australia at Montreal
Protocol fora.
The
Australian Greenhouse Office (AGO – http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/) was
established in 1998 to drive the Australian Government’s greenhouse agenda. It
is a separate agency located within the Commonwealth environment and heritage
portfolio, and reports to the Ministerial Council on Greenhouse.
The AGO is the world’s first dedicated
greenhouse organisation. It is responsible for coordination of domestic climate
change policy, providing a whole of government approach to greenhouse matters.
The AGO also coordinates delivery of Commonwealth greenhouse response
programs, and provides a central point of contact for stakeholder groups.
State
and Territory government environment agencies also exercise some decision-making
powers relating to protection of the atmosphere.
Ministerial
level
Coordination
of environment protection is undertaken by two key bodies:
·
the Australian and
New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC – http://www.environment.gov.au/anzecc/),
comprising environment Ministers from the Australian Commonwealth, State and
Territory and New Zealand governments; and
·
the National
Environment Protection Council, a statutory body with law making powers.
It comprises Ministers (though not necessarily environment Ministers)
appointed from the participating Federal or State/Territory jurisdictions.
Greenhouse matters are
the responsibility of the Ministerial Council on Greenhouse, which is chaired by
the Commonwealth Minister for Environment and
Heritage. The Ministerial Council
also comprises the Minister for Industry, Science and Resources, and the
Minister for Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry and the Minister for Finance
and Administration. The Ministers for Foreign Affairs and Trade, and Transport
and Regional Services, may be co-opted to the Council as appropriate.
Commonwealth/State
departmental level
The Ozone
Protection Consultative Committee (OPCC) is ANZECC's forum for facilitating a
national approach to ozone protection. The
OPCC's mandate and composition are currently under review but, to date, it has
comprised representatives from Commonwealth, State and Territory environment
agencies, industry, community and conservation groups.
The Federal
Government has established the Air Managers Forum, comprising air quality
managers from each of the national and state/territory governments.
The High Level Group on
Greenhouse comprises of high level officials from Commonwealth State and
Territory Governments responsible for implementing measures under the National
Greenhouse Strategy.
Commonwealth
departmental level
Environment
Australia coordinates interdepartmental development and implementation of
Australia's atmospheric protection policies and programs.
It employs both formal mechanisms (e.g. interdepartmental committees) and
informal consultative mechanisms (officer to officer consultation) in fulfilling
this role.
The
Secretaries’ Committee on Greenhouse, chaired by the Secretary of the
Department of Environment and Heritage, supports the Ministerial Council on
Greenhouse. Other members include:
the Secretary of the Department of Industry, Science and Resources; the
Secretary of the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry; the Chief
Executive of the Australian Greenhouse Office; the Ambassador for the
Environment; and a senior official from the Department of Prime Minister and
Cabinet.
Environmental responsibilities
and powers are not specified or ascribed to governments under the Australian
Constitution. Each level of
government in Australia is responsible for particular aspects of environmental
protection, including protection of the atmosphere.
Local Government systems have
been established under State and Territory Government legislation.
Local Government environmental responsibilities vary depending on the
State/Territory jurisdiction, but include activities such as land use planning
and management, infrastructure and
service provision. Air quality
monitoring and control functions form a substantial element of Local Government
environmental responsibilities. Environment issues often transcend government boundaries and
are to be addressed on a local, regional and national basis.
Decision Making: Legislation and Regulations
National
Regulations
National
ambient air quality standards provide the basis for management of air pollution
in Australia. These standards are
set out in a policy instrument entitled the ‘National Environment Protection
Measure for Ambient Air Quality (1998)’, devised by the
National Environment Protection Council on 26 June 1998. The Ambient Air Quality NEPM provides standards for the six
criteria air pollutants to which most Australians are exposed
(see Table 1). Participating
jurisdictions (i.e. all Australian States and Territories) must meet the
standards (or even stricter limits), establish monitoring procedures, and
commence assessment and reporting in accordance with the protocols of the
Ambient Air Quality NEPM.
Table
1.
NEPM Air Quality Standards and Goal
|
Pollutant |
Averaging period |
Maximum concentration |
Goal
within 10
years - Maximum
allowable exceedences |
|
Carbon monoxide |
8 hours |
9.0 ppm |
1 day a year |
|
Nitrogen dioxide |
1 hour 1 year |
0.12 ppm 0.03 ppm |
1 day a year none |
|
Photochemical oxidants (as
ozone) |
1 hour 4 hours |
0.10 ppm 0.08 ppm |
1 day a year 1 day a year |
|
Sulfur dioxide |
1 hour 1 day 1 year |
0.20 ppm 0.08 ppm 0.02 ppm |
1 day a year 1 day a year none |
|
Lead |
1 year |
0.50 µg/m3 |
none |
|
Particles as PM10
|
1 day |
50 µg/m3 |
5 days a
year |
Further information on the Ambient Air Quality NEPM is
available at http://www.nepc.gov.au.
A National Environment Protection Measure for air toxics is
currently being considered.
State/Territory
Regulations
State and Territory Governments implement the national ambient air standards, regulate emissions of pollutants into the air, and manage other air quality issues through there own environment protection and planning legislation. Some jurisdictions enforce standards higher than national standards set out in the Ambient Air NEPM. The Clean Air Society of Australia and New Zealand has summarised the air pollution prevention regulations in each State/Territory as of October 2000. This summary is available from: www.ozemail.com.au/~mainpage/publicat/pub_main.htm.
State and Territory environmental protection
legislation can be found via the following Internet sites:
NSW:
http://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/index.asp
QLD:
http://www.env.qld.gov.au/environment/environment/air/
WA: http://www.environ.wa.gov.au/DEP/aqm/
ACT:
http://www.act.gov.au/environ/air.html
NT:
http://www.lpe.nt.gov.au/default.htm
SA:
http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/epa/noise.html
TAS:
http://www.dpiwe.tas.gov.au/
VIC:
http://www.epa.vic.gov.au/aq/
Australia
introduced the National Fuel Quality Standards Act in 2000.
Under this legislation, fuel quality standards will be introduced from
2002 as follows:
– Euro2 equivalent petrol in 2002 and Euro 3 equivalent petrol in 2005
–
Euro2 equivalent diesel in 2002 and Euro 3 equivalent diesel in
2006 (with the exception of the sulfur level in diesel which will be Euro 4
level of 50 ppm).
The Commonwealth has passed the Motor Vehicle Standards Act 1989 to limit pollution from motor
vehicles.
Under
the Montreal Protocol, Australia is obligated to eliminate ozone depleting
substances (ODS). This is being
addressed through Australia's Ozone Protection Strategy and complementary
legislation and controls enacted by Commonwealth, State and Territory
governments.
Environment
Australia administers and enforces the Commonwealth's Ozone Protection Act 1989 (the Act - see web-site http://www.environment.gov.au/epg/ozone/opandg.html).
It
controls the import, export and manufacture of bulk ODS through a licence and
quota system, and the import and manufacture of products containing specific
ODS, including chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halon.
The original Act phased out Australia's consumption
(production + import - export) of the ODS CFCs, methyl chloroform (MCL) and
carbon tetrachloride (CTC) by 31 December 1995, and halon consumption by 31
December 1992.
Amendments to the Act have restricted import, export and
manufacture of CFCs, MCL and CTC to a very limited range of essential uses
agreed under the Montreal Protocol. Import,
export and manufacture of HCFCs and methyl bromide is now also subject to the
licensing and quota system, which phases out these ODS in line with Protocol
obligations. Australia does not
currently manufacture ODS, and HCFC consumption is approximately half the level
allowed under the Protocol.
State
and Territory governments control the sale, use, handling and distribution of
ODS through various means. These
include: licensing ODS transactions; mandatory training and accreditation of ODS
equipment service personnel; mandatory recovery and return of ODS; and mandatory
decommissioning of portable and fixed halon systems, except where grounds for
essential use apply.
The Australian Government’s renewable energy target seeks
to increase the renewable energy contribution to Australia’s electricity mix
to 9,500 GWh by 2010.
There is limited use of financial incentives to achieve air
quality objectives in Australia. The
national introduction of a one cent per litre (later increased to two cents per
litre) price differential between leaded and unleaded petrol, in 1994, led to a
significant increase in use of unleaded petrol. At the State/Territory level, some governments employ a
load-based licensing approach to controlling emissions from industry.
This system is based on the polluter pays principle, linking licence
conditions and fees to a facility’s level of emissions. Under the Measures
for a Better Environment Statement (see web-site http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/measures/index.html,
or see question 7 of this Part), Australia will investigate the effect of a low
sulfur excise differential on diesel fuel of 1 cent from 2003 and 2 cents from
2004.
Financial
regulatory disincentives
Australian companies trading in ozone depleting substances
(ODS) must comply with Commonwealth regulatory requirements, including payment
of licence and activity fees. The
Commonwealth's Ozone Protection Act
imposes fees on ODS import and manufacture.
Licence fees range from $2,000 to $10,000, while activity fees are
charged per metric tonne of methyl bromide imported or manufactured (A$90/metric
tonne), and per ozone depleting tonne (ODPT = the volume of ODS used multiplied
by its capacity to damage the ozone layer) of HCFC imported or manufactured
(A$2000/ODPT). These fees are a
means of administrative cost recovery, and a source of funding for HCFC and
methyl bromide phase out programs.
Financial
regulatory/market-based disincentives
The Act's licensing and quota system limits the total
volume of ODS that can be imported or manufactured.
To import or manufacture HCFCs, companies must hold both a licence and a
quota. While companies deemed 'fit
and proper' are eligible for a licence, quotas are based on previous market
activity. Prospective new HCFC
market entrants must seek a quota or portion thereof from an incumbent quota
holder. The price of such transfers
is determined by the market. Future international trade in greenhouse
emissions permits and credits is possible under the Kyoto Protocol. The Commonwealth Government is considering the establishment
of a national emissions trading system.
Decision-Making: Strategies, Policies and Plans
There is no single strategy covering the range of
atmospheric protection issues. Rather, there are separate policy documents and
initiatives for each area (ie greenhouse, ozone, air pollution). Australia
has developed a multi-faceted national strategy addressing greenhouse issues,
underpinned by Federal Government funding of almost $1 billion over 5 years. This is one of the highest per capita public investments in
greenhouse in the world.
The National Greenhouse Strategy, which was released in November 1998, has been developed between the Commonwealth, State and Territory Governments. The Australian Local Government Association, industry and community groups also contributed to development of the Strategy.
The goals of the Strategy are:
to meet Australia’s international and domestic commitments to limit net greenhouse gas emissions;
to foster knowledge and understanding of greenhouse issues; and
to lay the foundations for adaptation to climate change.
Key
sectors covered by the National Greenhouse Strategy include energy, transport,
industry, waste, agriculture and vegetation, and households.
The strategy details both existing actions and additional measures.
A copy of the National Greenhouse Strategy is available electronically
at: http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/policy/
Carbon
Sequestration
Policies
and actions promoting sustainable agriculture and land use, and enhanced natural
resource management, have been in place in Australia for some time.
Module 6 of the National Greenhouse Strategy describes and builds on
these. Major current activities are described below.
Bushcare:
The National Vegetation Initiative
This
initiative aims to conserve biodiversity and contribute to the ecologically
sustainable management of natural resources.
Bushcare (http://www.environment.gov.au/bg/bushcare/) is a component of
the $1.25 billion Natural Heritage Trust (http://www.nht.gov.au/index.html) and
provides a ten fold increase in on-ground funding for vegetation programs.
Other relevant components of the Natural Heritage Trust include the
National Landcare Program (http://www.landcareaustralia.com.au/), the National
Rivercare (http://www.rivercare.gov.au) Program and
the Farm Forestry Program (http://www.affa.gov.au/docs/forestry/farm_forestry/farm_forestry_toc.html).
Natural Resource Management:
National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality in Australia
Synergies
between salinity mitigation and greenhouse will be recognised in implementing
the Action Plan.
Plantations for Australia: the
2020 Vision
This strategy, launched in 1997, aims
to increase the rate of plantation expansion in Australia to an average of
80,000 hectares of plantation forest a year, or a total of two million hectares
by 2020 through government and industry collaboration.
For further information, see web-site address http://www.affa.gov.au/docs/forestry/plantations/2020.html
Sustainable Agriculture
Sustainable
agricultural management practices, which deliver reductions in net greenhouse
gas emissions, are being promoted through a range of programs including through
the Greenhouse Challenge, existing extension services, Landcare (http://www.landcareaustralia.com.au/),
adult learning processes, the Internet and other information sources for rural
and regional Australia.
Sustainable Forestry
The
National Forest Policy Statement (http://www.rfa.gov.au/rfa/national/nfps/index.html)
and the Regional Forest Agreement process (http://www.rfa.gov.au/) are the main
mechanisms in place to ensure sustainable management of forests.
Private forest owners will be encouraged to manage private forests on a
sustainable basis through basic inventory and monitoring and application of
Codes of Practice. Education and
extension programs are currently being developed to increase greenhouse
awareness among private forest growers.
Ozone
Protection
Australia’s Strategy
for Ozone Protection (http://www.environment.gov.au/epg/ozone/opstrat.htm),
developed in 1989, was subsequently revised in 1994 by two ANZECC bodies:
the Ozone Protection Working Group (OPWG
- since dissolved), comprising relevant Commonwealth, State and Territory
government representatives; and the Ozone Protection Consultative Committee (OPCC),
comprising government, industry, community and conservation groups.
While implementation of
the Strategy’s recommendations was not mandatory, the majority have been
implemented through the complementary Commonwealth, State and Territory
legislation described above, and a number of industry initiatives.
Industry
initiatives include: the development of Codes of Practice to minimise ODS
emissions during the servicing, repair and decommissioning of ODS equipment; and
establishment of Refrigerant Reclaim Australia (RRA), a program for the
responsible recovery, reclamation and destruction of ozone depleting
refrigerants.
Environment Australia,
in consultation with key industry, government and community stakeholders, has
also developed ODS-specific strategies. These
are Australia's National Halon Management
Strategy (http://www.environment.gov.au/epg/ozone/hms.htm)
and the National Methyl Bromide Response
Strategy: Part 1 Horticultural Uses (http://www.environment.gov.au/epg/ozone/downloads/mebrhorticulturalstrategydownload.htm).
Consultation on the development of Australia's strategy to phase out
quarantine and pre-shipment uses of methyl bromide has commenced.
Measures for a Better
Environment
A
number of initiatives with respect to the improved management of transport
emissions and greenhouse gases were announced by the Commonwealth Government as
part of the New Tax System for Australia. These
initiatives are described as the Measures for a Better Environment (see web-site
address http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/measures/index.html).
These initiatives include development of a National
Environment Protection Measure for Diesel Emissions and in-service testing
facilities for diesel and petrol vehicles.
Australia’s objectives and strategies for reducing
greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing sinks are described in the National
Greenhouse Strategy.
Ozone
Depletion
Short
term (2-3 years)
Develop a strategy to phase out quarantine and pre-shipment applications of methyl bromide;
achieve a 50% consumption reduction by 2001, and 70% reduction by 2003, in Australia's methyl bromide consumption for non-quarantine and pre-shipment applications, in line with the Montreal Protocol's control measures;
reduce Australia's HCFC import and manufacture to 190 ODPT by 2002, in line with the Act (this represents an HCFC phase out more than 60% greater than that required of Australia under the Montreal Protocol); and
develop Australia's ozone bilateral assistance strategy,
to support the ODS phase out efforts of developing countries.
Long
term (5-10 years)
Achieve phase out of non-quarantine and pre-shipment applications of methyl bromide by 1 January 2005, in accordance with Australia's Montreal Protocol obligations; and
reduce Australia's HCFC import and manufacture to 160 ODPT by 2005, and 90 ODPT by 2010, in accordance with the Act.
Decision-Making: Major Groups involvement
Consultation on greenhouse and air quality policy occurs
across a broad range of stakeholder groups including community members, business
and industry. Non-government
organisations (NGOs), business and industry, the scientific community and
farmers are also involved in the ozone protection decision-making process.
They have advisory roles and a number have also participated in the
Australian delegation to international ozone fora as observers.
Major policy initiatives generally include public
distribution of discussion papers, inviting comments that are taken into account
for further policy and program development. These initiatives also often involve extensive face-to-face
consultation with non-government organisations, business, industry, scientific
and technological communities.
Their participation in decision making is ensured through
the following formal consultative mechanisms:
|
Consultative
mechanism |
Scope |
Membership |
|
Ozone Protection Consultative Committee (see reply to question 2) |
International and domestic ozone issues |
NGOs, business and industry, scientific community |
|
Methyl Bromide Consultative Group |
International & domestic methyl bromide issues |
NGOs, business and industry, scientific community,
farmers |
|
National Halon Essential Uses Panel |
Assesses applications for halon essential use status |
Business and industry, scientific community, trade union |
|
Ozone Protection Reserve Advisory Committee (see reply to question 11) |
Assesses applications for Reserve grants |
Business and industry, scientific community |
|
CFC-free MDI stakeholder group |
International & domestic CFC MDI transition issues |
Business and industry, scientific community |
|
National Dialogue on Greenhouse |
International and domestic response to global warming |
Business and industry |
|
Transport Emissions Liaison Group |
Domestic
vehicle emissions issues. |
Industry, government and NGOs |
|
National Environment Consultative Forum |
International and domestic response to a broad range of environmental issues including global warming and atmospheric protection |
NGOs |
Programmes and Projects
The
current mix of programs to mitigate climate change includes voluntary,
regulatory and market based approaches. A
number of key elements are:
Greenhouse Gas Abatement
Program
The
Greenhouse Gas Abatement Program (GGAP – see web-site http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/ggap/index.html)
is a major part of the Australian Government’s efforts to meet its commitments
under the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change. The GGAP supports activities promoting substantial greenhouse gas
emission reductions and sink enhancement, particularly during the first
commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol (2008-2012). The Program has been
allocated $400 million for the period 2000-2001 to 2003-2004.
GGAP funds projects delivering large-scale, cost-effective and long-term
reductions in Australia’s net greenhouse gas emissions, across all relevant
sectors. Funding commenced in July 2000.
GGAP employs
competitive bidding to fund projects for large-scale, cost-effective, sustained
abatement. Four program themes have been identified: technology deployment;
regional greenhouse partnerships; built environment and infrastructure; and
greenhouse abatement facilitation. Transport projects will be considered under
the technology deployment and built environment and infrastructure themes.
GGAP
funding will be considered for tree planting as part of the regional greenhouse
partnerships theme, in circumstances where tree planting is not the primary
objective and is part of a broader approach to greenhouse gas abatement
involving, for example the development of biomass energy or bio-fuels.
GGAP funding will also be considered for broad scale revegetation
projects that meet other eligibility and merit criteria, such as large scale
abatement, and make substantial contributions to high-priority natural resource
management outcomes, such as the mitigation of dry-land salinity.
Renewable
Energy Support
To encourage the uptake of renewable energy, the Australian
Government is providing almost $400 million over five years for programs
supporting the commercialisation and application of renewable energy
technologies, and to support development of Australia's renewable energy
industry.
Greenhouse
Challenge Program
The Greenhouse
Challenge Program, initiated in 1995, seeks to assist Australian industry reduce
greenhouse emissions, and enhance greenhouse gas sinks. The program promotes
partnerships between the Commonwealth and individual enterprises. Under
the program, industry has primary responsibility for developing greenhouse gas
abatement plans, and reporting progress in implementing them. The
Commonwealth’s role is to: promote the program; support development and
implementation of cooperative agreements; remove impediments to improved
greenhouse gas performance by industry; and evaluate and report on the program's
performance.
To date, over 400 agreements have been made. The program
has resulted in industry partners abating
upwards of 20 million tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions. Reductions have been
achieved by investments in new technology, process and energy efficiency
improvements, fuel switching and the capture of fugitive emissions. For
further information, see web-site address http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/challenge/)
Bush
for Greenhouse Program
The
Bush for Greenhouse Program (http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/pubs/factsheets/fs_bush.html)
is a new initiative to leverage corporate sector interest in carbon
sequestration to fund revegetation projects.
A Carbon Broker has been appointed to facilitate business investment in
replanting activities and manage the resulting carbon pool.
Investors in Bush for Greenhouse can claim carbon offsets under the
Greenhouse Challenge program. Further
details of activities to enhance greenhouse sinks and sustainable land
management are available on the web-site http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/sinks/.
See web-site http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/ncas/
Programs
are already underway in the textile, hospital and hotel sectors with several
more being developed for implementation in 1998. As part of the Prime Minister's
package of further greenhouse actions announced in November 1997 extra funding
of $27 million will be provided to extend the program to smaller companies and
to increase the number of large and medium companies to 500 by the year 2000 and
to more than 1000 companies by 2005.
Climate Change Research
Australia carries out significant research relating to all aspects of air quality, including:
monitoring and measurement of pollutant concentrations;
characterisation of emissions;
assessment of health implications; and
source control actions and costs.
This work is undertaken by agencies at many levels,
including governments, research institutes, universities and the private sector.
Australia has committed some $100 million up to 2003/4, to
improve our understanding of greenhouse science. This will be the responsibility of two primary agencies, the
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO – http://www.csiro.au/)
and the Bureau of Meteorology (BOM – http://www.bom.gov.au/).
CSIRO is Australia's largest single exponent of atmospheric and
greenhouse-related research. Areas
of research include the nature and science of climate change, options for
mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions, sink-related matters, and climate change
impacts and adaptation. The Bureau
of Meteorology Research Centre works to improve our understanding of, and
ability to predict, weather and climate. It also undertakes greenhouse research,
contributing to the scientific assessment of climate change.
In
August 2000, the Australian Government announced additional grants totalling
$600,000 for 57 Antarctic research projects, involving universities and
government research agencies throughout Australia.
A primary focus of this latest research effort will be air, ice and rock
studies contributing to a better understanding of climate change. Australia's
research in Antarctica provides vital baseline information on the Earth's
climate.
Further
information on the aforementioned programs is available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/library/pubs/budget/budget2000/ebs/activities/greenhouse.html
Clear
the Air – Natural Heritage Trust Projects to Improve Urban Air Quality
The Commonwealth Government
commissioned the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering to
conduct an independent Inquiry into Urban Air Pollution, funded under the Air
Pollution in Major Cities Program (http://www.nht.gov.au/programs/airqual.html).
Clear the Air is the first step in the Commonwealth’s response to
the recommendations of the Inquiry and includes a number of projects for
national action in five key areas: transport; industry; residential; air quality
monitoring; and coordination. Ongoing
projects address the priority areas of transport and wood-smoke emissions, and
the impacts of particulate emissions.
Further information on Clear
the Air projects is available at www.environment.gov.au/epg/air_water.html.
BOM operates an observational program mapping long-term changes in the abundance an