| United Nations | A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. II) |
General Assembly
Distr. GENERAL
13 August 1992
ORIGINAL: ENGLISH
REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON ENVIRONMENT
AND DEVELOPMENT*
(Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992)
*The present document is a
preliminary version of the report of the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development and is being issued in five volumes. The Rio
Declaration on Environment and Development and section I (Social and
economic dimensions) of Agenda 21 are in volume I; section II (Conservation
and management of resources for development) of Agenda 21 is in volume II;
and sections III (Strengthening the role of major groups) and IV (Means of
implementation) of Agenda 21 and the non-legally binding authoritative
statement of principles for a global consensus on the management,
conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests are in
volume III. The proceedings of the Conference and opening and closing
statements are in volume IV. Statements made during the Summit Segment are
in volume V.
92-38358 3401-03i (E) 110992
/... CONTENTS*
Annex II. AGENDA 21 (continued)
Chapter Paragraphs
Page
SECTION II. CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF RESOURCES
FOR DEVELOPMENT
9. Protection of the atmosphere ....................... 9.1 - 9.354
10. Integrated approach to the planning and management
of land resources .................................. 10.1 - 10.1817
11. Combating deforestation ............................ 11.1 - 11.4024
12. Managing fragile ecosystems: combating
desertification and drought ........................ 12.1 - 12.6342
13. Managing fragile ecosystems: sustainable mountain
development ........................................ 13.1 - 13.2462
14. Promoting sustainable agriculture and rural
development ........................................ 14.1 - 14.10471
15. Conservation of biological diversity ............... 15.1 - 15.11103
16. Environmentally sound management of biotechnology .. 16.1 - 16.46111
17. Protection of the oceans, all kinds of seas,
including enclosed and semi-enclosed seas, and
coastal areas and the protection, rational use and
development of their living resources .............. 17.1 - 17.136130
18. Protection of the quality and supply of freshwater
resources: application of integrated approaches to
the development, management and use of water
resources .......................................... 18.1 - 18.90167
19. Environmentally sound management of toxic chemicals,
including prevention of illegal international
traffic in toxic and dangerous products ............ 19.1 - 19.76207
* For section I (Social and economic dimensions), see
A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. I); for section III (Strengthening the role of major
groups) and section IV (Means of implementation), see
A.CONF/151/26 (Vol. III).
CONTENTS (continued)
Chapter Paragraphs
Page
20. Environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes,
including prevention of illegal international traffic
in hazardous wastes ................................. 20.1 - 20.46227
21. Environmentally sound management of solid wastes and
sewage-related issues ............................... 21.1 - 21.49245
22. Safe and environmentally sound management of
radioactive wastes .................................. 22.1 - 22.9262 Chapter 9
PROTECTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
INTRODUCTION
9.1. Protection of the atmosphere is a broad and multidimensional endeavour
involving various sectors of economic activity. The options and measures
described in the present chapter are recommended for consideration and, as
appropriate, implementation by Governments and other bodies in their efforts
to protect the atmosphere.
9.2. It is recognized that many of the issues discussed in this chapter are
also addressed in such international agreements as the 1985 Vienna
Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, the 1987 Montreal Protocol
on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer as amended, the 1992 United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and other international,
including regional, instruments. In the case of activities covered by such
agreements, it is understood that the recommendations contained in this
chapter do not oblige any Government to take measures which exceed the
provisions of these legal instruments. However, within the framework of
this chapter, Governments are free to carry out additional measures which
are consistent with those legal instruments.
9.3. It is also recognized that activities that may be undertaken in
pursuit of the objectives of this chapter should be coordinated with social
and economic development in an integrated manner with a view to avoiding
adverse impacts on the latter, taking into full account the legitimate
priority needs of developing countries for the achievement of sustained
economic growth and the eradication of poverty.
9.4. In this context particular reference is also made to programme area A
of chapter 2 of Agenda 21 (Promoting sustainable development through trade).
9.5. The present chapter includes the following four programme areas:
(a) Addressing the uncertainties: improving the scientific basis for
decision-making;
(b) Promoting sustainable development:
(i) Energy development, efficiency and consumption;
(ii) Transportation;
(iii) Industrial development;
(iv) Terrestrial and marine resource development and land use;
(c) Preventing stratospheric ozone depletion;
(d) Transboundary atmospheric pollution.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Addressing the uncertainties: improving the scientific
basis for decision-making
Basis for action
9.6. Concern about climate change and climate variability, air pollution
and ozone depletion has created new demands for scientific, economic and
social information to reduce the remaining uncertainties in these fields.
Better understanding and prediction of the various properties of the
atmosphere and of the affected ecosystems, as well as health impacts and
their interactions with socio-economic factors, are needed.
Objectives
9.7. The basic objective of this programme area is to improve the
understanding of processes that influence and are influenced by the Earth's
atmosphere on a global, regional and local scale, including, inter alia,
physical, chemical, geological, biological, oceanic, hydrological, economic
and social processes; to build capacity and enhance international
cooperation; and to improve understanding of the economic and social
consequences of atmospheric changes and of mitigation and response measures
addressing such changes.
Activities
9.8. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
(a) Promote research related to the natural processes affecting and
being affected by the atmosphere, as well as the critical linkages between
sustainable development and atmospheric changes, including impacts on human
health, ecosystems, economic sectors and society;
(b) Ensure a more balanced geographical coverage of the Global Climate
Observing System and its components, including the Global Atmosphere Watch,
by facilitating, inter alia, the establishment and operation of additional
systematic observation stations, and by contributing to the development,
utilization and accessibility of these databases;
(c) Promote cooperation in:
(i) The development of early detection systems concerning changes and
fluctuations in the atmosphere;
(ii) The establishment and improvement of capabilities to predict such
changes and fluctuations and to assess the resulting environmental
and socio-economic impacts;
(d) Cooperate in research to develop methodologies and identify
threshold levels of atmospheric pollutants, as well as atmospheric levels of
greenhouse gas concentrations, that would cause dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system and the environment as a whole, and the
associated rates of change that would not allow ecosystems to adapt
naturally;
(e) Promote, and cooperate in the building of scientific capacities,
the exchange of scientific data and information, and the facilitation of the
participation and training of experts and technical staff, particularly of
developing countries, in the fields of research, data assembly, collection
and assessment, and systematic observation related to the atmosphere.
B. Promoting sustainable development
1. Energy development, efficiency and consumption
Basis for action
9.9. Energy is essential to economic and social development and improved
quality of life. Much of the world's energy, however, is currently produced
and consumed in ways that could not be sustained if technology were to
remain constant and if overall quantities were to increase substantially.
The need to control atmospheric emissions of greenhouse and other gases and
substances will increasingly need to be based on efficiency in energy
production, transmission, distribution and consumption, and on growing
reliance on environmentally sound energy systems, particularly new and
renewable sources of energy. 1/ All energy sources will need to be used in
ways that respect the atmosphere, human health and the environment as a
whole.
9.10. The existing constraints to increasing the environmentally sound
energy supplies required for pursuing the path towards sustainable
development, particularly in developing countries, need to be removed.
Objectives
9.11. The basic and ultimate objective of this programme area is to reduce
adverse effects on the atmosphere from the energy sector by promoting
policies or programmes, as appropriate, to increase the contribution of
environmentally sound and cost-effective energy systems, particularly new
and renewable ones, through less polluting and more efficient energy
production, transmission, distribution and use. This objective should
reflect the need for equity, adequate energy supplies and increasing energy
consumption in developingcountries, and should take into consideration the situations of countries
that are highly dependent on income generated from the production,
processing and export, and/or consumption of fossil fuels and associated
energy-intensive products and/or the use of fossil fuels for which countries
have serious difficulties in switching to alternatives, and the situations
of countries highly vulnerable to adverse effects of climate change.
Activities
9.12. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
(a) Cooperate in identifying and developing economically viable,
environmentally sound energy sources to promote the availability of
increased energy supplies to support sustainable development efforts, in
particular in developing countries;
(b) Promote the development at the national level of appropriate
methodologies for making integrated energy, environment and economic policy
decisions for sustainable development, inter alia, through environmental
impact assessments;
(c) Promote the research, development, transfer and use of improved
energy-efficient technologies and practices, including endogenous
technologies in all relevant sectors, giving special attention to the
rehabilitation and modernization of power systems, with particular attention
to developing countries;
(d) Promote the research, development, transfer and use of
technologies and practices for environmentally sound energy systems,
including new and renewable energy systems, with particular attention to
developing countries;
(e) Promote the development of institutional, scientific, planning and
management capacities, particularly in developing countries, to develop,
produce and use increasingly efficient and less polluting forms of energy;
(f) Review current energy supply mixes to determine how the
contribution of environmentally sound energy systems as a whole,
particularly new and renewable energy systems, could be increased in an
economically efficient manner, taking into account respective countries'
unique social, physical, economic and political characteristics, and
examining and implementing, where appropriate, measures to overcome any
barriers to their development and use;
(g) Coordinate energy plans regionally and subregionally, where
applicable, and study the feasibility of efficient distribution of
environmentally sound energy from new and renewable energy sources;
(h) In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote cost-effective
policies or programmes, including administrative, social and economic
measures, in order to improve energy efficiency;
(i) Build capacity for energy planning and programme management in
energy efficiency, as well as for the development, introduction, and
promotion of new and renewable sources of energy;
(j) Promote appropriate energy efficiency and emission standards or
recommendations at the national level, 2/ aimed at the development and use
of technologies that minimize adverse impacts on the environment;
(k) Encourage education and awareness-raising programmes at the local,
national, subregional and regional levels concerning energy efficiency and
environmentally sound energy systems;
(l) Establish or enhance, as appropriate, in cooperation with the
private sector, labelling programmes for products to provide decision makers
and consumers with information on opportunities for energy efficiency.
2. Transportation
Basis for action
9.13. The transport sector has an essential and positive role to play in
economic and social development, and transportation needs will undoubtedly
increase. However, since the transport sector is also a source of
atmospheric emissions, there is need for a review of existing transport
systems and for more effective design and management of traffic and
transport systems.
Objectives
9.14. The basic objective of this programme area is to develop and promote
cost-effective policies or programmes, as appropriate, to limit, reduce or
control, as appropriate, harmful emissions into the atmosphere and other
adverse environmental effects of the transport sector, taking into account
development priorities as well as the specific local and national
circumstances and safety aspects.
Activities
9.15. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
(a) Develop and promote, as appropriate, cost-effective, more
efficient, less polluting and safer transport systems, particularly
integrated rural and urban mass transit, as well as environmentally sound
road networks, takinginto account the needs for sustainable social, economic and development
priorities, particularly in developing countries;
(b) Facilitate at the international, regional, subregional and
national levels access to and the transfer of safe, efficient, including
resource-efficient, and less polluting transport technologies, particularly
to the developing countries, including the implementation of appropriate
training programmes;
(c) Strengthen, as appropriate, their efforts at collecting, analysing
and exchanging relevant information on the relation between environment and
transport, with particular emphasis on the systematic observation of
emissions and the development of a transport database;
(d) In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote cost-effective
policies or programmes, including administrative, social and economic
measures, in order to encourage use of transportation modes that minimize
adverse impacts on the atmosphere;
(e) Develop or enhance, as appropriate, mechanisms to integrate
transport planning strategies and urban and regional settlement planning
strategies, with a view to reducing the environmental impacts of transport;
(f) Study, within the framework of the United Nations and its regional
commissions, the feasibility of convening regional conferences on transport
and the environment.
3. Industrial development
Basis for action
9.16. Industry is essential for the production of goods and services and is
a major source of employment and income, and industrial development as such
is essential for economic growth. At the same time, industry is a major
resource and materials user and consequently industrial activities result in
emissions into the atmosphere and the environment as a whole. Protection of
the atmosphere can be enhanced, inter alia, by increasing resource and
materials efficiency in industry, installing or improving pollution
abatement technologies and replacing chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other
ozone-depleting substances with appropriate substitutes, as well as by
reducing wastes and by-products.
Objectives
9.17. The basic objective of this programme area is to encourage industrial
development in ways that minimize adverse impacts on the atmosphere by,
inter alia, increasing efficiency in the production and consumption by
industry of all resources and materials, by improving pollution-abatement
technologies and by developing new environmentally sound technologies.
Activities
9.18. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
(a) In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote
cost-effective policies or programmes, including administrative, social and
economic measures, in order to minimize industrial pollution and adverse
impacts on the atmosphere;
(b) Encourage industry to increase and strengthen its capacity to
develop technologies, products and processes that are safe, less polluting
and make more efficient use of all resources and materials, including
energy;
(c) Cooperate in the development and transfer of such industrial
technologies and in the development of capacities to manage and use such
technologies, particularly with respect to developing countries;
(d) Develop, improve and apply environmental impact assessments to
foster sustainable industrial development;
(e) Promote efficient use of materials and resources, taking into
account the life cycles of products, in order to realize the economic and
environmental benefits of using resources more efficiently and producing
fewer wastes;
(f) Support the promotion of less polluting and more efficient
technologies and processes in industries, taking into account area-specific
accessible potentials for energy, particularly safe and renewable sources of
energy, with a view to limiting industrial pollution, and adverse impacts on
the atmosphere.
4. Terrestrial and marine resource development and land use
Basis for action
9.19. Land-use and resource policies will both affect and be affected by
changes in the atmosphere. Certain practices related to terrestrial and
marine resources and land use can decrease greenhouse gas sinks and increase
atmospheric emissions. The loss of biological diversity may reduce the
resilience of ecosystems to climatic variations and air pollution damage.
Atmospheric changes can have important impacts on forests, biodiversity, and
freshwater and marine ecosystems, as well as on economic activities, such as
agriculture. Policy objectives in different sectors may often diverge and
will need to be handled in an integrated manner.
Objectives
9.20. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To promote terrestrial and marine resource utilization and
appropriate land-use practices that contribute to:
(i) The reduction of atmospheric pollution and/or the limitation of
anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases;
(ii) The conservation, sustainable management and enhancement, where
appropriate, of all sinks for greenhouse gases;
(iii) The conservation and sustainable use of natural and environmental
resources;
(b) To ensure that actual and potential atmospheric changes and their
socio-economic and ecological impacts are fully taken into account in
planning and implementing policies and programmes concerning terrestrial and
marine resources utilization and land-use practices.
Activities
9.21. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
(a) In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote cost-effective
policies or programmes, including administrative, social and economic
measures, in order to encourage environmentally sound land-use practices;
(b) Implement policies and programmes that will discourage
inappropriate and polluting land-use practices and promote sustainable
utilization of terrestrial and marine resources;
(c) Consider promoting the development and use of terrestrial and
marine resources and land-use practices that will be more resilient to
atmospheric changes and fluctuations;
(d) Promote sustainable management and cooperation in the conservation
and enhancement, as appropriate, of sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse
gases, including biomass, forests and oceans, as well as other terrestrial,
coastal and marine ecosystems.
C. Preventing stratospheric ozone depletion
Basis for action
9.22. Analysis of recent scientific data has confirmed the growing concern
about the continuing depletion of the Earth's stratospheric ozone layer by
reactive chlorine and bromine from man-made CFCs, halons and related
substances. While the 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the
Ozone Layer and the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the
Ozone Layer (as amended in London in 1990) were important steps in
international action, the total chlorine loading of the atmosphere of
ozone-depleting substances has continued to rise. This can be changed
through compliance with the control measures identified within the Protocol.
Objectives
9.23. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To realize the objectives defined in the Vienna Convention and the
Montreal Protocol and its 1990 amendments, including the consideration in
those instruments of the special needs and conditions of the developing
countries and the availability to them of alternatives to substances that
deplete the ozone layer. Technologies and natural products that reduce
demand for these substances should be encouraged;
(b) To develop strategies aimed at mitigating the adverse effects of
ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface as a consequence of
depletion and modification of the stratospheric ozone layer.
Activities
9.24. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
(a) Ratify, accept or approve the Montreal Protocol and its 1990
amendments; pay their contributions towards the Vienna/Montreal trust funds
and the interim multilateral ozone fund promptly; and contribute, as
appropriate, towards ongoing efforts under the Montreal Protocol and its
implementing mechanisms, including making available substitutes for CFCs and
other ozone-depleting substances and facilitating the transfer of the
corresponding technologies to developing countries in order to enable them
to comply with the obligations of the Protocol;
(b) Support further expansion of the Global Ozone Observing System by
facilitating - through bilateral and multilateral funding - the
establishment and operation of additional systematic observation stations,
especially in the tropical belt in the southern hemisphere;
(c) Participate actively in the continuous assessment of scientific
information and the health and environmental effects, as well as of the
technological/economic implications of stratospheric ozone depletion; and
consider further actions that prove warranted and feasible on the basis of
these assessments;
(d) Based on the results of research on the effects of the additional
ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface, consider taking
appropriate remedial measures in the fields of human health, agriculture and
marine environment;
(e) Replace CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances, consistent with
the Montreal Protocol, recognizing that a replacement's suitability should
be evaluated holistically and not simply based on its contribution to
solving one atmospheric or environmental problem.
D. Transboundary atmospheric pollution
Basis for action
9.25. Transboundary air pollution has adverse health impacts on humans and
other detrimental environmental impacts, such as tree and forest loss and
the acidification of water bodies. The geographical distribution of
atmospheric pollution monitoring networks is uneven, with the developing
countries severely underrepresented. The lack of reliable emissions data
outside Europe and North America is a major constraint to measuring
transboundary air pollution. There is also insufficient information on the
environmental and health effects of air pollution in other regions.
9.26. The 1979 Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution, and
its protocols, have established a regional regime in Europe and North
America, based on a review process and cooperative programmes for systematic
observation of air pollution, assessment and information exchange. These
programmes need to be continued and enhanced, and their experience needs to
be shared with other regions of the world.
Objectives
9.27. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To develop and apply pollution control and measurement
technologies for stationary and mobile sources of air pollution and to
develop alternative environmentally sound technologies;
(b) To observe and assess systematically the sources and extent of
transboundary air pollution resulting from natural processes and
anthropogenic activities;
(c) To strengthen the capabilities, particularly of developing
countries, to measure, model and assess the fate and impacts of
transboundary air pollution, through, inter alia, exchange of information
and training of experts;
(d) To develop capabilities to assess and mitigate transboundary air
pollution resulting from industrial and nuclear accidents, natural disasters
and the deliberate and/or accidental destruction of natural resources;
(e) To encourage the establishment of new and the implementation of
existing regional agreements for limiting transboundary air pollution;
(f) To develop strategies aiming at the reduction of emissions causing
transboundary air pollution and their effects.
Activities
9.28. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, the private sector and financial
institutions, should:
(a) Establish and/or strengthen regional agreements for transboundary
air pollution control and cooperate, particularly with developing countries,
in the areas of systematic observation and assessment, modelling and the
development and exchange of emission control technologies for mobile and
stationary sources of air pollution. In this context, greater emphasis
should be put on addressing the extent, causes, health and socio-economic
impacts of ultraviolet radiation, acidification of the environment and
photo-oxidant damage to forests and other vegetation;
(b) Establish or strengthen early warning systems and response
mechanisms for transboundary air pollution resulting from industrial
accidents and natural disasters and the deliberate and/or accidental
destruction of natural resources;
(c) Facilitate training opportunities and exchange of data,
information and national and/or regional experiences;
(d) Cooperate on regional, multilateral and bilateral bases to assess
transboundary air pollution, and elaborate and implement programmes
identifying specific actions to reduce atmospheric emissions and to address
their environmental, economic, social and other effects.
Means of implementation
International and regional cooperation
9.29. Existing legal instruments have created institutional structures
which relate to the purposes of these instruments, and relevant work should
primarily continue in those contexts. Governments should continue tocooperate and enhance their cooperation at the regional and global levels,
including cooperation within the United Nations system. In this context
reference is made to the recommendations in chapter 38 of Agenda 21
(International institutional arrangements).
Capacity-building
9.30. Countries, in cooperation with the relevant United Nations bodies,
international donors and non-governmental organizations, should mobilize
technical and financial resources and facilitate technical cooperation with
developing countries to reinforce their technical, managerial, planning and
administrative capacities to promote sustainable development and the
protection of the atmosphere, in all relevant sectors.
Human resource development
9.31. Education and awareness-raising programmes concerning the promotion
of sustainable development and the protection of the atmosphere need to be
introduced and strengthened at the local, national and international levels
in all relevant sectors.
Financial and cost evaluation
9.32. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities under programme area A to be
about $640 million from the international community on grant or concessional
terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have
not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms,
including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
9.33. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of the four-part programme under
programme area B to be about $20 billion from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon
for implementation.
9.34. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities under programme area C to be
in the range of $160-590 million on grant or concessional terms. These are
indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed
by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
9.35. The Conference secretariat has included costing for technical
assistance and pilot programmes under paragraphs 9.32 and 9.33.
Notes
1/ New and renewable energy sources are solar thermal, solar
photovoltaic, wind, hydro, biomass, geothermal, ocean, animal and human
power, as referred to in the reports of the Committee on the Development and
Utilization of New and Renewable Sources of Energy, prepared specifically
for the Conference (see A/CONF.151/PC/119 and A/AC.218/1992/5).
2/ This includes standards or recommendations promoted by regional
economic integration organizations.
Chapter 10
INTEGRATED APPROACH TO THE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF
LAND RESOURCES
INTRODUCTION
10.1. Land is normally defined as a physical entity in terms of its
topography and spatial nature; a broader integrative view also includes
natural resources: the soils, minerals, water and biota that the land
comprises. These components are organized in ecosystems which provide a
variety of services essential to the maintenance of the integrity of
life-support systems and the productive capacity of the environment. Land
resources are used in ways that take advantage of all these characteristics.
Land is a finite resource, while the natural resources it supports can vary
over time and according to management conditions and uses. Expanding human
requirements and economic activities are placing ever increasing pressures
on land resources, creating competition and conflicts and resulting in
suboptimal use of both land and land resources. If, in the future, human
requirements are to be met in a sustainable manner, it is now essential to
resolve these conflicts and move towards more effective and efficient use of
land and its natural resources. Integrated physical and land-use planning
and management is an eminently practical way to achieve this. By examining
all uses of land in an integrated manner, it makes it possible to minimize
conflicts, to make the most efficient trade-offs and to link social and
economic development with environmental protection and enhancement, thus
helping to achieve the objectives of sustainable development. The essence
of the integrated approach finds expression in the coordination of the
sectoral planning and management activities concerned with the various
aspects of land use and land resources.
10.2. The present chapter consists of one programme area, the integrated
approach to the planning and management of land resources, which deals with
the reorganization and, where necessary, some strengthening of the
decision-making structure, including existing policies, planning and
management procedures and methods that can assist in putting in place an
integrated approach to land resources. It does not deal with the
operational aspects of planning and management, which are more appropriately
dealt with under the relevant sectoral programmes. Since the programme
deals with an important cross-sectoral aspect of decision-making for
sustainable development, it is closely related to a number of other
programmes that deal with that issue directly.
PROGRAMME AREA
Integrated approach to the planning and management of
land resources
Basis for action
10.3. Land resources are used for a variety of purposes which interact and
may compete with one another; therefore, it is desirable to plan and manage
all uses in an integrated manner. Integration should take place at two
levels, considering, on the one hand, all environmental, social and economic
factors (including, for example, impacts of the various economic and social
sectors on the environment and natural resources) and, on the other, all
environmental and resource components together (i.e., air, water, biota,
land, geological and natural resources). Integrated consideration
facilitates appropriate choices and trade-offs, thus maximizing sustainable
productivity and use. Opportunities to allocate land to different uses
arise in the course of major settlement or development projects or in a
sequential fashion as lands become available on the market. This in turn
provides opportunities to support traditional patterns of sustainable land
management or to assign protected status for conservation of biological
diversity or critical ecological services.
10.4. A number of techniques, frameworks and processes can be combined to
facilitate an integrated approach. They are the indispensable support for
the planning and management process, at the national and local level,
ecosystem or area levels and for the development of specific plans of
action. Many of its elements are already in place but need to be more
widely applied, further developed and strengthened. This programme area is
concerned primarily with providing a framework that will coordinate
decision-making; the content and operational functions are therefore not
included here but are dealt with in the relevant sectoral programmes of
Agenda 21.
Objectives
10.5. The broad objective is to facilitate allocation of land to the uses
that provide the greatest sustainable benefits and to promote the transition
to a sustainable and integrated management of land resources. In doing so,
environmental, social and economic issues should be taken into
consideration. Protected areas, private property rights, the rights of
indigenous people and their communities and other local communities and the
economic role of women in agriculture and rural development, among other
issues, should be taken into account. In more specific terms, the
objectives are as follows:
(a) To review and develop policies to support the best possible use of
land and the sustainable management of land resources, by not later than
1996;
(b) To improve and strengthen planning, management and evaluation
systems for land and land resources, by not later than 2000;
(c) To strengthen institutions and coordinating mechanisms for land
and land resources, by not later than 1998;
(d) To create mechanisms to facilitate the active involvement and
participation of all concerned, particularly communities and people at the
local level, in decision-making on land use and management, by not later
than 1996.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
Developing supportive policies and policy instruments
10.6. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of regional
and international organizations, should ensure that policies and policy
instruments support the best possible land use and sustainable management of
land resources. Particular attention should be given to the role of
agricultural land. To do this, they should:
(a) Develop integrated goal-setting and policy formulation at the
national, regional and local levels that takes into account environmental,
social, demographic and economic issues;
(b) Develop policies that encourage sustainable land use and
management of land resources and take the land resource base, demographic
issues and the interests of the local population into account;
(c) Review the regulatory framework, including laws, regulations and
enforcement procedures, in order to identify improvements needed to support
sustainable land use and management of land resources and restricts the
transfer of productive arable land to other uses;
(d) Apply economic instruments and develop institutional mechanisms
and incentives to encourage the best possible land use and sustainable
management of land resources;
(e) Encourage the principle of delegating policy-making to the lowest
level of public authority consistent with effective action and a locally
driven approach.
Strengthening planning and management systems
10.7. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of regional
and international organizations, should review and, if appropiate, revise
planning and management systems to facilitate an integrated approach. To do
this, they should:
(a) Adopt planning and management systems that facilitate the
integration of environmental components such as air, water, land and othernatural resources, using landscape ecological planning (LANDEP) or other
approaches that focus on, for example, an ecosystem or a watershed;
(b) Adopt strategic frameworks that allow the integration of both
developmental and environmental goals; examples of these frameworks include
sustainable livelihood systems, rural development, the World Conservation
Strategy/Caring for the Earth, primary environmental care (PEC) and others;
(c) Establish a general framework for land-use and physical planning
within which specialized and more detailed sectoral plans (e.g., for
protected areas, agriculture, forests, human settlements, rural development)
can be developed; establish intersectoral consultative bodies to streamline
project planning and implementation;
(d) Strengthen management systems for land and natural resources by
including appropriate traditional and indigenous methods; examples of these
practices include pastoralism, Hema reserves (traditional Islamic land
reserves) and terraced agriculture;
(e) Examine and, if necessary, establish innovative and flexible
approaches to programme funding;
(f) Compile detailed land capability inventories to guide sustainable
land resources allocation, management and use at the national and local
levels.
Promoting application of appropriate tools for planning and management
10.8. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of national
and international organizations, should promote the improvement, further
development and widespread application of planning and management tools that
facilitate an integrated and sustainable approach to land and resources. To
do this, they should:
(a) Adopt improved systems for the interpretation and integrated
analysis of data on land use and land resources;
(b) Systematically apply techniques and procedures for assessing the
environmental, social and economic impacts, risks, costs and benefits of
specific actions;
(c) Analyse and test methods to include land and ecosystem functions
and land resources values in national accounts.
Raising awareness
10.9. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with national
institutions and interest groups and with the support of regional and
international organizations, should launch awareness-raising campaigns to
alert and educate people on the importance of integrated land and land
resources management and the role that individuals and social groups can
playin it. This should be accompanied by provision of the means to adopt
improved practices for land use and sustainable management.
Promoting public participation
10.10. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with national
organizations and with the support of regional and international
organizations, should establish innovative procedures, programmes, projects
and services that facilitate and encourage the active participation of those
affected in the decision-making and implementation process, especially of
groups that have, hitherto, often been excluded, such as women, youth,
indigenous people and their communities and other local communities.
(b) Data and information
Strengthening information systems
10.11. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with national
institutions and the private sector and with the support of regional and
international organizations, should strengthen the information systems
necessary for making decisions and evaluating future changes on land use and
management. The needs of both men and women should be taken into account.
To do this, they should:
(a) Strengthen information, systematic observation and assessment
systems for environmental, economic and social data related to land
resources at the global, regional, national and local levels and for land
capability and land-use and management patterns;
(b) Strengthen coordination between existing sectoral data systems on
land and land resources and strengthen national capacity to gather and
assess data;
(c) Provide the appropriate technical information necessary for
informed decision-making on land use and management in an accessible form to
all sectors of the population, especially to local communities and women;
(d) Support low-cost, community-managed systems for the collection of
comparable information on the status and processes of change of land
resources, including soils, forest cover, wildlife, climate and other
elements.
(c) International and regional coordination and cooperation
Establishing regional machinery
10.12. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of regional
and international organizations, should strengthen regional cooperation and
exchange of information on land resources. To do this, they should:
(a) Study and design regional policies to support programmes for
land-use and physical planning;
(b) Promote the development of land-use and physical plans in the
countries of the region;
(c) Design information systems and promote training;
(d) Exchange, through networks and other appropriate means,
information on experiences with the process and results of integrated and
participatory planning and management of land resources at the national and
local levels.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
10.13. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $50 million from the international community on grant or concessional
terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have
not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms,
including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
Enhancing scientific understanding of the land resources system
10.14. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with the
national and international scientific community and with the support of
appropriate national and international organizations, should promote and
support research, tailored to local environments, on the land resources
system and the implications for sustainable development and management
practices. Priority should be given, as appropriate, to:
(a) Assessment of land potential capability and ecosystem functions;
(b) Ecosystemic interactions and interactions between land resources
and social, economic and environmental systems;
(c) Developing indicators of sustainability for land resources, taking
into account environmental, economic, social, demographic, cultural and
political factors.
Testing research findings through pilot projects
10.15. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with the
national and international scientific community and with the support of the
relevant international organizations, should research and test, through
pilot projects, the applicability of improved approaches to the integrated
planningand management of land resources, including technical, social and
institutional factors.
(c) Human resource development
Enhancing education and training
10.16. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with the
appropriate local authorities, non-governmental organizations and
international institutions, should promote the development of the human
resources that are required to plan and manage land and land resources
sustainably. This should be done by providing incentives for local
initiatives and by enhancing local management capacity, particularly of
women, through:
(a) Emphasizing interdisciplinary and integrative approaches in the
curricula of schools and technical, vocational and university training;
(b) Training all relevant sectors concerned to deal with land
resources in an integrated and sustainable manner;
(c) Training communities, relevant extension services, community-based
groups and non-governmental organizations on land management techniques and
approaches applied successfully elsewhere.
(d) Capacity-building
Strengthening technological capacity
10.17. Governments at the appropriate level, in cooperation with other
Governments and with the support of relevant international organizations,
should promote focused and concerted efforts for education and training and
the transfer of techniques and technologies that support the various aspects
of the sustainable planning and management process at the national,
state/provincial and local levels.
Strengthening institutions
10.18. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of
appropriate international organizations, should:
(a) Review and, where appropriate, revise the mandates of institutions
that deal with land and natural resources to include explicitly the
interdisciplinary integration of environmental, social and economic issues;
(b) Strengthen coordinating mechanisms between institutions that deal
with land-use and resources management to facilitate integration of sectoral
concerns and strategies;
(c) Strengthen local decision-making capacity and improve coordination
with higher levels.
Chapter 11
COMBATING DEFORESTATION
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Sustaining the multiple roles and functions of all types
of forests, forest lands and woodlands
Basis for action
11.1. There are major weaknesses in the policies, methods and mechanisms
adopted to support and develop the multiple ecological, economic, social and
cultural roles of trees, forests and forest lands. Many developed countries
are confronted with the effects of air pollution and fire damage on their
forests. More effective measures and approaches are often required at the
national level to improve and harmonize policy formulation, planning and
programming; legislative measures and instruments; development patterns;
participation of the general public, especially women and indigenous people;
involvement of youth; roles of the private sector, local organizations,
non-governmental organizations and cooperatives; development of technical
and multidisciplinary skills and quality of human resources; forestry
extension and public education; research capability and support;
administrative structures and mechanisms, including intersectoral
coordination, decentralization and responsibility and incentive systems; and
dissemination of information and public relations. This is especially
important to ensure a rational and holistic approach to the sustainable and
environmentally sound development of forests. The need for securing the
multiple roles of forests and forest lands through adequate and appropriate
institutional strengthening has been repeatedly emphasized in many of the
reports, decisions and recommendations of FAO, ITTO, UNEP, the World Bank,
IUCN and other organizations.
Objectives
11.2. The objectives of this programme area are as follows:
(a) To strengthen forest-related national institutions, to enhance the
scope and effectiveness of activities related to the management,
conservation and sustainable development of forests, and to effectively
ensure the sustainable utilization and production of forests' goods and
services in both the developed and the developing countries; by the year
2000, to strengthen the capacities and capabilities of national institutions
to enable them to acquire the necessary knowledge for the protection and
conservation of forests, as well as to expand their scope and,
correspondingly, enhance the effectiveness of programmes and activities
related to the management and development of forests;
(b) To strengthen and improve human, technical and professional
skills, as well as expertise and capabilities to effectively formulate and
implement policies, plans, programmes, research and projects on management,
conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests and
forest-based resources, and forest lands inclusive, as well as other areas
from which forest benefits can be derived.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
11.3 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of regional,
subregional and international organizations, should, where necessary,
enhance institutional capability to promote the multiple roles and functions
of all types of forests and vegetation inclusive of other related lands and
forest-based resources in supporting sustainable development and
environmental conservation in all sectors. This should be done, wherever
possible and necessary, by strengthening and/or modifying the existing
structures and arrangements, and by improving cooperation and coordination
of their respective roles. Some of the major activities in this regard are
as follows:
(a) Rationalizing and strengthening administrative structures and
mechanisms, including provision of adequate levels of staff and allocation
of responsibilities, decentralization of decision-making, provision of
infrastructural facilities and equipment, intersectoral coordination and an
effective system of communication;
(b) Promoting participation of the private sector, labour unions,
rural cooperatives, local communities, indigenous people, youth, women, user
groups and non-governmental organizations in forest-related activities, and
access to information and training programmes within the national context;
(c) Reviewing and, if necessary, revising measures and programmes
relevant to all types of forests and vegetation, inclusive of other related
lands and forest-based resources, and relating them to other land uses and
development policies and legislation; promoting adequate legislation and
other measures as a basis against uncontrolled conversion to other types of
land uses;
(d) Developing and implementing plans and programmes, including
definition of national and, if necessary, regional and subregional goals,
programmes and criteria for their implementation and subsequent improvement;
(e) Establishing, developing and sustaining an effective system of
forest extension and public education to ensure better awareness,
appreciation and management of forests with regard to the multiple roles and
values of trees, forests and forest lands;
(f) Establishing and/or strengthening institutions for forest
education and training, as well as forestry industries, for developing an
adequate cadre of trained and skilled staff at the professional, technical
and vocational levels, with emphasis on youth and women;
(g) Establishing and strengthening capabilities for research related
to the different aspects of forests and forest products, for example, on the
sustainable management of forests, research on biodiversity, on the effects
of air-borne pollutants, on traditional uses of forest resources by local
populations and indigenous people, and on improving market returns and other
non-market values from the management of forests.
(b) Data and information
11.4. Governments at the appropriate level, with the assistance and
cooperation of international, regional, subregional and bilateral agencies,
where relevant, should develop adequate databases and baseline information
necessary for planning and programme evaluation. Some of the more specific
activities include the following:
(a) Collecting, compiling and regularly updating and distributing
information on land classification and land use, including data on forest
cover, areas suitable for afforestation, endangered species, ecological
values, traditional/indigenous land use values, biomass and productivity,
correlating demographic, socio-economic and forest resources information at
the micro- and macro-levels, and undertaking periodic analyses of forest
programmes;
(b) Establishing linkages with other data systems and sources relevant
to supporting forest management, conservation and development, while further
developing or reinforcing existing systems such as geographic information
systems, as appropriate;
(c) Creating mechanisms to ensure public access to this information.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
11.5. Governments at the appropriate level and institutions should
cooperate in the provision of expertise and other support and the promotion
of international research efforts, in particular with a view to enhancing
transfer of technology and specialized training and ensuring access to
experiences and research results. There is need for strengthening
coordination and improving the performance of existing forest-related
international organizations in providing technical cooperation and support
to interested countries for the management, conservation and sustainable
development of forests.
Means of implementation
(a) Financial and cost evaluation
11.6. The secretariat of the Conference has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to
be about $2.5 billion, including about $860 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
11.7. The planning, research and training activities specified will form
the scientific and technological means for implementing the programme, as
well as its output. The systems, methodology and know-how generated by the
programme will help improve efficiency. Some of the specific steps involved
should include:
(a) Analysing achievements, constraints and social issues for
supporting programme formulation and implementation;
(b) Analysing research problems and research needs, research planning
and implementation of specific research projects;
(c) Assessing needs for human resources, skill development and
training;
(d) Developing, testing and applying appropriate
methodologies/approaches
in implementing forest programmes and plans.
(c) Human resource development
11.8. The specific components of forest education and training will
effectively contribute to human resource development. These include:
(a) Launching of graduate and post-graduate degree, specialization and
research programmes;
(b) Strengthening of pre-service, in-service and extension service
training programmes at the technical and vocational levels, including
training of trainers/teachers, and developing curriculum and teaching
materials/methods;
(c) Special training for staff of national forest-related
organizations in aspects such as project formulation, evaluation and
periodical evaluations.
(d) Capacity-building
11.9. This programme area is specifically concerned with capacity-building
in the forest sector and all programme activities specified contribute to
thatend. In building new and strengthened capacities, full advantage should be
taken of the existing systems and experience.
B. Enhancing the protection, sustainable management and
conservation of all forests, and the greening of
degraded areas, through forest rehabilitation,
afforestation, reforestation and other rehabilitative
means
Basis for action
11.10. Forests world wide have been and are being threatened by
uncontrolled degradation and conversion to other types of land uses,
influenced by increasing human needs; agricultural expansion; and
environmentally harmful mismanagement, including, for example, lack of
adequate forest-fire control and anti-poaching measures, unsustainable
commercial logging, overgrazing and unregulated browsing, harmful effects of
airborne pollutants, economic incentives and other measures taken by other
sectors of the economy. The impacts of loss and degradation of forests are
in the form of soil erosion; loss of biological diversity, damage to
wildlife habitats and degradation of watershed areas, deterioration of the
quality of life and reduction of the options for development.
11.11. The present situation calls for urgent and consistent action for
conserving and sustaining forest resources. The greening of suitable areas,
in all its component activities, is an effective way of increasing public
awareness and participation in protecting and managing forest resources. It
should include the consideration of land use and tenure patterns and local
needs and should spell out and clarify the specific objectives of the
different types of greening activities.
Objectives
11.12. The objectives of this programme area are as follows:
(a) To maintain existing forests through conservation and management,
and sustain and expand areas under forest and tree cover, in appropriate
areas of both developed and developing countries, through the conservation
of natural forests, protection, forest rehabilitation, regeneration,
afforestation, reforestation and tree planting, with a view to maintaining
or restoring the ecological balance and expanding the contribution of
forests to human needs and welfare;
(b) To prepare and implement, as appropriate, national forestry action
programmes and/or plans for the management, conservation and sustainable
development of forests. These programmes and/or plans should be integrated
with other land uses. In this context, country-driven national forestry
action programmes and/or plans under the Tropical Forestry Action Programme
are currently being implemented in more than 80 countries, with the support
of the international community;
(c) To ensure sustainable management and, where appropriate,
conservation of existing and future forest resources;
(d) To maintain and increase the ecological, biological, climatic,
socio-cultural and economic contributions of forest resources;
(e) To facilitate and support the effective implementation of the
non-legally binding authoritative statement of principles for a global
consensus on the management, conservation and sustainable development of all
types of forests, adopted by the United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development, and on the basis of the implementation of these principles
to consider the need for and the feasibility of all kinds of appropriate
internationally agreed arrangements to promote international cooperation on
forest management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of
forests, including afforestation, reforestation and rehabilitation.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
11.13. Governments should recognize the importance of categorizing forests,
within the framework of long-term forest conservation and management
policies, into different forest types and setting up sustainable units in
every region/watershed with a view to securing the conservation of forests.
Governments, with the participation of the private sector, non-governmental
organizations, local community groups, indigenous people, women, local
government units and the public at large, should act to maintain and expand
the existing vegetative cover wherever ecologically, socially and
economically feasible, through technical cooperation and other forms of
support. Major activities to be considered include:
(a) Ensuring the sustainable management of all forest ecosystems and
woodlands, through improved proper planning, management and timely
implementation of silvicultural operations, including inventory and relevant
research, as well as rehabilitation of degraded natural forests to restore
productivity and environmental contributions, giving particular attention to
human needs for economic and ecological services, wood-based energy,
agroforestry, non-timber forest products and services, watershed and soil
protection, wildlife management, and forest genetic resources;
(b) Establishing, expanding and managing, as appropriate to each
national context, protected area systems, which includes systems of
conservation units for their environmental, social and spiritual functions
and values, including conservation of forests in representative ecological
systems and landscapes, primary old-growth forests, conservation and
management of wildlife, nomination of World Heritage Sites under the World
Heritage Convention, as appropriate, conservation of genetic resources,
involving in situ and ex situ measures and undertaking supportive measures
to ensure sustainable utilization of biological resources and conservation
of biological diversity and the traditional forest habitats of indigenous
people, forest dwellers and local communities;
(c) Undertaking and promoting buffer and transition zone management;
(d) Carrying out revegetation in appropriate mountain areas,
highlands, bare lands, degraded farm lands, arid and semi-arid lands and
coastal areas for combating desertification and preventing erosion problems
and for other protective functions and national programmes for
rehabilitation of degraded lands, including community forestry, social
forestry, agroforestry and silvipasture, while also taking into account the
role of forests as national carbon reservoirs and sinks;
(e) Developing industrial and non-industrial planted forests in order
to support and promote national ecologically sound afforestation and
reforestation/regeneration programmes in suitable sites, including upgrading
of existing planted forests of both industrial and non-industrial and
commercial purpose to increase their contribution to human needs and to
offset pressure on primary/old growth forests. Measures should be taken to
promote and provide intermediate yields and to improve the rate of returns
on investments in planted forests, through interplanting and underplanting
valuable crops;
(f) Developing/strengthening a national and/or master plan for planted
forests as a priority, indicating, inter alia, the location, scope and
species, and specifying areas of existing planted forests requiring
rehabilitation, taking into account the economic aspect for future planted
forest development, giving emphasis to native species;
(g) Increasing the protection of forests from pollutants, fire, pests
and diseases and other human-made interferences such as forest poaching,
mining and unmitigated shifting cultivation, the uncontrolled introduction
of exotic plant and animal species, as well as developing and accelerating
research for a better understanding of problems relating to the management
and regeneration of all types of forests; strengthening and/or establishing
appropriate measures to assess and/or check inter-border movement of plants
and related materials;
(h) Stimulating development of urban forestry for the greening of
urban, peri-urban and rural human settlements for amenity, recreation and
production purposes and for protecting trees and groves;
(i) Launching or improving opportunities for particpation of all
people, including youth, women, indigenous people and local communities in
the formulation, development and implementation of forest-related programmes
and other activities, taking due account of the local needs and cultural values;
(j) Limiting and aiming to halt destructive shifting cultivation by
addressing the underlying social and ecological causes.
(b) Data and information
11.14. Management-related activities should involve collection, compilation
and analysis of data/information, including baseline surveys. Some of the
specific activities include the following:
(a) Carrying out surveys and developing and implementing land-use
plans for appropriate greening/planting/afforestation/reforestation/forest
rehabilitation;
(b) Consolidating and updating land-use and forest inventory and
management information for management and land-use planning of wood and
non-wood resources, including data on shifting cultivation and other agents
of forest destruction;
(c) Consolidating information on genetic resources and related
biotechnology, including surveys and studies, as necessary;
(d) Carrying out surveys and research on local/indigenous knowledge of
trees and forests and their uses to improve the planning and implementation
of sustainable forest management;
(e) Compiling and analysing research data on species/site interaction
of species used in planted forests and assessing the potential impact on
forests of climatic change, as well as effects of forests on climate, and
initiating in-depth studies on the carbon cycle relating to different forest
types to provide scientific advice and technical support;
(f) Establishing linkages with other data/information sources that
relate to sustainable management and use of forests and improving access to
data and information;
(g) Developing and intensifying research to improve knowledge and
understanding of problems and natural mechanisms related to the management
and rehabilitation of forests, including research on fauna and its
interrelation with forests;
(h) Consolidating information on forest conditions and
site-influencing immissions and emissions.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
11.15. The greening of appropriate areas is a task of global importance and
impact. The international and regional community should provide technical
cooperation and other means for this programme area. Specific activities of
an international nature, in support of national efforts, should include the
following:
(a) Increasing cooperative actions to reduce pollutants and
trans-boundary impacts affecting the health of trees and forests and
conservation of representative ecosystems;
(b) Coordinating regional and subregional research on carbon
sequestration, air pollution and other environmental issues;
(c) Documenting and exchanging information/experience for the benefit
of countries with similar problems and prospects;
(d) Strengthening the coordination and improving the capacity and
ability of intergovernmental organizations such as FAO, ITTO, UNEP and
UNESCO to provide technical support for the management, conservation and
sustainable development of forests, including support for the negotiation of
the International Tropical Timber Agreement of 1983, due in 1992/93.
Means of implementation
(a) Financial and cost evaluation
11.16. The secretariat of the Conference has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to
be about $10 billion, including about $3.7 billion from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
11.17. Data analysis, planning, research, transfer/development of
technology and/or training activities form an integral part of the programme
activities, providing the scientific and technological means of
implementation. National institutions should:
(a) Develop feasibility studies and operational planning related to
major forest activities;
(b) Develop and apply environmentally sound technology relevant to the
various activities listed;
(c) Increase action related to genetic improvement and application of
biotechnology for improving productivity and tolerance to environmental
stress and including, for example, tree breeding, seed technology, seed
procurement networks, germ-plasm banks, "in vitro" techniques, and in situ
and ex situ conservation.
(c) Human resource development
11.18. Essential means for effectively implementing the activities include
training and development of appropriate skills, working facilities and
conditions, public motivation and awareness. Specific activities include:
(a) Providing specialized training in planning, management,
environmental conservation, biotechnology etc.;
(b) Establishing demonstration areas to serve as models and training
facilities;
(c) Supporting local organizations, communities, non-governmental
organizations and private land owners, in particular women, youth, farmers
and indigenous people/shifting cultivators, through extension and provision
of inputs and training.
(d) Capacity-building
11.19. National Governments, the private sector, local
organizations/communities, indigenous people, labour unions and
non-governmental organizations should develop capacities, duly supported by
relevant international organizations, to implement the programme activities.
Such capacities should be developed and strengthened in harmony with the
programme activities. Capacity-building activities include policy and legal
frameworks, national institution building, human resource development,
development of research and technology, development of infrastructure,
enhancement of public awareness etc.
C. Promoting efficient utilization and assessment to recover
the full valuation of the goods and services provided by
forests, forest lands and woodlands
Basis for action
11.20. The vast potential of forests and forest lands as a major resource
for development is not yet fully realized. The improved management of
forests can increase the production of goods and services and, in
particular, the yield of wood and non-wood forest products, thus helping to
generate additional employment and income, additional value through
processing and trade of forest products, increased contribution to foreign
exchange earnings, and increased return on investment. Forest resources,
being renewable, can be sustainably managed in a manner that is compatible
with environmental conservation. The implications of the harvesting of
forest resources for the other values of the forest should be taken fully
into consideration in the development of forest policies. It is also
possible to increase the value of forests through non-damaging uses such as
eco-tourism and the managed supply of genetic materials. Concerted action
is needed in order to increase people's perception of the value of forests
and of the benefits they provide. The survival of forests and their
continued contribution to human welfare depends to a great extent on
succeeding in this endeavour.
Objectives
11.21. The objectives of this programme area are as follows:
(a) To improve recognition of the social, economic and ecological
values of trees, forests and forest lands, including the consequences of the
damage caused by the lack of forests; to promote methodologies with a view
to incorporating social, economic and ecological values of trees, forests
and forest lands into the national economic accounting systems; to ensure
their sustainable management in a way that is consistent with land use,
environmental considerations and development needs;
(b) To promote efficient, rational and sustainable utilization of all
types of forests and vegetation inclusive of other related lands and
forest-based resources, through the development of efficient forest-based
processing industries, value-adding secondary processing and trade in forest
products, based on sustainably managed forest resources and in accordance
with plans that integrate all wood and non-wood values of forests;
(c) To promote more efficient and sustainable use of forests and trees
for fuelwood and energy supplies;
(d) To promote more comprehensive use and economic contributions of
forest areas by incorporating eco-tourism into forest management and
planning.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
11.22. Governments, with the support of the private sector, scientific
institutions, indigenous people, non-governmental organizations,
cooperatives and entrepreneurs, where appropriate, should undertake the
following activities, properly coordinated at the national level, with
financial and technical cooperation from international organizations:
(a) Carrying out detailed investment studies, supply-demand
harmonization and environmental impact analysis to rationalize and improve
trees and forest utilization and to develop and establish appropriate
incentive schemes and regulatory measures, including tenurial arrangements,
to provide a favourable investment climate and promote better management;
(b) Formulating scientifically sound criteria and guidelines for the
management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of
forests;
(c) Improving environmentally sound methods and practices of forest
harvesting, which are ecologically sound and economically viable, including
planning and management, improved use of equipment, storage and
transportation to reduce and, if possible, maximize the use of waste and
improve value of both wood and non-wood forest products;
(d) Promoting the better use and development of natural forests and
woodlands, including planted forests, wherever possible, through appropriate
and environmentally sound and economically viable activities, including
silvicultural practices and management of other plant and animal species;
(e) Promoting and supporting the downstream processing of forest
products to increase retained value and other benefits;
(f) Promoting/popularizing non-wood forest products and other forms of
forest resources, apart from fuelwood (e.g., medicinal plants, dyes, fibres,
gums, resins, fodder, cultural products, rattan, bamboo) through programmes
and social forestry/participatory forest activities, including research on
their processing and uses;
(g) Developing, expanding and/or improving the effectiveness and
efficiency of forest-based processing industries, both wood and non-wood
based, involving such aspects as efficient conversion technology and
improved sustainable utilization of harvesting and process residues;
promoting underutilized species in natural forests through research,
demonstration and commercialization; promoting value-adding secondary
processing for improved employment, income and retained value; and
promoting/improving markets for, and trade in, forest products through
relevant institutions, policies and facilities;
(h) Promoting and supporting the management of wildlife, as well as
eco-tourism, including farming, and encouraging and supporting the husbandry
and cultivation of wild species, for improved rural income and employment,
ensuring economic and social benefits without harmful ecological impacts;
(i) Promoting appropriate small-scale forest-based enterprises for
supporting rural development and local entrepreneurship;
(j) Improving and promoting methodologies for a comprehensive
assessment that will capture the full value of forests, with a view to
including that value in the market-based pricing structure of wood and
non-wood based products;
(k) Harmonizing sustainable development of forests with national
development needs and trade policies that are compatible with the
ecologically sound use of forest resources, using, for example, the ITTO
Guidelines for Sustainable Management of Tropical Forests;
(l) Developing, adopting and strengthening national programmes for
accounting the economic and non-economic value of forests.
(b) Data and information
11.23. The objectives and management-related activities presuppose data and
information analysis, feasibility studies, market surveys and review of
technological information. Some of the relevant activities include:
(a) Undertaking analysis of supply and demand for forest products and
services, to ensure efficiency in their utilization, wherever necessary;
(b) Carrying out investment analysis and feasibility studies,
including environmental impact assessment, for establishing forest-based
processing enterprises;
(c) Conducting research on the properties of currently underutilized
species for their promotion and commercialization;
(d) Supporting market surveys of forest products for trade promotion
and intelligence;
(e) Facilitating the provision of adequate technological information
as a measure to promote better utilization of forest resources.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
11.24. Cooperation and assistance of international organizations and the
international community in technology transfer, specialization and promotion
of fair terms of trade, without resorting to unilateral restrictions and/or
bans on forest products contrary to GATT and other multilateral trade
agreements, the application of appropriate market mechanisms and incentives
will help in addressing global environmental concerns. Strengthening the
coordination and performance of existing international organizations, in
particular FAO, UNIDO, UNESCO, UNEP, ITC/UNCTAD/GATT, ITTO and ILO, for
providing technical assistance and guidance in this programme area is
another specific activity.
Means of implementation
(a) Financial and cost evaluation
11.25. The secretariat of the Conference has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to
be about $18 billion, including about $880 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
11.26. The programme activities presuppose major research efforts and
studies, as well as improvement of technology. This should be coordinated
by national Governments, in collaboration with and supported by relevant
international organizations and institutions. Some of the specific
components include:
(a) Research on properties of wood and non-wood products and their
uses, to promote improved utilization;
(b) Development and application of environmentally sound and
less-polluting technology for forest utilization;
(c) Models and techniques of outlook analysis and development
planning;
(d) Scientific investigations on the development and utilization of
non-timber forest products;
(e) Appropriate methodologies to comprehensively assess the value of
forests.
(c) Human resource development
11.27. The success and effectiveness of the programme area depends on the
availability of skilled personnel. Specialized training is an important
factor in this regard. New emphasis should be given to the incorporation of
women. Human resource development for programme implementation, in
quantitative and qualitative terms, should include:
(a) Developing required specialized skills to implement the programme,
including establishing special training facilities at all levels;
(b) Introducing/strengthening refresher training courses, including
fellowships and study tours, to update skills and technological know-how and
improve productivity;
(c) Strengthening capability for research, planning, economic
analysis, periodical evaluations and evaluation, relevant to improved
utilization of forest resources;
(d) Promoting efficiency and capability of private and cooperative
sectors through provision of facilities and incentives.
(d) Capacity-building
11.28. Capacity-building, including strengthening of existing capacity, is
implicit in the programme activities. Improving administration, policy and
plans, national institutions, human resources, research and scientific
capabilities, technology development, and periodical evaluations and
evaluation are important components of capacity-building.
D. Establishing and/or strengthening capacities for the
planning, assessment and systematic observations
of forests and related programmes, projects and
activities, including commercial trade and processes
Basis for action
11.29. Assessment and systematic observations are essential components of
long-term planning, for evaluating effects, quantitatively and
qualitatively, and for rectifying inadequacies. This mechanism, however, is
one of the often neglected aspects of forest resources, management,
conservation and development. In many cases, even the basic information
related to the area and type of forests, existing potential and volume of
harvest is lacking. In many developing countries, there is a lack of
structures and mechanisms to carry out these functions. There is an urgent
need to rectify this situation for a better understanding of the role and
importance of forests and to realistically plan for their effective
conservation, management, regeneration, and sustainable development.
Objectives
11.30. The objectives of this programme area are as follows:
(a) To strengthen or establish systems for the assessment and
systematic observations of forests and forest lands with a view to assessing
the impacts of programmes, projects and activities on the quality and extent
of forest resources, land available for afforestation, and land tenure, and
to integrate the systems in a continuing process of research and in-depth
analysis, while ensuring necessary modifications and improvements for
planning and decision-making. Specific emphasis should be given to the
participation of rural people in these processes;
(b) To provide economists, planners, decision makers and local
communities with sound and adequate updated information on forests and
forest land resources.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
11.31. Governments and institutions, in collaboration, where necessary, with
appropriate international agencies and organizations, universities and
non-governmental organizations, should undertake assessments and systematic
observations of forests and related programmes and processes with a view to
their continuous improvement. This should be linked to related activities
of research and management and, wherever possible, be built upon existing
systems. Major activities to be considered are:
(a) Assessing and carrying out systematic observations of the
quantitative and qualitative situation and changes of forest cover and
forestresources endowments, including land classification, land use and updates of
its status, at the appropriate national level, and linking this activity, as
appropriate, with planning as a basis for policy and programme formulation;
(b) Establishing national assessment and systematic observation
systems and evaluation of programmes and processes, including establishment
of definitions, standards, norms and intercalibration methods, and the
capability for initiating corrective actions as well as improving the
formulation and implementation of programmes and projects;
(c) Making estimates of impacts of activities affecting forestry
developments and conservation proposals, in terms of key variables such as
developmental goals, benefits and costs, contributions of forests to other
sectors, community welfare, environmental conditions and biological
diversity and their impacts at the local, regional and global levels, where
appropriate, to assess the changing technological and financial needs of
countries;
(d) Developing national systems of forest resource assessment and
valuation, including necessary research and data analysis, which account
for, where possible, the full range of wood and non-wood forest products and
services, and incorporating results in plans and strategies and, where
feasible, in national systems of accounts and planning;
(e) Establishing necessary intersectoral and programme linkages,
including improved access to information, in order to support a holistic
approach to planning and programming.
(b) Data and information
11.32. Reliable data and information are vital to this programme area.
National Governments, in collaboration, where necessary, with relevant
international organizations, should, as appropriate, undertake to improve
data and information continuously and to ensure its exchange. Major
activities to be considered are as follows:
(a) Collecting, consolidating and exchanging existing information and
establishing baseline information on aspects relevant to this programme
area;
(b) Harmonizing the methodologies for programmes involving data and
information activities to ensure accuracy and consistency;
(c) Undertaking special surveys on, for example, land capability and
suitability for afforestation action;
(d) Enhancing research support and improving access to and exchange of
research results.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
11.33. The international community should extend to the Governments
concerned necessary technical and financial support for implementing this
programme area, including consideration of the following activities:
(a) Establishing conceptual framework and formulating acceptable
criteria, norms and definitions for systematic observations and assessment
of forest resources;
(b) Establishing and strengthening national institutional coordination
mechanisms for forest assessment and systematic observation activities;
(c) Strengthening existing regional and global networks for the
exchange of relevant information;
(d) Strengthening the capacity and ability and improving the
performance of existing international organizations, such as the
Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), FAO,
ITTO, UNEP, UNESCO and UNIDO, to provide technical support and guidance in
this programme area.
Means of implementation
(a) Financial and cost evaluation
11.34. The secretariat of the Conference has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to
be about $750 million, including about $230 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
11.35. Accelerating development consists of implementing the
management-related and data/information activities cited above. Activities
related to global environmental issues are those that will contribute to
global information for assessing/evaluating/addressing environmental issues
on a worldwide basis. Strengthening the capacity of international
institutions consists of enhancing the technical staff and the executing
capacity of several international organizations in order to meet the
requirements of countries.
(b) Scientific and technological means
11.36. Assessment and systematic observation activities involve major
research efforts, statistical modelling and technological innovation. These
have been internalized into the management-related activities. The
activities in turn will improve the technological and scientific content of
assessment and periodical evaluations. Some of the specific scientific and
technological components included under these activities are:
(a) Developing technical, ecological and economic methods and models
related to periodical evaluations and evaluation;
(b) Developing data systems, data processing and statistical
modelling;
(c) Remote sensing and ground surveys;
(d) Developing geographic information systems;
(e) Assessing and improving technology.
11.37. These are to be linked and harmonized with similar activities and
components in the other programme areas.
(c) Human resource development
11.38. The programme activities foresee the need and include provision for
human resource development in terms of specialization (e.g., the use of
remote-sensing, mapping and statistical modelling), training, technology
transfer, fellowships and field demonstrations.
(d) Capacity-building
11.39. National Governments, in collaboration with appropriate
international organizations and institutions, should develop the necessary
capacity for implementing this programme area. This should be harmonized
with capacity-building for other programme areas. Capacity-building should
cover such aspects as policies, public administration, national-level
institutions, human resource and skill development, research capability,
technology development, information systems, programme evaluation,
intersectoral coordination and international cooperation.
(e) Funding of international and regional cooperation
11.40. The secretariat of the Conference has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to
be about $750 million, including about $530 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
Chapter 12
MANAGING FRAGILE ECOSYSTEMS: COMBATING DESERTIFICATION
AND DROUGHT
INTRODUCTION
12.1. Fragile ecosystems are important ecosystems, with unique features and
resources. Fragile ecosystems include deserts, semi-arid lands, mountains,
wetlands, small islands and certain coastal areas. Most of these ecosystems
are regional in scope, as they transcend national boundaries. This chapter
addresses land resource issues in deserts, as well as arid, semi-arid and
dry sub-humid areas. Sustainable mountain development is addressed in
chapter 13; small islands and coastal areas are discussed in chapter 17.
12.2. Desertification is land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry
sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic
variations and human activities. Desertification affects about one sixth of
the world's population, 70 per cent of all drylands, amounting to
3.6 billion hectares, and one quarter of the total land area of the world.
The most obvious impact of desertification, in addition to widespread
poverty, is the degradation of 3.3 billion hectares of the total area of
rangeland, constituting 73 per cent of the rangeland with a low potential
for human and animal carrying capacity; decline in soil fertility and soil
structure on about 47 per cent of the dryland areas constituting marginal
rainfed cropland; and the degradation of irrigated cropland, amounting to
30 per cent of the dryland areas with a high population density and
agricultural potential.
12.3. The priority in combating desertification should be the
implementation of preventive measures for lands that are not yet degraded,
or which are only slightly degraded. However, the severely degraded areas
should not be neglected. In combating desertification and drought, the
participation of local communities, rural organizations, national
Governments, non-governmental organizations and international and regional
organizations is essential.
12.4. The following programme areas are included in this chapter:
(a) Strengthening the knowledge base and developing information and
monitoring systems for regions prone to desertification and drought,
including the economic and social aspects of these ecosystems;
(b) Combating land degradation through, inter alia, intensified soil
conservation, afforestation and reforestation activities;
(c) Developing and strengthening integrated development programmes for
the eradication of poverty and promotion of alternative livelihood systems
in areas prone to desertification;
(d) Developing comprehensive anti-desertification programmes and
integrating them into national development plans and national environmental
planning;
(e) Developing comprehensive drought preparedness and drought-relief
schemes, including self-help arrangements, for drought-prone areas and
designing programmes to cope with environmental refugees;
(f) Encouraging and promoting popular participation and environmental
education, focusing on desertification control and management of the effects
of drought.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Strengthening the knowledge base and developing information
and monitoring systems for regions prone to desertification
and drought, including the economic and social aspects of
these ecosystems
Basis for action
12.5. The global assessments of the status and rate of desertification
conducted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1977, 1984
and 1991 have revealed insufficient basic knowledge of desertification
processes. Adequate world-wide systematic observation systems are helpful
for the development and implementation of effective anti-desertification
programmes. The capacity of existing international, regional and national
institutions, particularly in developing countries, to generate and exchange
relevant information is limited. An integrated and coordinated information
and systematic observation system based on appropriate technology and
embracing global, regional, national and local levels is essential for
understanding the dynamics of desertification and drought processes. It is
also important for developing adequate measures to deal with desertification
and drought and improving socio-economic conditions.
Objectives
12.6. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To promote the establishment and/or strengthening of national
environmental information coordination centres that will act as focal points
within Governments for sectoral ministries and provide the necessary
standardization and back-up services; to ensure also that national
environmental information systems on desertification and drought are linked
together through a network at subregional, regional and interregional
levels;
(b) To strengthen regional and global systematic observation networks
linked to the development of national systems for the observation of land
degradation and desertification caused both by climate fluctuations and by
human impact, and to identify priority areas for action;
(c) To establish a permanent system at both national and international
levels for monitoring desertification and land degradation with the aim of
improving living conditions in the affected areas.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
12.7. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Establish and/or strengthen environmental information systems at
the national level;
(b) Strengthen national, state/provincial and local assessment and
ensure cooperation/networking between existing environmental information and
monitoring systems, such as Earthwatch and the Sahara and Sahel Observatory;
(c) Strengthen the capacity of national institutions to analyse
environmental data so that ecological change can be monitored and
environmental information obtained on a continuing basis at the national
level.
(b) Data and information
12.8. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Review and study the means for measuring the ecological, economic
and social consequences of desertification and land degradation and
introduce the results of these studies internationally into desertification
and land degradation assessment practices;
(b) Review and study the interactions between the socio-economic
impacts of climate, drought and desertification and utilize the results of
these studies to secure concrete action.
12.9. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Support the integrated data collection and research work of
programmes related to desertification and drought problems;
(b) Support national, regional and global programmes for integrated
data collection and research networks carrying out assessment of soil and
land degradation;
(c) Strengthen national and regional meteorological and hydrological
networks and monitoring systems to ensure adequate collection of basic
information and communication among national, regional and international
centres.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
12.10. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Strengthen regional programmes and international cooperation, such
as the Permanent Inter-State Committee on Drought Control in the Sahel
(CILSS), the Intergovernmental Authority for Drought and Development
(IGADD), the Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC),
the Arab Maghreb Union and other regional organizations, as well as such
organizations as the Sahara and Sahel Observatory;
(b) Establish and/or develop a comprehensive desertification, land
degradation and human condition database component that incorporates both
physical and socio-economic parameters. This should be based on existing
and, where necessary, additional facilities, such as those of Earthwatch and
other information systems of international, regional and national
institutions strengthened for this purpose;
(c) Determine benchmarks and define indicators of progress that
facilitate the work of local and regional organizations in tracking progress
in the fight for anti-desertification. Particular attention should be paid
to indicators of local participation.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
12.11. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $350 million, including about $175 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
12.12. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations working on the issue of
desertification and drought, should:
(a) Undertake and update existing inventories of natural resources,
such as energy, water, soil, minerals, plant and animal access to food, as
well as other resources, such as housing, employment, health, education and
demographic distribution in time and space;
(b) Develop integrated information systems for environmental
monitoring, accounting and impact assessment;
(c) International bodies should cooperate with national Governments to
facilitate the acquisition and development of appropriate technology for
monitoring and combating drought and desertification.
(c) Human resource development
12.13. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations working on the issue of
desertification and drought, should develop the technical and professional
skills of people engaged in monitoring and assessing the issue of
desertification and drought.
(d) Capacity-building
12.14. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations working on the issue of
desertification and drought, should:
(a) Strengthen national and local institutions by providing adequate
staff equipment and finance for assessing desertification;
(b) Promote the involvement of the local population, particularly
women and youth, in the collection and utilization of environmental
information through education and awareness-building.
B. Combating land degradation through, inter alia,
intensified soil conservation, afforestation
and reforestation activities
Basis for action
12.15. Desertification affects about 3.6 billion hectares, which is about
70 per cent of the total area of the world's drylands or nearly one quarter
of the global land area. In combating desertification on rangeland, rainfed
cropland and irrigated land, preventative measures should be launched in
areas which are not yet affected or are only slightly affected by
desertification; corrective measures should be implemented to sustain the
productivity of moderately desertified land; and rehabilitative measures
should be taken to recover severely or very severely desertified drylands.
12.16. An increasing vegetation cover would promote and stabilize the
hydrological balance in the dryland areas and maintain land quality and land
productivity. Prevention of not yet degraded land and application of
corrective measures and rehabilitation of moderate and severely degraded
drylands, including areas affected by sand dune movements, through the
introduction of environmentally sound, socially acceptable, fair and
economically feasible land-use systems. This will enhance the land carrying
capacity and maintenance of biotic resources in fragile ecosystems.
Objectives
12.17. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) As regards areas not yet affected or only slightly affected by
desertification, to ensure appropriate management of existing natural
formations (including forests) for the conservation of biodiversity,
watershed protection, sustainability of their production and agricultural
development, and other purposes, with the full participation of indigenous
people;
(b) To rehabilitate moderately to severely desertified drylands for
productive utilization and sustain their productivity for
agropastoral/agroforestry development through, inter alia, soil and water
conservation;
(c) To increase the vegetation cover and support management of biotic
resources in regions affected or prone to desertification and drought,
notably through such activities as afforestation/reforestation,
agroforestry, community forestry and vegetation retention schemes;
(d) To improve management of forest resources, including woodfuel, and
to reduce woodfuel consumption through more efficient utilization,
conservation and the enhancement, development and use of other sources of
energy, including alternative sources of energy.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
12.18. Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Implement urgent direct preventive measures in drylands that are
vulnerable but not yet affected, or only slightly desertified drylands, by
introducing (i) improved land-use policies and practices for more
sustainable land productivity; (ii) appropriate, environmentally sound and
economically feasible agricultural and pastoral technologies; and (iii)
improved management of soil and water resources;
(b) Carry out accelerated afforestation and reforestation programmes,
using drought-resistant, fast-growing species, in particular native ones,
including legumes and other species, combined with community-based
agroforestry schemes. In this regard, creation of large-scale reforestation
and afforestation schemes, particularly through the establishment of green
belts, should be considered, bearing in mind the multiple benefits of such
measures;
(c) Implement urgent direct corrective measures in moderately to
severely desertified drylands, in addition to the measures listed in
paragraph 19 (a) above, with a view to restoring and sustaining their
productivity;
(d) Promote improved land/water/crop-management systems, making it
possible to combat salinization in existing irrigated croplands; and to
stabilize rainfed croplands and introduce improved soil/crop-management
systems into land-use practice;
(e) Promote participatory management of natural resources, including
rangeland, to meet both the needs of rural populations and conservation
purposes, based on innovative or adapted indigenous technologies;
(f) Promote in situ protection and conservation of special ecological
areas through legislation and other means for the purpose of combating
desertification while ensuring the protection of biodiversity;
(g) Promote and encourage investment in forestry development in
drylands through various incentives, including legislative measures;
(h) Promote the development and use of sources of energy which will
lessen pressure on ligneous resources, including alternative sources of
energy and improved stoves.
(b) Data and information
12.19. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Develop land-use models based on local practices for the
improvement of such practices, with a focus on preventing land degradation.
The models should give a better understanding of the variety of natural and
human-induced factors that may contribute to desertification. Models should
incorporate the interaction of both new and traditional practices to prevent
land degradation and reflect the resilience of the whole ecological and
social system;
(b) Develop, test and introduce, with due regard to environmental
security considerations, drought resistant, fast-growing and productive
plant species appropriate to the environment of the regions concerned.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
12.20. The appropriate United Nations agencies, international and regional
organizations, non-governmental organizations and bilateral agencies should:
(a) Coordinate their roles in combating land degradation and promoting
reforestation, agroforestry and land-management systems in affected
countries;
(b) Support regional and subregional activities in technology
development and dissemination, training and programme implementation to
arrest dryland degradation.
12.21. The national Governments concerned, the appropriate United Nations
agencies and bilateral agencies should strengthen the coordinating role indryland degradation of subregional intergovernmental organizations set up to
cover these activities, such as CILSS, IGADD, SADCC and the Arab Maghreb
Union.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
12.22. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $6 billion, including about $3 billion from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
12.23. Governments at the appropriate level and local communities, with the
support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Integrate indigenous knowledge related to forests, forest lands,
rangeland and natural vegetation into research activities on desertification
and drought;
(b) Promote integrated research programmes on the protection,
restoration and conservation of water and land resources and land-use
management based on traditional approaches, where feasible.
(c) Human resource development
12.24. Governments at the appropriate level and local communities, with the
support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Establish mechanisms to ensure that land users, particularly
women, are the main actors in implementing improved land use, including
agroforestry systems, in combating land degradation;
(b) Promote efficient extension-service facilities in areas prone to
desertification and drought, particularly for training farmers and
pastoralists in the improved management of land and water resources in drylands.
(d) Capacity-building
12.25. Governments at the appropriate level and local communities, with the
support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Develop and adopt, through appropriate national legislation, and
introduce institutionally, new and environmentally sound
development-oriented land-use policies;
(b) Support community-based people's organizations, especially farmers
and pastoralists.
C. Developing and strengthening integrated development
programmes for the eradication of poverty and
promotion of alternative livelihood systems in
areas prone to desertification
Basis for action
12.26. In areas prone to desertification and drought, current livelihood
and resource-use systems are not able to maintain living standards. In most
of the arid and semi-arid areas, the traditional livelihood systems based on
agropastoral systems are often inadequate and unsustainable, particularly in
view of the effects of drought and increasing demographic pressure. Poverty
is a major factor in accelerating the rate of degradation and
desertification. Action is therefore needed to rehabilitate and improve the
agropastoral systems for sustainable management of rangelands, as well as
alternative livelihood systems.
Objectives
12.27. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To create the capacity of village communities and pastoral groups
to take charge of their development and the management of their land
resources on a socially equitable and ecologically sound basis;
(b) To improve production systems in order to achieve greater
productivity within approved programmes for conservation of national
resources and in the framework of an integrated approach to rural
development;
(c) To provide opportunities for alternative livelihoods as a basis
for reducing pressure on land resources while at the same time providing
additional sources of income, particularly for rural populations, thereby
improving their standard of living.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
12.28. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Adopt policies at the national level regarding a decentralized
approach to land-resource management, delegating responsibility to rural
organizations;
(b) Create or strengthen rural organizations in charge of village and
pastoral land management;
(c) Establish and develop local, national and intersectoral mechanisms
to handle environmental and developmental consequences of land tenure
expressed in terms of land use and land ownership. Particular attention
should be given to protecting the property rights of women and pastoral and
nomadic groups living in rural areas;
(d) Create or strengthen village associations focused on economic
activities of common pastoral interest (market gardening, transformation of
agricultural products, livestock, herding, etc.);
(e) Promote rural credit and mobilization of rural savings through the
establishment of rural banking systems;
(f) Develop infrastructure, as well as local production and marketing
capacity, by involving the local people to promote alternative livelihood
systems and alleviate poverty;
(g) Establish a revolving fund for credit to rural entrepreneurs and
local groups to facilitate the establishment of cottage industries/business
ventures and credit for input to agropastoral activities.
(b) Data and information
12.29. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Conduct socio-economic baseline studies in order to have a good
understanding of the situation in the programme area regarding,
particularly, resource and land tenure issues, traditional land-management
practices and characteristics of production systems;
(b) Conduct inventory of natural resources (soil, water and
vegetation) and their state of degradation, based primarily on the knowledge
of the local population (e.g., rapid rural appraisal);
(c) Disseminate information on technical packages adapted to the
social, economic and ecological conditions of each;
(d) Promote exchange and sharing of information concerning the
development of alternative livelihoods with other agro-ecological regions.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
12.30. Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Promote cooperation and exchange of information among the arid and
semi-arid land research institutions concerning techniques and technologies
to improve land and labour productivity, as well as viable production
systems;
(b) Coordinate and harmonize the implementation of programmes and
projects funded by the international organization communities and
non-governmental organizations that are directed towards the alleviation of
poverty and promotion of an alternative livelihood system.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
12.31. The Conference secretariat has estimated the costs for this
programme area in chapter 3 (Combating poverty) and chapter 14 (Promoting
sustainable agriculture and rural development).
(b) Scientific and technological means
12.32. Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Undertake applied research in land use with the support of local
research institutions;
(b) Facilitate regular national, regional and interregional
communication on and exchange of information and experience between
extension officers and researchers;
(c) Support and encourage the introduction and use of technologies for
the generation of alternative sources of incomes.
(c) Human resource development
12.33. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Train members of rural organizations in management skills and
train agropastoralists in such special techniques as soil and water
conservation, water harvesting, agroforestry and small-scale irrigation;
(b) Train extension agents and officers in the participatory approach
to integrated land management.
(d) Capacity-building
12.34. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should establish and
maintain mechanisms to ensure the integration into sectoral and national
development plans and programmes of strategies for poverty alleviation among
the inhabitants of lands prone to desertification.
D. Developing comprehensive anti-desertification programmes
and integrating them into national development plans and
national environmental planning
Basis for action
12.35. In a number of developing countries affected by desertification, the
natural resource base is the main resource upon which the development
process must rely. The social systems interacting with land resources make
the problem much more complex, requiring an integrated approach to the
planning and management of land resources. Action plans to combat
desertification and drought should include management aspects of the
environment and development, thus conforming with the approach of
integrating national development plans and national environmental action
plans.
Objectives
12.36. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To strengthen national institutional capabilities to develop
appropriate anti-desertification programmes and to integrate them into
national development planning;
(b) To develop and integrate strategic planning frameworks for the
development, protection and management of natural resources in dryland areas
into national development plans, including national plans to combat
desertification, and environmental action plans in countries most prone to
desertification;
(c) To initiate a long-term process for implementing and monitoring
strategies related to natural resources management;
(d) To strengthen regional and international cooperation for combating
desertification through, inter alia, the adoption of legal and other
instruments.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
12.37. Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Establish or strengthen, national and local anti-desertification
authorities within government and local executive bodies, as well as local
committees/associations of land users, in all rural communities affected,
with a view to organizing working cooperation between all actors concerned,
from the grass-roots level (farmers and pastoralists) to the higher levels
of government;
(b) Develop national plans of action to combat desertification and as
appropriate, make them integral parts of national development plans and
national environmental action plans;
(c) Implement policies directed towards improving land use, managing
common lands appropriately, providing incentives to small farmers and
pastoralists, involving women and encouraging private investment in the
development of drylands;
(d) Ensure coordination among ministries and institutions working on
anti-desertification programmes at national and local levels.
(b) Data and information
12.38. Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should promote
information exchange and cooperation with respect to national planning and
programming among affected countries, inter alia, through networking.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
12.39. The relevant international organizations, multilateral financial
institutions, non-governmental organizations and bilateral agencies should
strengthen their cooperation in assisting with the preparation of
desertification control programmes and their integration into national
planning strategies, with the establishment of national coordinating and
systematic observation mechanisms and with the regional and global
networking of these plans and mechanisms.
12.40. The General Assembly, at its forty-seventh session, should be
requested to establish, under the aegis of the General Assembly, an
intergovernmental negotiating committee for the elaboration of an
international convention to combat desertification in in those countries
experiencing serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa,
with a view to finalizing such a convention by June 1994.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
12.41. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $180 million, including about $90 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
12.42. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Develop and introduce appropriate improved sustainable
agricultural and pastoral technologies that are socially and environmentally
acceptable and economically feasible;
(b) Undertake applied study on the integration of environmental and
developmental activities into national development plans.
(c) Human resource development
12.43. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should undertake
nationwide major anti-desertification awareness/training campaigns within
countries affected through existing national mass media facilities,
educational networks and newly created or strengthened extension services.
This should ensure people's access to knowledge of desertification and
drought and to national plans of action to combat desertification.
(d) Capacity-building
12.44. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should establish and
maintain mechanisms to ensure coordination of sectoral ministries and
institutions, including local-level institutions and appropriate
non-governmental organizations, in integrating anti-desertification
programmes into national development plans and national environmental action
plans.
E. Developing comprehensive drought preparedness and
drought-relief schemes, including self-help
arrangements, for drought-prone areas and
designing programmes to cope with environmental
refugees
Basis for action
12.45. Drought, in differing degrees of frequency and severity, is a
recurring phenomenon throughout much of the developing world, especially
Africa. Apart from the human toll - an estimated 3 million people died in
the mid-1980s because of drought in sub-Saharan Africa - the economic costs
of drought-related disasters are also high in terms of lost production,
misused inputs and diversion of development resources.
12.46. Early-warning systems to forecast drought will make possible the
implementation of drought-preparedness schemes. Integrated packages at the
farm and watershed level, such as alternative cropping strategies, soil and
water conservation and promotion of water harvesting techniques, could
enhancethe capacity of land to cope with drought and provide basic necessities,
thereby minimizing the number of environmental refugees and the need for
emergency drought relief. At the same time, contingency arrangements for
relief are needed for periods of acute scarcity.
Objectives
12.47. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To develop national strategies for drought preparedness in both
the short and long term, aimed at reducing the vulnerability of production
systems to drought;
(b) To strengthen the flow of early-warning information to decision
makers and land users to enable nations to implement strategies for drought
intervention;
(c) To develop and integrate drought-relief schemes and means of
coping with environmental refugees into national and regional development
planning.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
12.48. In drought-prone areas, Governments at the appropriate level, with
the support of the relevant international and regional organizations,
should:
(a) Design strategies to deal with national food deficiencies in
periods of production shortfall. These strategies should deal with issues
of storage and stocks, imports, port facilities, food storage, transport and
distribution;
(b) Improve national and regional capacity for agrometeorology and
contingency crop planning. Agrometeorology links the frequency, content and
regional coverage of weather forecasts with the requirements of crop
planning and agricultural extension;
(c) Prepare rural projects for providing short-term rural employment
to drought-affected households. The loss of income and entitlement to food
is a common source of distress in times of drought. Rural works help to
generate the income required to buy food for poor households;
(d) Establish contingency arrangements, where necessary, for food and
fodder distribution and water supply;
(e) Establish budgetary mechanisms for providing, at short notice,
resources for drought relief;
(f) Establish safety nets for the most vulnerable households.
(b) Data and information
12.49. Governments of affected countries, at the appropriate level, with
the support of the relevant international and regional organizations,
should:
(a) Implement research on seasonal forecasts to improve contingency
planning and relief operations and allow preventive measures to be taken at
the farm level, such as the selection of appropriate varieties and farming
practices, in times of drought;
(b) Support applied research on ways of reducing water loss from
soils, on ways of increasing the water absorption capacities of soils and on
water harvesting techniques in drought-prone areas;
(c) Strengthen national early-warning systems, with particular
emphasis on the area of risk-mapping, remote-sensing, agrometeorological
modelling, integrated multidisciplinary crop-forecasting techniques and
computerized food supply/demand analysis.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
12.50. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Establish a system of stand-by capacities in terms of foodstock,
logistical support, personnel and finance for a speedy international
response to drought-related emergencies;
(b) Support programmes of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
on agrohydrology and agrometeorology, the Programme of the Regional Training
Centre for Agrometeorology and Operational Hydrology and their Applications
(AGRHYMET), drought-monitoring centres and the African Centre of
Meteorological Applications for Development (ACMAD), as well as the efforts
of the Permanent Inter-State Committee on Drought Control in the Sahel
(CILSS) and the Intergovernmental Authority for Drought and Development
(IGADD);
(c) Support FAO programmes and other programmes for the development of
national early-warning systems and food security assistance schemes;
(d) Strengthen and expand the scope of existing regional programmes
and the activities of appropriate United Nations organs and organizations,
such as the World Food Programme (WFP), the Office of the United Nations
Disaster Relief Coordinator (UNDRO) and the United Nations Sudano-Sahelian
Office as well as of non-governmental organizations, aimed at mitigating the
effects of drought and emergencies.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
12.51. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $1.2 billion, including about $1.1 billion from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
12.52. Governments at the appropriate level and drought-prone communities,
with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations,
should:
(a) Use traditional mechanisms to cope with hunger as a means of
channelling relief and development assistance;
(b) Strengthen and develop national, regional and local
interdisciplinary research and training capabilities for drought-prevention
strategies.
(c) Human resource development
12.53. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Promote the training of decision makers and land users in the
effective utilization of information from early-warning systems;
(b) Strengthen research and national training capabilities to assess
the impact of drought and to develop methodologies to forecast drought.
(d) Capacity-building
12.54. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Improve and maintain mechanisms with adequate staff, equipment and
finances for monitoring drought parameters to take preventive measures at
regional, national and local levels;
(b) Establish interministerial linkages and coordinating units for
drought monitoring, impact assessment and management of drought-relief
schemes.
F. Encouraging and promoting popular participation and
environmental education, focusing on desertification
control and management of the effects of drought
Basis for action
12.55. The experience to date on the successes and failures of programmes
and projects points to the need for popular support to sustain activities
related to desertification and drought control. But it is necessary to go
beyond the theoretical ideal of popular participation and to focus on
obtaining actual active popular involvement, rooted in the concept of
partnership. This implies the sharing of responsibilities and the mutual
involvement of all parties. In this context, this programme area should be
considered an essential supporting component of all desertification-control
and drought-related activities.
Objectives
12.56. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To develop and increase public awareness and knowledge concerning
desertification and drought, including the integration of environmental
education in the curriculum of primary and secondary schools;
(b) To establish and promote true partnership between government
authorities, at both the national and local levels, other executing
agencies, non-governmental organizations and land users stricken by drought
and desertification, giving land users a responsible role in the planning
and execution processes in order to benefit fully from development projects;
(c) To ensure that the partners understand one another's needs,
objectives and points of view by providing a variety of means such as
training, public awareness and open dialogue;
(d) To support local communities in their own efforts in combating
desertification, and to draw on the knowledge and experience of the
populations concerned, ensuring the full participation of women and
indigenous populations.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
12.57. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Adopt policies and establish administrative structures for more
decentralized decision-making and implementation;
(b) Establish and utilize mechanisms for the consultation and
involvement of land users and for enhancing capability at the grass-rootslevel to identify and/or contribute to the identification and planning of
action;
(c) Define specific programme/project objectives in cooperation with
local communities; design local management plans to include such measures of
progress, thereby providing a means of altering project design or changing
management practices, as appropriate;
(d) Introduce legislative, institutional/organizational and financial
measures to secure user involvement and access to land resources;
(e) Establish and/or expand favourable conditions for the provision of
services, such as credit facilities and marketing outlets for rural
populations;
(f) Develop training programmes to increase the level of education and
participation of people, particularly women and indigenous groups, through,
inter alia, literacy and the development of technical skills;
(g) Create rural banking systems to facilitate access to credit for
rural populations, particularly women and indigenous groups, and to promote
rural savings;
(h) Adopt appropriate policies to stimulate private and public
investment.
(b) Data and information
12.58. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Review, develop and disseminate gender-disaggregated information,
skills and know-how at all levels on ways of organizing and promoting
popular participation;
(b) Accelerate the development of technological know-how, focusing on
appropriate and intermediate technology;
(c) Disseminate knowledge about applied research results on soil and
water issues, appropriate species, agricultural techniques and technological
know-how.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
12.59. Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Develop programmes of support to regional organizations such as
CILSS, IGADD, SADCC and the Arab Maghreb Union and other intergovernmental
organizations in Africa and other parts of the world, to strengthen outreachprogrammes and increase the participation of non-governmental organizations
together with rural populations;
(b) Develop mechanisms for facilitating cooperation in technology and
promote such cooperation as an element of all external assistance and
activities related to technical assistance projects in the public or private
sector;
(c) Promote collaboration among different actors in environment and
development programmes;
(d) Encourage the emergence of representative organizational
structures to foster and sustain interorganizational cooperation.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
12.60. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $1.0 billion, including about $500 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
12.61. Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should promote the
development of indigenous know-how and technology transfer.
(c) Human resource development
12.62. Governments, at the appropriate level, and with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Support and/or strengthen institutions involved in public
education, including the local media, schools and community groups;
(b) Increase the level of public education.
(d) Capacity-building
12.63. Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should promote members of
local rural organizations and train and appoint more extension officers
working at the local level.
Chapter 13
MANAGING FRAGILE ECOSYSTEMS: SUSTAINABLE MOUNTAIN DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
13.1. Mountains are an important source of water, energy and biological
diversity. Furthermore, they are a source of such key resources as minerals,
forest products and agricultural products and of recreation. As a major
ecosystem representing the complex and interrelated ecology of our planet,
mountain environments are essential to the survival of the global ecosystem.
Mountain ecosystems are, however, rapidly changing. They are susceptible to
accelerated soil erosion, landslides and rapid loss of habitat and genetic
diversity. On the human side, there is widespread poverty among mountain
inhabitants and loss of indigenous knowledge. As a result, most global
mountain areas are experiencing environmental degradation. Hence, the proper
management of mountain resources and socio-economic development of the people
deserves immediate action.
13.2. About 10 per cent of the world's population depends on mountain
resources. A much larger percentage draws on other mountain resources,
including and especially water. Mountains are a storehouse of biological
diversity and endangered species.
13.3. Two programme areas are included in this chapter to further elaborate
the problem of fragile ecosystems with regard to all mountains of the world.
These are:
(a) Generating and strengthening knowledge about the ecology and
sustainable development of mountain ecosystems;
(b) Promoting integrated watershed development and alternative livelihood
opportunities.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Generating and strengthening knowledge about the ecology and
sustainable development of mountain ecosystems
Basis for action
13.4. Mountains are highly vulnerable to human and natural ecological
imbalance. Mountains are the areas most sensitive to all climatic changes in
the atmosphere. Specific information on ecology, natural resource potential
and socio-economic activities is essential. Mountain and hillside areas hold a
rich variety of ecological systems. Because of their vertical dimensions,
mountains create gradients of temperature, precipitation and insolation. A
given mountain slope may include several climatic systems - such as tropical,subtropical, temperate and alpine - each of which represents a microcosm of a
larger habitat diversity. There is, however, a lack of knowledge of mountain
ecosystems. The creation of a global mountain database is therefore vital for
launching programmes that contribute to the sustainable development of mountain
ecosystems.
Objectives
13.5. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To undertake a survey of the different forms of soils, forest, water
use, crop, plant and animal resources of mountain ecosystems, taking into
account the work of existing international and regional organizations;
(b) To maintain and generate database and information systems to
facilitate the integrated management and environmental assessment of mountain
ecosystems, taking into account the work of existing international and regional
organizations;
(c) To improve and build the existing land/water ecological knowledge
base regarding technologies and agricultural and conservation practices in the
mountain regions of the world, with the participation of local communities;
(d) To create and strengthen the communications network and information
clearing-house for existing organizations concerned with mountain issues;
(e) To improve coordination of regional efforts to protect fragile
mountain ecosystems through the consideration of appropriate mechanisms,
including regional legal and other instruments;
(f) To generate information to establish databases and information
systems to facilitate an evaluation of environmental risks and natural
disasters in mountain ecosystems.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
13.6. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Strengthen existing institutions or establish new ones at local,
national and regional levels to generate a multidisciplinary land/water
ecological knowledge base on mountain ecosystems;
(b) Promote national policies that would provide incentives to local
people for the use and transfer of environment-friendly technologies and
farming and conservation practices;
(c) Build up the knowledge base and understanding by creating mechanisms
for cooperation and information exchange among national and regional
institutions working on fragile ecosystems;
(d) Encourage policies that would provide incentives to farmers and local
people to undertake conservation and regenerative measures;
(e) Diversify mountain economies, inter alia, by creating and/or
strengthening tourism, in accordance with integrated management of mountain
areas;
(f) Integrate all forest, rangeland and wildlife activities in such a way
that specific mountain ecosystems are maintained;
(g) Establish appropriate natural reserves in representative species-rich
sites and areas.
(b) Data and information
13.7. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Maintain and establish meteorological, hydrological and physical
monitoring analysis and capabilities that would encompass the climatic
diversity as well as water distribution of various mountain regions of the
world;
(b) Build an inventory of different forms of soils, forests, water use,
and crop, plant and animal genetic resources, giving priority to those under
threat of extinction. Genetic resources should be protected in situ by
maintaining and establishing protected areas and improving traditional farming
and animal husbandry activities and establishing programmes for evaluating the
potential value of the resources;
(c) Identify hazardous areas that are most vulnerable to erosion, floods,
landslides, earthquakes, snow avalanches and other natural hazards;
(d) Identify mountain areas threatened by air pollution from neighbouring
industrial and urban areas.
(c) International and regional cooperation
13.8. National Governments and intergovernmental organizations should:
(a) Coordinate regional and international cooperation and facilitate an
exchange of information and experience among the specialized agencies, the
World Bank, IFAD and other international and regional organizations, national
Governments, research institutions and non-governmental organizations working
on mountain development;
(b) Encourage regional, national and international networking of people's
initiatives and the activities of international, regional and local
non-governmental organizations working on mountain development, such as the
United Nations University (UNU), the Woodland Mountain Institutes (WMI), the
International Center for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), the
International Mountain Society (IMS), the African Mountain Association and the
Andean Mountain Association, besides supporting those organizations in exchange
of information and experience;
(c) Protect Fragile Mountain Ecosystem through the consideration of
appropriate mechanisms including regional legal and other instruments.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
13.9. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$50 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
13.10. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should strengthen scientific research
and technological development programmes, including diffusion through national
and regional institutions, particularly in meteorology, hydrology, forestry,
soil sciences and plant sciences.
(c) Human resource development
13.11. Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Launch training and extension programmes in environmentally
appropriate technologies and practices that would be suitable to mountain
ecosystems;
(b) Support higher education through fellowships and research grants for
environmental studies in mountains and hill areas, particularly for candidates
from indigenous mountain populations;
(c) Undertake environmental education for farmers, in particular for
women, to help the rural population better understand the ecological issues
regarding the sustainable development of mountain ecosystems.
(d) Capacity-building
13.12. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should build up national and regional
institutional bases that could carry out research, training and dissemination
of information on the sustainable development of the economies of fragile
ecosystems.
B. Promoting integrated watershed development and alternative
livelihood opportunities
Basis for action
13.13. Nearly half of the world's population is affected in various ways by
mountain ecology and the degradation of watershed areas. About 10 per cent of
the Earth's population lives in mountain areas with higher slopes, while about
40 per cent occupies the adjacent medium- and lower-watershed areas. There are
serious problems of ecological deterioration in these watershed areas. For
example, in the hillside areas of the Andean countries of South America a large
portion of the farming population is now faced with a rapid deterioration of
land resources. Similarly, the mountain and upland areas of the Himalayas,
South-East Asia and East and Central Africa, which make vital contributions to
agricultural production, are threatened by cultivation of marginal lands due to
expanding population. In many areas this is accompanied by excessive livestock
grazing, deforestation and loss of biomass cover.
13.14. Soil erosion can have a devastating impact on the vast numbers of rural
people who depend on rainfed agriculture in the mountain and hillside areas.
Poverty, unemployment, poor health and bad sanitation are widespread.
Promoting integrated watershed development programmes through effective
participation of local people is a key to preventing further ecological
imbalance. An integrated approach is needed for conserving, upgrading and
using the natural resource base of land, water, plant, animal and human
resources. In addition, promoting alternative livelihood opportunities,
particularly through development of employment schemes that increase the
productive base, will have a significant role in improving the standard of
living among the large rural population living in mountain ecosystems.
Objectives
13.15. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) By the year 2000, to develop appropriate land-use planning and
management for both arable and non-arable land in mountain-fed watershed areas
to prevent soil erosion, increase biomass production and maintain the
ecological balance;
(b) To promote income-generating activities, such as sustainable tourism,
fisheries and environmentally sound mining, and to improve infrastructure and
social services, in particular to protect the livelihoods of local communities
and indigenous people;
(c) To develop technical and institutional arrangements for affected
countries to mitigate the effects of natural disasters through
hazard-prevention measures, risk zoning, early-warning systems, evacuation
plans and emergency supplies.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
13.16. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Undertake measures to prevent soil erosion and promote
erosion-control activities in all sectors;
(b) Establish task forces or watershed development committees,
complementing existing institutions, to coordinate integrated services to
support local initiatives in animal husbandry, forestry, horticulture and rural
development at all administrative levels;
(c) Enhance popular participation in the management of local resources
through appropriate legislation;
(d) Support non-governmental organizations and other private groups
assisting local organizations and communities in the preparation of projects
that would enhance participatory development of local people;
(e) Provide mechanisms to preserve threatened areas that could protect
wildlife, conserve biological diversity or serve as national parks;
(f) Develop national policies that would provide incentives to farmers
and local people to undertake conservation measures and to use
environment-friendly technologies;
(g) Undertake income-generating activities in cottage and agro-processing
industries, such as the cultivation and processing of medicinal and aromatic
plants;
(h) Undertake the above activities, taking into account the need for full
participation of women, including indigenous people and local communities, in
development.
(b) Data and information
13.17. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Maintain and establish systematic observation and evaluation
capacities at the national, state or provincial level to generate information
for daily operations and to assess the environmental and socio-economic impacts
of projects;
(b) Generate data on alternative livelihoods and diversified production
systems at the village level on annual and tree crops, livestock, poultry,
beekeeping, fisheries, village industries, markets, transport and
income-earning opportunities, taking fully into account the role of women and
integrating them into the planning and implementation process.
(c) International and regional cooperation
13.18. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Strengthen the role of appropriate international research and
training institutes such as the Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research Centers (CGIAR) and the International Board for Soil
Research and Management (IBSRAM), as well as regional research centres, such as
the Woodland Mountain Institutes and the International Center for Integrated
Mountain Development, in undertaking applied research relevant to watershed
development;
(b) Promote regional cooperation and exchange of data and information
among countries sharing the same mountain ranges and river basins, particularly
those affected by mountain disasters and floods;
(c) Maintain and establish partnerships with non-governmental
organizations and other private groups working in watershed development.
Means of implementation
(a) Financial and cost evaluation
13.19. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$13 billion, including about $1.9 billion from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
13.20. Financing for the promotion of alternative livelihoods in mountain
ecosystems should be viewed as part of a country's anti-poverty or alternative
livelihoods programme, which is also discussed in chapter 3 (Combating poverty)
and chapter 14 (Promoting sustainable agriculture and rural development) of
Agenda 21.
(b) Scientific and technical means
13.21. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Consider undertaking pilot projects that combine environmental
protection and development functions with particular emphasis on some of the
traditional environmental management practices or systems that have a good
impact on the environment;
(b) Generate technologies for specific watershed and farm conditions
through a participatory approach involving local men and women, researchers and
extension agents who will carry out experiments and trials on farm conditions;
(c) Promote technologies of vegetative conservation measures for erosion
prevention, in situ moisture management, improved cropping technology, fodder
production and agroforestry that are low-cost, simple and easily adopted by
local people.
(c) Human resource development
13.22. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Promote a multidisciplinary and cross-sectoral approach in training
and the dissemination of knowledge to local people on a wide range of issues,
such as household production systems, conservation and utilization of arable
and non-arable land, treatment of drainage lines and recharging of groundwater,
livestock management, fisheries, agroforestry and horticulture;
(b) Develop human resources by providing access to education, health,
energy and infrastructure;
(c) Promote local awareness and preparedness for disaster prevention and
mitigation, combined with the latest available technology for early warning and
forecasting.
(d) Capacity-building
13.23. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should develop and strengthen
national centres for watershed management to encourage a comprehensive approach
to the environmental, socio-economic, technological, legislative,financial and administrative aspects and provide support to policy makers,
administrators, field staff and farmers for watershed development.
13.24. The private sector and local communities, in cooperation with national
Governments, should promote local infrastructure development, including
communication networks, mini- or micro-hydro development to support cottage
industries, and access to markets.
Chapter 14
PROMOTING SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
14.1. By the year 2025, 83 per cent of the expected global population of
8.5 billion will be living in developing countries. Yet the capacity of
available resources and technologies to satisfy the demands of this growing
population for food and other agricultural commodities remains uncertain.
Agriculture has to meet this challenge, mainly by increasing production on land
already in use and by avoiding further encroachment on land that is only
marginally suitable for cultivation.
14.2. Major adjustments are needed in agricultural, environmental and
macroeconomic policy, at both national and international levels, in developed
as well as developing countries, to create the conditions for sustainable
agriculture and rural development (SARD). The major objective of SARD is to
increase food production in a sustainable way and enhance food security. This
will involve education initiatives, utilization of economic incentives and the
development of appropriate and new technologies, thus ensuring stable supplies
of nutritionally adequate food, access to those supplies by vulnerable groups,
and production for markets; employment and income generation to alleviate
poverty; and natural resource management and environmental protection.
14.3. The priority must be on maintaining and improving the capacity of the
higher potential agricultural lands to support an expanding population.
However, conserving and rehabilitating the natural resources on lower potential
lands in order to maintain sustainable man/land ratios is also necessary. The
main tools of SARD are policy and agrarian reform, participation, income
diversification, land conservation and improved management of inputs. The
success of SARD will depend largely on the support and participation of rural
people, national Governments, the private sector and international cooperation,
including technical and scientific cooperation.
14.4. The following programme areas are included in this chapter:
(a) Agricultural policy review, planning and integrated programming in
the light of the multifunctional aspect of agriculture, particularly with
regard to food security and sustainable development;
(b) Ensuring people's participation and promoting human resource
development for sustainable agriculture;
(c) Improving farm production and farming systems through diversification
of farm and non-farm employment and infrastructure development;
(d) Land-resource planning information and education for agriculture;
(e) Land conservation and rehabilitation;
(f) Water for sustainable food production and sustainable rural
development;
(g) Conservation and sustainable utilization of plant genetic resources
for food and sustainable agriculture;
(h) Conservation and sustainable utilization of animal genetic resources
for sustainable agriculture;
(i) Integrated pest management and control in agriculture;
(j) Sustainable plant nutrition to increase food production;
(k) Rural energy transition to enhance productivity;
(l) Evaluation of the effects of ultraviolet radiation on plants and
animals caused by the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Agricultural policy review, planning and integrated
programmes in the light of the multifunctional
aspect of agriculture, particularly with regard to
food security and sustainable development
Basis for action
14.5. There is a need to integrate sustainable development considerations with
agricultural policy analysis and planning in all countries, particularly in
developing countries. Recommendations should contribute directly to
development of realistic and operational medium- to long-term plans and
programmes, and thus to concrete actions. Support to and monitoring of
implementation should follow.
14.6. The absence of a coherent national policy framework for sustainable
agriculture and rural development (SARD) is widespread and is not limited to
the developing countries. In particular the economies in transition from
planned to market-oriented systems need such a framework to incorporate
environmental considerations into economic activities, including agriculture.
All countries need to assess comprehensively the impacts of such policies on
food and agriculture sector performance, food security, rural welfare and
international trading relations as a means for identifying appropriate
offsetting measures. The major thrust of food security in this case is to
bring about a significant increase in agricultural production in a sustainable
way and to achieve a substantial improvement in people's entitlement to
adequate food and culturally appropriate food supplies.
14.7. Sound policy decisions pertaining to international trade and capital
flows also necessitate action to overcome: (a) a lack of awareness of the
environmental costs incurred by sectoral and macroeconomic policies and hence
their threat to sustainability; (b) insufficient skills and experience in
incorporating issues of sustainability into policies and programmes; and
(c) inadequacy of tools of analysis and monitoring. 1/
Objectives
14.8. The objectives of this Programme area are:
(a) By 1995, to review and, where appropriate, establish a programme to
integrate environmental and sustainable development with policy analysis for
the food and agriculture sector and relevant macroeconomic policy analysis,
formulation and implementation;
(b) To maintain and develop, as appropriate, operational multisectoral
plans, programmes and policy measures, including programmes and measures to
enhance sustainable food production and food security within the framework of
sustainable development, not later than 1998;
(c) To maintain and enhance the ability of developing countries,
particularly the least developed ones, to themselves manage policy, programming
and planning activities, not later than 2005.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
14.9. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Carry out national policy reviews related to food security, including
adequate levels and stability of food supply and access to food by all
households;
(b) Review national and regional agricultural policy in relation,
inter alia, to foreign trade, price policy, exchange rate policies,
agricultural subsidies and taxes, as well as organization for regional economic
integration;
(c) Implement policies to influence land tenure and property rights
positively with due recognition of the minimum size of land-holding required to
maintain production and check further fragmentation;
(d) Consider demographic trends and population movements and identify
critical areas for agricultural production;
(e) Formulate, introduce and monitor policies, laws and regulations and
incentives leading to sustainable agricultural and rural development andimproved food security and to the development and transfer of appropriate farm
technologies, including, where appropriate, low-input sustainable agricultural
(LISA) systems;
(f) Support national and regional early warning systems through
food-security assistance schemes that monitor food supply and demand and
factors affecting household access to food;
(g) Review policies with respect to improving harvesting, storage,
processing, distribution and marketing of products at the local, national and
regional levels;
(h) Formulate and implement integrated agricultural projects that include
other natural resource activities, such as management of rangelands, forests,
and wildlife, as appropriate;
(i) Promote social and economic research and policies that encourage
sustainable agriculture development, particularly in fragile ecosystems and
densely populated areas;
(j) Identify storage and distribution problems affecting food
availability; support research, where necessary, to overcome these problems and
cooperate with producers and distributors to implement improved practices and
systems.
(b) Data and information
14.10. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Cooperate actively to expand and improve the information on early
warning systems on food and agriculture at both regional and national levels;
(b) Examine and undertake surveys and research to establish baseline
information on the status of natural resources relating to food and
agricultural production and planning in order to assess the impacts of various
uses on these resources, and develop methodologies and tools of analysis, such
as environmental accounting.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
14.11. United Nations agencies, such as FAO, the World Bank, IFAD and GATT,
and regional organizations, bilateral donor agencies and other bodies should,
within their respective mandates, assume a role in working with national
Governments in the following activities:
(a) Implement integrated and sustainable agricultural development and
food security strategies at the subregional level that use regional production
and trade potentials, including organizations for regional economic
integration, to promote food security;
(b) Encourage, in the context of achieving sustainable agricultural
development and consistent with relevant internationally agreed principles on
trade and environment, a more open and non-discriminatory trading system and
the avoidance of unjustifiable trade barriers which together with other
policies will facilitate the further integration of agricultural and
environmental policies so as to make them mutually supportive;
(c) Strengthen and establish national, regional and international systems
and networks to increase the understanding of the interaction between
agriculture and the state of the environment, identify ecologically sound
technologies and facilitate the exchange information on data sources, policies,
and techniques and tools of analysis.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
14.12. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) on implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$3 billion, including about $450 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
14.13. Governments at the appropriate level and with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations should assist farming
households and communities to apply technologies related to improved food
production and security, including storage, monitoring of production and
distribution.
(c) Human resource development
14.14. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Involve and train local economists, planners and analysts to initiate
national and international policy reviews and develop frameworks for
sustainable agriculture;
(b) Establish legal measures to promote access of women to land and
remove biases in their involvement in rural development.
(d) Capacity-building
14.15. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should strengthen ministries for
agriculture, natural resources and planning.
B. Ensuring people's participation and promoting human
resource development for sustainable agriculture
Basis for action
14.16. This component bridges policy and integrated resource management. The
greater the degree of community control over the resources on which it relies,
the greater will be the incentive for economic and human resources development.
At the same time, policy instruments to reconcile long-run and short-run
requirements must be set by national Governments. The approaches focus on
fostering self-reliance and cooperation, providing information and supporting
user-based organizations. Emphasis should be on management practices, building
agreements for changes in resource utilization, the rights and duties
associated with use of land, water and forests, the functioning of markets,
prices, and the access to information, capital and inputs. This would require
training and capacity-building to assume greater responsibilities in
sustainable development efforts. 2/
Objectives
14.17. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To promote greater public awareness of the role of people's
participation and people's organizations, especially women's groups, youth,
indigenous people, local communities and small farmers, in sustainable
agriculture and rural development;
(b) To ensure equitable access of rural people, particularly women, small
farmers, landless and indigenous people, to land, water and forest resources
and to technologies, financing, marketing, processing and distribution;
(c) To strengthen and develop the management and the internal capacities
of rural people's organizations and extension services and to decentralize
decision-making to the lowest community level.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
14.18. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Develop and improve integrated agricultural extension services and
facilities and rural organizations and undertake natural resource management
and food security activities, taking into account the different needs of
subsistence agriculture as well as market-oriented crops;
(b) Review and refocus existing measures to achieve wider access to land,
water and forest resources and ensure equal rights of women and other
disadvantaged groups, with particular emphasis on rural populations, indigenous
people and local communities;
(c) Assign clear titles, rights and responsibilities for land and for
individuals or communities to encourage investment in land resources;
(d) Develop guidelines for decentralization policies for rural
development through reorganization and strengthening of rural institutions;
(e) Develop policies in extension, training, pricing, input distribution,
credit and taxation to ensure necessary incentives and equitable access by the
poor to production-support services;
(f) Provide support services and training, recognizing the variation in
agricultural circumstances and practices by location; the optimal use of
on-farm inputs and the minimal use of external inputs; optimal use of local
natural resources and management of renewable energy sources; and the
establishment of networks that deal with the exchange of information on
alternative forms of agriculture.
(b) Data and information
14.19. Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should collect, analyse, and
disseminate information on human resources, the role of Governments, local
communities and non-governmental organizations in social innovation and
strategies for rural development.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
14.20. Appropriate international and regional agencies should:
(a) Reinforce their work with non-governmental organizations in
collecting and disseminating information on people's participation and people's
organizations, testing participatory development methods, training and
education for human resource development and strengthening the management
structures of rural organizations;
(b) Help develop information available through non-governmental
organizations and promote an international ecological agricultural network to
accelerate the development and implementation of ecological agriculture
practices.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
14.21. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$4.4 billion, including about $650 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
14.22. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Encourage people's participation on farm technology development and
transfer, incorporating indigenous ecological knowledge and practices;
(b) Launch applied research on participatory methodologies, management
strategies and local organizations.
(c) Human resource development
14.23. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should provide management and
technical training to government administrators and members of resource-user
groups in the principles, practice and benefits of people's participation in
rural development.
(d) Capacity-building
14.24. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should introduce management
strategies and mechanisms, such as accounting and audit services for rural
people's organizations and institutions for human resource development, and
delegate administrative and financial responsibilities to local levels for
decision-making, revenue-raising and expenditure.
C. Improving farm production and farming systems through
diversification of farm and non-farm employment and
infrastructure development
Basis for action
14.25. Agriculture needs to be intensified to meet future demands for
commodities and to avoid further expansion onto marginal lands and encroachment
on fragile ecosystems. Increased use of external inputs and development of
specialized production and farming systems tend to increase vulnerability to
environmental stresses and market fluctuations. There is, therefore, a need to
intensify agriculture by diversifying the production systems for maximum
efficiency in the utilization of local resources, while minimizing
environmental and economic risks. Where intensification of farming systems is
not possible, other on-farm and off-farm employment opportunities should be
identified and developed, such as cottage industries, wildlife utilization,
aquaculture and fisheries, non-farm activities, such as light village-based
manufacturing, farm commodity processing, agribusiness, recreation and tourism,
etc.
Objectives
14.26. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To improve farm productivity in a sustainable manner, as well as to
increase diversification, efficiency, food security and rural incomes, while
ensuring that risks to the ecosystem are minimized;
(b) To enhance the self-reliance of farmers in developing and improving
rural infrastructure, and to facilitate the transfer of environmentally sound
technologies for integrated production and farming systems, including
indigenous technologies and the sustainable use of biological and ecological
processes, including agroforestry, sustainable wildlife conservation and
management, aquaculture, inland fisheries and animal husbandry;
(c) To create farm and non-farm employment opportunities, particularly
among the poor and those living in marginal areas, taking into account the
alternative livelihood proposal inter alia in dryland areas.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
14.27. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Develop and disseminate to farming households integrated farm
management technologies, such as crop rotation, organic manuring and other
techniques involving reduced use of agricultural chemicals, multiple techniques
for sources of nutrients and the efficient utilization of externalinputs, while enhancing techniques for waste and by-product utilization and
prevention of pre- and post-harvest losses, taking particular note of the role
of women;
(b) Create non-farm employment opportunities through private small-scale
agro-processing units, rural service centres and related infrastructural
improvements;
(c) Promote and improve rural financial networks that utilize investment
capital resources raised locally;
(d) Provide the essential rural infrastructure for access to agricultural
inputs and services, as well as to national and local markets, and reduce food
losses;
(e) Initiate and maintain farm surveys, on-farm testing of appropriate
technologies and dialogue with rural communities to identify constraints and
bottlenecks and find solutions;
(f) Analyse and identify possibilities for economic integration of
agricultural and forestry activities, as well as water and fisheries, and to
take effective measures to encourage forest management and growing of trees by
farmers (farm forestry) as an option for resource development.
(b) Data and information
14.28. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Analyse the effects of technical innovations and incentives on
farm-household income and well-being;
(b) Initiate and maintain on-farm and off-farm programmes to collect and
record indigenous knowledge.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
14.29 International institutions, such as FAO and IFAD, international
agricultural research centres, such as CGIAR, and regional centres should
diagnose the world's major agro-ecosystems, their extension, ecological and
socio-economic characteristics, their susceptibility to deterioration and their
productive potential. This could form the basis for technology development and
exchange and for regional research collaboration.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
14.30. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about$10 billion, including about $1.5 billion from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
14.31. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should strengthen research on
agricultural production systems in areas with different endowments and
agro-ecological zones, including comparative analysis of the intensification,
diversification and different levels of external and internal inputs.
(c) Human resource development
14.32. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Promote educational and vocational training for farmers and rural
communities through formal and non-formal education;
(b) Launch awareness and training programmes for entrepreneurs, managers,
bankers and traders in rural servicing and small-scale agro-processing
techniques.
(d) Capacity-building
14.33. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Improve their organizational capacity to deal with issues related to
off-farm activities and rural industry development;
(b) Expand credit facilities and rural infrastructure related to
processing, transportation and marketing.
D. Land-resource planning, information and education
for agriculture
Basis for action
14.34. Inappropriate and uncontrolled land uses are a major cause of
degradation and depletion of land resources. Present land use often disregards
the actual potentials, carrying capacities and limitations of land resources,
as well as their diversity in space. It is estimated that the world's
population, now at 5.4 billion, will be 6.25 billion by the turn of the
century. The need to increase food production to meet the expanding needsof the population will put enormous pressure on all natural resources,
including land.
14.35. Poverty and malnutrition are already endemic in many regions. The
destruction and degradation of agricultural and environmental resources is a
major issue. Techniques for increasing production and conserving soil and
water resources are already available but are not widely or systematically
applied. A systematic approach is needed for identifying land uses and
production systems that are sustainable in each land and climate zone,
including the economic, social and institutional mechanisms necessary for their
implementation. 3/
Objectives
14.36. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To harmonize planning procedures, involve farmers in the planning
process, collect land-resource data, design and establish databases, define
land areas of similar capability, identify resource problems and values that
need to be taken into account to establish mechanisms to encourage efficient
and environmentally sound use of resources;
(b) To establish agricultural planning bodies at national and local
levels to decide priorities, channel resources and implement programmes.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
14.37. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Establish and strengthen agricultural land-use and land-resource
planning, management, education and information at national and local levels;
(b) Initiate and maintain district and village agricultural land-resource
planning, management and conservation groups to assist in problem
identification, development of technical and management solutions, and project
implementation.
(b) Data and information
14.38. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Collect, continuously monitor, update and disseminate information,
whenever possible, on the utilization of natural resources and living
conditions, climate, water and soil factors, and on land use, distribution of
vegetation cover and animal species, utilization of wild plants, production
systems and yields, costs and prices, and social and cultural considerations
that affect agricultural and adjacent land use;
(b) Establish programmes to provide information, promote discussion and
encourage the formation of management groups.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
14.39. The appropriate United Nations agencies and regional organizations
should:
(a) Strengthen or establish international, regional and subregional
technical working groups with specific terms of reference and budgets to
promote the integrated use of land resources for agriculture, planning, data
collection and diffusion of simulation models of production and information
dissemination;
(b) Develop internationally acceptable methodologies for the
establishment of databases, description of land uses and multiple goal
optimization.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
14.40. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$1.7 billion, including about $250 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
14.41. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Develop databases and geographical information systems to store and
display physical, social and economic information pertaining to agriculture,
and the definition of ecological zones and development areas;
(b) Select combinations of land uses and production systems appropriate
to land units through multiple goal optimization procedures, and strengthen
delivery systems and local community participation;
(c) Encourage integrated planning at the watershed and landscape level to
reduce soil loss and protect surface and groundwater resources from chemical
pollution.
(c) Human resource development
14.42. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Train professionals and planning groups at national, district and
village levels through formal and informal instructional courses, travel and
interaction;
(b) Generate discussion at all levels on policy, development and
environmental issues related to agricultural land use and management, through
media programmes, conferences and seminars.
(d) Capacity-building
14.43. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Establish land-resource mapping and planning units at national,
district and village levels to act as focal points and links between
institutions and disciplines, and between Governments and people;
(b) Establish or strengthen Governments and international institutions
with responsibility for agricultural resource survey, management and
development; rationalize and strengthen legal frameworks; and provide equipment
and technical assistance.
E. Land conservation and rehabilitation
Basis for action
14.44. Land degradation is the most important environmental problem affecting
extensive areas of land in both developed and developing countries. The problem
of soil erosion is particularly acute in developing countries, while problems
of salinization, waterlogging, soil pollution and loss of soil fertility are
increasing in all countries. Land degradation is serious because the
productivity of huge areas of land is declining just when populations are
increasing rapidly and the demand on the land is growing to produce more food,
fibre and fuel. Efforts to control land degradation, particularly in
developing countries, have had limited success to date. Well planned,
long-term national and regional land conservation and rehabilitation
programmes, with strong political support and adequate funding, are now needed.
While land-use planning and land zoning, combined with better land management,
should provide long-term solutions, it is urgent to arrest land degradation and
launch conservation and rehabilitation programmes in the most critically
affected and vulnerable areas.
Objectives
14.45. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) By the year 2000, to review and initiate, as appropriate, national
land-resource surveys, detailing the location, extent and severity of land
degradation;
(b) To prepare and implement comprehensive policies and programmes
leading to the reclamation of degraded lands and the conservation of areas at
risk, as well as improve the general planning, management and utilization of
land resources and preserve soil fertility for sustainable agricultural
development.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
14.46. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Develop and implement programmes to remove and resolve the physical,
social and economic causes of land degradation, such as land tenure,
appropriate trading systems and agricultural pricing structures, which lead to
inappropriate land-use management;
(b) Provide incentives and, where appropriate and possible, resources for
the participation of local communities in the planning, implementation and
maintenance of their own conservation and reclamation programmes;
(c) Develop and implement programmes for the rehabilitation of land
degraded by water-logging and salinity;
(d) Develop and implement programmes for the progressive use of
non-cultivated land with agricultural potential in a sustainable way.
(b) Data and information
14.47. Governments, at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Conduct periodic surveys to assess the extent and state of its land
resources;
(b) Strengthen and establish national land-resource data banks, including
identification of the location, extent and severity of existing land
degradation, as well as areas at risk, and evaluate the progress of the
conservation and rehabilitation programmes launched in this regard;
(c) Collect and record information on indigenous conservation and
rehabilitation practices and farming systems as a basis for research and
extension programmes.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
14.48. The appropriate United Nations agencies, regional organizations and
non-governmental organizations should:
(a) Develop priority conservation and rehabilitation programmes with
advisory services to Governments and regional organizations;
(b) Establish regional and subregional networks for scientists and
technicians to exchange experiences, develop joint programmes and spread
successful technologies on land conservation and rehabilitation.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
14.49. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$5 billion, including about $800 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
14.50. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should help farming household
communities to investigate and promote site-specific technologies and farming
systems that conserve and rehabilitate land, while increasing agricultural
production, including conservation tillage agroforestry, terracing and mixed
cropping.
(c) Human resource development
14.51. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should train field staff and land
users in indigenous and modern techniques of conservation and rehabilitation
and should establish training facilities for extension staff and land users.
(d) Capacity-building
14.52. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Develop and strengthen national research institutional capacity to
identify and implement effective conservation and rehabilitation practices that
are appropriate to the existing socio-economic physical conditions of the land
users;
(b) Coordinate all land conservation and rehabilitation policies,
strategies and programmes with related ongoing programmes, such as national
environment action plans, the Tropical Forestry Action Plan and national
development programmes.
F. Water for sustainable food production and sustainable
rural development
14.53. This programme area is included in chapter 18 (Protection of the
quality and supply of freshwater resources), programme area F.
G. Conservation and sustainable utilization of plant genetic
resources for food and sustainable agriculture
Basis for action
14.54. Plant genetic resources for agriculture (PGRFA) are an essential
resource to meet future needs for food. Threats to the security of these
resources are growing, and efforts to conserve, develop and use genetic
diversity are underfunded and understaffed. Many existing gene banks provide
inadequate security and, in some instances, the loss of plant genetic diversity
in gene banks is as great as it is in the field.
14.55. The primary objective is to safeguard the world's genetic resources
while preserving them to use sustainably. This includes the development of
measures to facilitate the conservation and use of plant genetic resources,
networks of in situ conservation areas and use of tools such as ex situ
collections and germ plasma banks. Special emphasis could be placed on the
building of endogenous capacity for characterization, evaluation and
utilization of PGRFA, particularly for the minor crops and other underutilized
or non-utilized species of food and agriculture, including tree species for
agro-forestry. Subsequent action could be aimed at consolidation and efficient
management of networks of in situ conservation areas and use of tools such as
ex situ collections and germ plasma banks.
14.56. Major gaps and weaknesses exist in the capacity of existing national
and international mechanisms to assess, study, monitor and use plant genetic
resources to increase food production. Existing institutional capacity,
structures and programmes are generally inadequate and largely underfunded.
There is genetic erosion of invaluable crop species. Existing diversity in
crop species is not used to the extent possible for increased food production
in a sustainable way. 4/
Objectives
14.57. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To complete the first regeneration and safe duplication of existing
ex situ collections on a world-wide basis as soon as possible;
(b) To collect and study plants useful for increasing food production
through joint activities, including training, within the framework of networks
of collaborating institutions;
(c) Not later than the year 2000, to adopt policies and strengthen or
establish programmes for in situ on-farm and ex situ conservation and
sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, integrated
into strategies and programmes for sustainable agriculture;
(d) To take appropriate measures for the fair and equitable sharing of
benefits and results of research and development in plant breeding between the
sources and users of plant genetic resources.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
14.58. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Develop and strengthen institutional capacity, structures and
programmes for conservation and use of PGRFA;
(b) Strengthen and establish research in the public domain on PGRFA
evaluation and utilization, with the objectives of sustainable agriculture and
rural development in view;
(c) Develop multiplication/propagation, exchange and dissemination
facilities for PGRFAs (seeds and planting materials), particularly in
developing countries and monitor, control and evaluate plant introductions;
(d) Prepare plans or programmes of priority action on conservation and
sustainable use of PGRFA, based, as appropriate, on country studies on PGRFA;
(e) Promote crop diversification in agricultural systems where
appropriate, including new plants with potential value as food crops;
(f) Promote utilization as well as research on poorly known, but
potentially useful, plants and crops, where appropriate;
(g) Strengthen national capabilities for utilization of PGRFA, plant
breeding and seed production capabilities, both by specialized institutions and
farming communities.
(b) Data and information
14.59. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Develop strategies for networks of in situ conservation areas and use
of tools such as on-farm ex situ collections, germplasm banks and related
technologies;
(b) Establish ex situ base collection networks;
(c) Review periodically and report on the situation on PGRFA, using
existing systems and procedures;
(d) Characterize and evaluate PGRFA material collected, disseminate
information to facilitate the use of PGRFA collections and assess genetic
variation in collections.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
14.60. The appropriate United Nations agencies and regional organizations
should:
(a) Strengthen the Global System on the Conservation and Sustainable Use
of PGRFA by, inter alia, accelerating the development of the Global Information
and Early Warning System to facilitate the exchange of information; developing
ways to promote the transfer of environmentally sound technologies, in
particular to developing countries; and taking further steps to realize
farmers' rights;
(b) Develop subregional, regional and global networks of PGRFA in situ in
protected areas;
(c) Prepare periodic state of the world reports on PGRFA;
(d) Prepare a rolling global cooperative plan of action on PGRFA;
(e) Promote, for 1994, the Fourth International Technical Conference on
the Conservation and Sustainable Use of PGRFA, which is to adopt the first
state of the world report and the first global plan of action on the
conservation and sustainable use of PGRFA;
(f) Adjust the Global System for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of
PGRFA in line with the outcome of the negotiations of a convention on
biological diversity.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
14.61. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$600 million, including about $300 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
14.62. Governments, at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Develop basic science research in such areas as plant taxonomy and
phytogeography, utilizing recent developments, such as computer sciences,
molecular genetics and in vitro cryopreservation;
(b) Develop major collaborative projects between research programmes in
developed and developing countries, particularly for the enhancement of poorly
known or neglected crops;
(c) Promote cost-effective technologies for keeping duplicate sets of
ex situ collections (which can also be used by local communities);
(d) Develop further conservation sciences in relation to in situ
conservation and technical means to link it with ex situ conservation efforts.
(c) Human resource development
14.63. Governments at the appropriate level and with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations should:
(a) Promote training programmes at both undergraduate and post-graduate
levels in conservation sciences for running PGRFA facilities and for the design
and implementation of national programmes in PGRFA;
(b) Raise the awareness of agricultural extension services in order to
link PGRFA activities with user communities;
(c) Develop training materials to promote conservation and utilization of
PGRFA at the local level.
(d) Capacity-building
14.64. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should establish national policies to
provide legal status for and strengthen legal aspects of PGRFA, including
long-term financial commitments for germplasm collections and implementation of
activities in PGRFA.
H. Conservation and sustainable utilization of animal
genetic resources for sustainable agriculture
Basis for action
14.65. The need for increased quantity and quality of animal products and for
draught animals calls for conservation of the existing diversity of animal
breeds to meet future requirements, including those for use in biotechnology.
Some local animal breeds, in addition to their socio-cultural value, have
unique attributes for adaptation, disease resistance and specific uses and
should be preserved. These local breeds are threatened by extinction as a
result of the introduction of exotic breeds and of changes in livestock
production systems.
Objectives
14.66. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To enumerate and describe all breeds of livestock used in animal
agriculture in as broad a way as possible and begin a 10-year programme of
action;
(b) To establish and implement action programmes to identify breeds at
risk, together with the nature of the risk and appropriate preservation
measures;
(c) To establish and implement development programmes for indigenous
breeds in order to guarantee their survival, avoiding the risk of their being
replaced by breed substitution or cross-breeding programmes.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
14.67. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Draw up breed preservation plans, for endangered populations,
including semen/embryo collection and storage, farm-based conservation of
indigenous stock or in situ preservation;
(b) Plan and initiate breed development strategies;
(c) Select indigenous populations on the basis of regional importance and
genetic uniqueness, for a 10-year programme, followed by selection of an
additional cohort of indigenous breeds for development.
(b) Data and information
14.68. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should prepare and complete national
inventories of available animal genetic resources. Cryogenic storage could be
given priority over characterization and evaluation. Training of nationals in
conservation and assessment techniques would be given special attention.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
14.69. The appropriate United Nations and other international and regional
agencies should:
(a) Promote the establishment of regional gene banks to the extent that
they are justified, based on principles of technical cooperation among
developing countries;
(b) Process, store and analyse animal genetic data at the global level,
including the establishment of a world watch list and an early warning system
for endangered breeds; global assessment of scientific and intergovernmental
guidance of the programme and review of regional and national activities;
development of methodologies, norms and standards (including international
agreements); monitoring of their implementation; and related technical and
financial assistance;
(c) Prepare and publish a comprehensive database of animal genetic
resources, describing each breed, its derivation, its relationship with other
breeds, effective population size and a concise set of biological and
production characteristics;
(d) Prepare and publish a world watch list on farm animal species at risk
to enable national Governments to take action to preserve endangered breeds and
to seek technical assistance, where necessary.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
14.70. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$200 million, including about $100 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
14.71. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Use computer-based data banks and questionnaires to prepare a global
inventory/world watch list;
(b) Using cryogenic storage of germplasm, preserve breeds at serious risk
and other material from which genes can be reconstructed.
(c) Human resource development
14.72. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Sponsor training courses for nationals to obtain the necessary
expertise for data collection and handling and for the sampling of genetic
material;
(b) Enable scientists and managers to establish an information base for
indigenous livestock breeds and promote programmes to develop and conserve
essential livestock genetic material.
(d) Capacity-building
14.73. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Establish in-country facilities for artificial insemination centres
and in situ breeding farms;
(b) Promote in-country programmes and related physical infrastructure for
animal livestock conservation and breed development, as well as for
strengthening national capacities to take preventive action when breeds are
endangered.
I. Integrated pest management and control in agriculture
Basis for action
14.74. World food demand projections indicate an increase of 50 per cent by
the year 2000 which will more than double again by 2050. Conservative
estimates put pre-harvest and post-harvest losses caused by pests between 25
and 50 per cent. Pests affecting animal health also cause heavy losses and in
many areas prevent livestock development. Chemical control of agriculturalpests has dominated the scene, but its overuse has adverse effects on farm
budgets, human health and the environment, as well as on international trade.
New pest problems continue to develop. Integrated pest management, which
combines biological control, host plant resistance and appropriate farming
practices and minimizes the use of pesticides, is the best option for the
future, as it guarantees yields, reduces costs, is environmentally friendly and
contributes to the sustainability of agriculture. Integrated pest management
should go hand in hand with appropriate pesticide management to allow for
pesticide regulation and control, including trade, and for the safe handling
and disposal of pesticides, particularly those that are toxic and persistent.
Objectives
14.75. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) Not later than the year 2000, to improve and implement plant
protection and animal health services, including mechanisms to control the
distribution and use of pesticides, and to implement the International Code of
Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides;
(b) To improve and implement programmes to put integrated pest-management
practices within the reach of farmers through farmer networks, extension
services and research institutions;
(c) Not later than the year 1998, to establish operational and
interactive networks among farmers, researchers and extension services to
promote and develop integrated pest management.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
14.76. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Review and reform national policies and the mechanisms that would
ensure the safe and appropriate use of pesticides - for example, pesticide
pricing, pest control brigades, price-structure of inputs and outputs and
integrated pest-management policies and action plans;
(b) Develop and adopt efficient management systems to control and monitor
the incidence of pests and disease in agriculture and the distribution and use
of pesticides at the country level;
(c) Encourage research and development into pesticides that are
target-specific and readily degrade into harmless constituent parts after use;
(d) Ensure that pesticide labels provide farmers with understandable
information about safe handling, application and disposal.
(b) Data and information
14.77. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Consolidate and harmonize existing information and programmes on the
use of pesticides that have been banned or severely restricted in different
countries;
(b) Consolidate, document and disseminate information on biological
control agents and organic pesticides, as well as on traditional and other
relevant knowledge and skills regarding alternative non-chemical ways of
controlling pests;
(c) Undertake national surveys to establish baseline information on the
use of pesticides in each country and the side-effects on human health and
environment, and also undertake appropriate education.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
14.78. Appropriate United Nations agencies and regional organizations should:
(a) Establish a system for collecting, analysing and disseminating data
on the quantity and quality of pesticides used every year and their impact on
human health and the environment;
(b) Strengthen regional interdisciplinary projects and establish
integrated pest management (IPM) networks to demonstrate the social, economic
and environmental benefits of IPM for food and cash crops in agriculture;
(c) Develop proper IPM, comprising the selection of the variety of
biological, physical and cultural controls, as well as chemical controls,
taking into account specific regional conditions.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
14.79. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$1.9 billion, including about $285 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
14.80. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should launch on-farm research in the
development of non-chemical alternative pest management technologies.
(c) Human resource development
14.81. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Prepare and conduct training programmes on approaches and techniques
for integrated pest management and control of pesticide use, to inform policy
makers, researchers, non-governmental organizations and farmers;
(b) Train extension agents and involve farmers and women's groups in crop
health and alternative non-chemical ways of controlling pests in agriculture.
(d) Capacity-building
14.82. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should strengthen national public
administrations and regulatory bodies in the control of pesticides and the
transfer of technology for integrated pest management.
J. Sustainable plant nutrition to increase food production
Basis for action
14.83. Plant nutrient depletion is a serious problem resulting in loss of soil
fertility, particularly in developing countries. To maintain soil
productivity, the FAO sustainable plant nutrition programmes could be helpful.
In sub-Saharan Africa, nutrient output from all sources currently exceeds
inputs by a factor of three or four, the net loss being estimated at some 10
million metric tons per year. As a result, more marginal lands and fragile
natural ecosystems are put under agricultural use, thus creating further land
degradation and other environmental problems. The integrated plant nutrition
approach aims at ensuring a sustainable supply of plant nutrients to increase
future yields without harming the environment and soil productivity.
14.84. In many developing countries, population growth rates exceed 3 per cent
a year, and national agricultural production has fallen behind food demand. In
these countries the goal should be to increase agricultural production by at
least 4 per cent a year, without destroying the soil fertility. This will
require increasing agricultural production in high-potential areas through
efficiency in the use of inputs. Trained labour, energy supply, adapted tools
and technologies, plant nutrients and soil enrichment will all be essential.
Objectives
14.85. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) Not later than the year 2000, to develop and maintain in all
countries the integrated plant nutrition approach, and to optimize availability
of fertilizer and other plant nutrient sources;
(b) Not later than the year 2000, to establish and maintain institutional
and human infrastructure to enhance effective decision-making on soil
productivity;
(c) To develop and make available national and international know-how to
farmers, extension agents, planners and policy makers on environmentally sound
new and existing technologies and soil-fertility management strategies for
application in promoting sustainable agriculture.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
14.86. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Formulate and apply strategies that will enhance soil fertility
maintenance to meet sustainable agricultural production and adjust the relevant
agricultural policy instruments accordingly;
(b) Integrate organic and inorganic sources of plant nutrients in a
system to sustain soil fertility and determine mineral fertilizer needs;
(c) Determine plant nutrient requirements and supply strategies and
optimize the use of both organic and inorganic sources, as appropriate, to
increase farming efficiency and production;
(d) Develop and encourage processes for the recycling of organic and
inorganic waste into the soil structure, without harming the environment, plant
growth and human health.
(b) Data and information
14.87. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Assess "national accounts" for plant nutrients, including supplies
(inputs) and losses (outputs) and prepare balance sheets and projections by
cropping systems;
(b) Review technical and economic potentials of plant nutrient sources,
including national deposits, improved organic supplies, recycling, wastes,
topsoil produced from discarded organic matter and biological nitrogen
fixation.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
14.88. The appropriate United Nations agencies, such as FAO, the international
agricultural research institutes, and non-governmental organizations should
collaborate in carrying out information and publicity campaigns about the
integrated plant nutrients approach, efficiency of soil productivity and their
relationship to the environment.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
14.89. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$3.2 billion, including about $475 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
14.90. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Develop site-specific technologies at benchmark sites and farmers'
fields that fit prevailing socio-economic and ecological conditions through
research that involves the full collaboration of local populations;
(b) Reinforce interdisciplinary international research and transfer of
technology in cropping and farming systems research, improved in situ biomass
production techniques, organic residue management and agroforestry
technologies.
(c) Human resource development
14.91. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Train extension officers and researchers in plant nutrient
management, cropping systems and farming systems, and in economic evaluation of
plant nutrient impact;
(b) Train farmers and women's groups in plant nutrition management, with
special emphasis on topsoil conservation and production.
(d) Capacity-building
14.92. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Develop suitable institutional mechanisms for policy formulation to
monitor and guide the implementation of integrated plant nutrition programmes
through an interactive process involving farmers, research, extension services
and other sectors of society;
(b) Where appropriate, strengthen existing advisory services and train
staff, develop and test new technologies and facilitate the adoption of
practices to upgrade and maintain full productivity of the land.
K. Rural energy transition to enhance productivity
Basis for action
14.93. Energy supplies in many countries are not commensurate with their
development needs and are highly priced and unstable. In rural areas of the
developing countries, the chief sources of energy are fuelwood, crop residues
and manure, together with animal and human energy. More intensive energy
inputs are required for increased productivity of human labour and for
income-generation. To this end, rural energy policies and technologies should
promote a mix of cost-effective fossil and renewable energy sources that is
itself sustainable and ensures sustainable agricultural development. Rural
areas provide energy supplies in the form of wood. The full potential of
agriculture and agroforestry, as well as common property resources, as sources
of renewable energy, is far from being realized. The attainment of sustainable
rural development is intimately linked with energy demand and supply patterns.
5/
Objectives
14.94. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) Not later than the year 2000, to initiate and encourage a process of
environmentally sound energy transition in rural communities, from
unsustainable energy sources, to structured and diversified energy sources by
making available alternative new and renewable sources of energy;
(b) To increase the energy inputs available for rural household and
agro-industrial needs through planning and appropriate technology transfer and
development;
(c) To implement self-reliant rural programmes favouring sustainable
development of renewable energy sources and improved energy efficiency.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
14.95. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Promote pilot plans and projects consisting of electrical, mechanical
and thermal power (gasifiers, biomass, solar driers, wind-pumps and combustion
systems) that are appropriate and likely to be adequately maintained;
(b) Initiate and promote rural energy programmes supported by technical
training, banking and related infrastructure;
(c) Intensify research and the development, diversification and
conservation of energy, taking into account the need for efficient use and
environmentally sound technology.
(b) Data and information
14.96. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Collect and disseminate data on rural energy supply and demand
patterns related to energy needs for households, agriculture and agro-industry;
(b) Analyse sectoral energy and production data in order to identify
rural energy requirements.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
14.97. The appropriate United Nations agencies and regional organizations
should, drawing on the experience and available information of non-governmental
organizations in this field, exchange country and regional experience on rural
energy planning methodologies in order to promote efficient planning and select
cost-effective technologies.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
14.98. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$1.8 billion per year, including about $265 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative andorder-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments
decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
14.99. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Intensify public and private sector research in developing and
industrialized countries on renewable sources of energy for agriculture;
(b) Undertake research and transfer of energy technologies in biomass and
solar energy to agricultural production and post-harvest activities.
(c) Human resource development
14.100. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should enhance public awareness of
rural energy problems, stressing the economic and environmental advantages of
renewable energy sources.
(d) Capacity-building
14.101. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Establish national institutional mechanisms for rural energy planning
and management that would improve efficiency in agricultural productivity and
reach the village and household level;
(b) Strengthen extension services and local organizations to implement
plans and programmes for new and renewable sources of energy at the village
level.
L. Evaluation of the effects of ultraviolet radiation on
plants and animals caused by the depletion of the
stratospheric ozone layer
Basis for action
14.102. The increase of ultraviolet radiation as a consequence of the
depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer is a phenomenon that has been
recorded in different regions of the world, particularly in the southern
hemisphere. Consequently, it is important to evaluate its effects on plant and
animal life, as well as on sustainable agricultural development.
Objective
14.103. The objective of this programme area is to undertake research to
determine the effects of increased ultraviolet radiation resulting from
stratospheric ozone layer depletion on the Earth's surface, and on plant and
animal life in affected regions, as well as its impact on agriculture, and to
develop, as appropriate, strategies aimed at mitigating its adverse effects.
Activities
Management-related activities
14.104. In affected regions, Governments at the appropriate level, with the
support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should take
the necessary measures, through institutional cooperation, to facilitate the
implementation of research and evaluation regarding the effects of enhanced
ultraviolet radiation on plant and animal life, as well as on agricultural
activities, and consider taking appropriate remedial measures.
Notes
1/ Some of the issues in this programme area are presented in chapter 3
of Agenda 21 (Combating poverty).
2/ Some of the issues in this programme area are discussed in chapter 8
of Agenda 21 (Integrating environment and development in decision-making) and
in chapter 37 (National mechanisms and international cooperation for
capacity-building in developing countries).
3/ Some of the issues are presented in chapter 10 of Agenda 21
(Integrated approach to the planning and management of land resources).
4/ The activities of this programme area are related to some of the
activities in chapter 15 of Agenda 21 (Conservation of biological diversity).
5/ The activities of this programme area are related to some of the
activities in chapter 9 of Agenda 21 (Protection of the atmosphere).
Chapter 15
CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
INTRODUCTION
15.1. The objectives and activities in this chapter of Agenda 21 are intended
to improve the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of
biological resources, as well as to support the Convention on Biological
Diversity.
15.2. Our planet's essential goods and services depend on the variety and
variability of genes, species, populations and ecosystems. Biological
resources feed and clothe us and provide housing, medicines and spiritual
nourishment. The natural ecosystems of forests, savannahs, pastures and
rangelands, deserts, tundras, rivers, lakes and seas contain most of the
Earth's biodiversity. Farmers' fields and gardens are also of great importance
as repositories, while gene banks, botanical gardens, zoos and other germplasm
repositories make a small but significant contribution. The current decline in
biodiversity is largely the result of human activity and represents a serious
threat to human development.
PROGRAMME AREA
Conservation of biological diversity
Basis for action
15.3. Despite mounting efforts over the past 20 years, the loss of the world's
biological diversity, mainly from habitat destruction, over-harvesting,
pollution and the inappropriate introduction of foreign plants and animals, has
continued. Biological resources constitute a capital asset with great
potential for yielding sustainable benefits. Urgent and decisive action is
needed to conserve and maintain genes, species and ecosystems, with a view to
the sustainable management and use of biological resources. Capacities for the
assessment, study and systematic observation and evaluation of biodiversity
need to be reinforced at national and international levels. Effective national
action and international cooperation is required for the in situ protection of
ecosystems, for the ex situ conservation of biological and genetic resources
and for the enhancement of ecosystem functions. The participation and support
of local communities are elements essential to the success of such an approach.
Recent advances in biotechnology have pointed up the likely potential for
agriculture, health and welfare and for the environmental purposes of the
genetic material contained in plants, animals and micro-organisms. At the same
time, it is particularly important in this context to stress that States have
the sovereign right to exploit their own biological resources pursuant to their
environmental policies, as well as the responsibility to conserve their
biodiversity and usetheir biological resources sustainably, and to ensure that activities within
their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the biological diversity
of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.
Objectives
15.4. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and regional, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, the private sector and financial institutions,
and taking into consideration indigenous people and their communities, as well
as social and economic factors, should:
(a) Press for the early entry into force of the Convention on Biological
Diversity, with the widest possible participation;
(b) Develop national strategies for the conservation of biological
diversity and the sustainable use of biological resources;
(c) Integrate strategies for the conservation of biological diversity and
the sustainable use of biological resources into national development
strategies and/or plans;
(d) Take appropriate measures for the fair and equitable sharing of
benefits derived from research and development and use of biological and
genetic resources, including biotechnology, between the sources of those
resources and those who use them;
(e) Carry out country studies, as appropriate, on the conservation of
biological diversity and the sustainable use of biological resources, including
analyses of relevant costs and benefits, with particular reference to
socio-economic aspects;
(f) Produce regularly updated world reports on biodiversity based upon
national assessments;
(g) Recognize and foster the traditional methods and the knowledge of
indigenous people and their communities, emphasizing the particular role of
women, relevant to the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable
use of biological resources, and ensure the opportunity for the participation
of those groups in the economic and commercial benefits derived from the use of
such traditional methods and knowledge; 1/
(h) Implement mechanisms for the improvement, generation, development and
sustainable use of biotechnology and its safe transfer, particularly to
developing countries, taking account the potential contribution of
biotechnology to the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable
use of biological resources; 2/
(i) Promote broader international and regional cooperation in furthering
scientific and economic understanding of the importance of biodiversity and its
functions in ecosystems;
(j) Develop measures and arrangements to implement the rights of
countries of origin of genetic resources or countries providing genetic
resources, as defined in the Convention on Biological Diversity, particularly
developing countries, to benefit from the biotechnological development and the
commercial utilization of products derived from such resources. 2/ 3/
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
15.5. Governments at the appropriate levels, consistent with national policies
and practices, with the cooperation of the relevant United Nations bodies and,
as appropriate, intergovernmental organizations and, with the support of
indigenous people and their communities, non-governmental organizations and
other groups, including the business and scientific communities, and consistent
with the requirements of international law, should, as appropriate:
(a) Develop new or strengthen existing strategies, plans or programmes of
action for the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of
biological resources, taking account of education and training needs; 4/
(b) Integrate strategies for the conservation of biological diversity and
the sustainable use of biological and genetic resources into relevant sectoral
or cross-sectoral plans, programmes and policies, with particular reference to
the special importance of terrestrial and aquatic biological and genetic
resources for food and agriculture; 5/
(c) Undertake country studies or use other methods to identify components
of biological diversity important for its conservation and for the sustainable
use of biological resources, ascribe values to biological and genetic
resources, identify processes and activities with significant impacts upon
biological diversity, evaluate the potential economic implications of the
conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of biological and
genetic resources, and suggest priority action;
(d) Take effective economic, social and other appropriate incentive
measures to encourage the conservation of biological diversity and the
sustainable use of biological resources, including the promotion of sustainable
production systems, such as traditional methods of agriculture, agroforestry,
forestry, range and wildlife management, which use, maintain or increase
biodiversity; 5/
(e) Subject to national legislation, take action to respect, record,
protect and promote the wider application of the knowledge, innovations and
practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles
for the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of
biological resources, with a view to the fair and equitable sharing of the
benefits arising, and promote mechanisms to involve those communities,
including women, in the conservation and management of ecosystems; 1/
(f) Undertake long-term research into the importance of biodiversity for
the functioning of ecosystems and the role of ecosystems in producing goods,
environmental services and other values supporting sustainable development,
with particular reference to the biology and reproductive capacities of key
terrestrial and aquatic species, including native, cultivated and cultured
species; new observation and inventory techniques; ecological conditions
necessary for biodiversity conservation and continued evolution; and social
behaviour and nutrition habits dependent on natural ecosystems, where women
play key roles. The work should be undertaken with the widest possible
participation, especially of indigenous people and their communities, including
women; 1/
(g) Take action where necessary for the conservation of biological
diversity through the in situ conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats,
as well as primitive cultivars and their wild relatives, and the maintenance
and recovery of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings,
and implement ex situ measures, preferably in the source country. In situ
measures should include the reinforcement of terrestrial, marine and aquatic
protected area systems and embrace, inter alia, vulnerable freshwater and other
wetlands and coastal ecosystems, such as estuaries, coral reefs and
mangroves; 6/
(h) Promote the rehabilitation and restoration of damaged ecosystems and
the recovery of threatened and endangered species;
(i) Develop policies to encourage the conservation of biodiversity and
the sustainable use of biological and genetic resources on private lands;
(j) Promote environmentally sound and sustainable development in areas
adjacent to protected areas with a view to furthering protection of these
areas;
(k) Introduce appropriate environmental impact assessment procedures for
proposed projects likely to have significant impacts upon biological diversity,
providing for suitable information to be made widely available and for public
participation, where appropriate, and encourage the assessment of the impacts
of relevant policies and programmes on biological diversity;
(l) Promote, where appropriate, the establishment and strengthening of
national inventory, regulation or management and control systems related to
biological resources, at the appropriate level;
(m) Take measures to encourage a greater understanding and appreciation
of the value of biological diversity, as manifested both in its component parts
and in the ecosystem services provided.
(b) Data and information
15.6. Governments at the appropriate level, consistent with national policies
and practices, with the cooperation of the relevant United Nations bodies and,as appropriate, intergovernmental organizations, and with the support of
indigenous people and their communities, non-governmental organizations and
other groups, including the business and scientific communities, and consistent
with the requirements of international law, should, as appropriate: 7/
(a) Regularly collate, evaluate and exchange information on the
conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of biological
resources;
(b) Develop methodologies with a view to undertaking systematic sampling
and evaluation on a national basis of the components of biological diversity
identified by means of country studies;
(c) Initiate or further develop methodologies and begin or continue work
on surveys at the appropriate level on the status of ecosystems and establish
baseline information on biological and genetic resources, including those in
terrestrial, aquatic, coastal and marine ecosystems, as well as inventories
undertaken with the participation of local and indigenous people and their
communities;
(d) Identify and evaluate the potential economic and social implications
and benefits of the conservation and sustainable use of terrestrial and aquatic
species in each country, building upon the results of country studies;
(e) Undertake the updating, analysis and interpretation of data derived
from the identification, sampling and evaluation activities described above;
(f) Collect, assess and make available relevant and reliable information
in a timely manner and in a form suitable for decision-making at all levels,
with the full support and participation of local and indigenous people and
their communities.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
15.7. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental
organizations, and, with the support of indigenous people and their
communities, non-governmental organizations and other groups, including the
business and scientific communities, and consistent with the requirements of
international law, should, as appropriate:
(a) Consider the establishment or strengthening of national or
international capabilities and networks for the exchange of data and
information of relevance to the conservation of biological diversity and the
sustainable use of biological and genetic resources; 7/
(b) Produce regularly updated world reports on biodiversity based upon
national assessments in all countries;
(c) Promote technical and scientific cooperation in the field of
conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of biological and
genetic resources. Special attention should be given to the development and
strengthening of national capabilities by means of human resource development
and institution-building, including the transfer of technology and/or
development of research and management facilities, such as herbaria, museums,
gene banks, and laboratories, related to the conservation of biodiversity; 8/
(d) Without prejudice to the relevant provisions of the Convention on
Biological Diversity, facilitate for this chapter the transfer of technologies
relevant to the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of
biological resources or technologies that make use of genetic resources and
cause no significant damage to the environment, in conformity with chapter 34,
and recognizing that technology includes biotechnology; 2/ 8/
(e) Promote cooperation between the parties to relevant international
conventions and action plans with the aim of strengthening and coordinating
efforts to conserve biological diversity and the sustainable use of biological
resources;
(f) Strengthen support for international and regional instruments,
programmes and action plans concerned with the conservation of biological
diversity and the sustainable use of biological resources;
(g) Promote improved international coordination of measures for the
effective conservation and management of endangered/non-pest migratory species,
including appropriate levels of support for the establishment and management of
protected areas in transboundary locations;
(h) Promote national efforts with respect to surveys, data collection,
sampling and evaluation, and the maintenance of gene banks.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
15.8. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this chapter to be about
$3.5 billion, including about $1.75 billion from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
15.9. Specific aspects to be addressed include the need to develop:
(a) Efficient methodologies for baseline surveys and inventories, as well
as for the systematic sampling and evaluation of biological resources;
(b) Methods and technologies for the conservation of biological diversity
and the sustainable use of biological resources;
(c) Improved and diversified methods for ex situ conservation with a view
to the long-term conservation of genetic resources of importance for research
and development.
(c) Human resource development
15.10. There is a need, where appropriate, to:
(a) Increase the number and/or make more efficient use of trained
personnel in scientific and technological fields relevant to the conservation
of biological diversity and the sustainable use of biological resources;
(b) Maintain or establish programmes for scientific and technical
education and training of managers and professionals, especially in developing
countries, on measures for the identification, conservation of biological
diversity and the sustainable use of biological resources;
(c) Promote and encourage understanding of the importance of the measures
required for the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use
of biological resources at all policy-making and decision-making levels in
Governments, business enterprises and lending institutions, and promote and
encourage the inclusion of these topics in educational programmes.
(d) Capacity-building
15.11. There is a need, where appropriate, to:
(a) Strengthen existing institutions and/or establish new ones
responsible for the conservation of biological diversity and to consider the
development of mechanisms such as national biodiversity institutes or centres;
(b) Continue to build capacity for the conservation of biological
diversity and the sustainable use of biological resources in all relevant
sectors;
(c) Build capacity, especially within Governments, business enterprises
and bilateral and multilateral development agencies, for integrating
biodiversity concerns, potential benefits and opportunity cost calculations
into project design, implementation and evaluation processes, as well as for
evaluating the impact on biological diversity of proposed development projects;
(d) Enhance the capacity of governmental and private institutions, at the
appropriate level, responsible for protected area planning and management to
undertake intersectoral coordination and planning with other governmental
institutions, non-governmental organizations and, where appropriate, indigenous
people and their communities.
Notes
1/ See chap. 26 (Recognizing and strengthening the role of indigenous
people and their communities) and chap. 24 (Global action for women towards
sustainable and equitable development).
2/ See chap. 16 (Environmentally sound management of biotechnology).
3/ Article 2 (Use of terms) of the Convention on Biological Diversity
includes the following definitions:
"Country of origin of genetic resources" means the country which possesses
those genetic resources in in-situ conditions.
"Country providing genetic resources" means the country supplying genetic
resources collected from in-situ sources, including populations of both wild
and domesticated species, or taken from ex-situ sources, which may or may not
have originated in that country.
4/ See chap. 36 (Promoting education, public awareness and training).
5/ See chap. 14 (Promoting sustainable agriculture and rural
development) and chap. 11 (Combating deforestation).
6/ See chap. 17 (Protection of the oceans, all kinds of seas, including
enclosed and semi-enclosed seas, and coastal areas and the protection, rational
use and development of their living resources).
7/ See chap. 40 (Information for decision-making).
8/ See chap. 34 (Transfer of environmentally sound technology,
cooperation and capacity-building).
Chapter 16
ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND MANAGEMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
16.1. Biotechnology is the integration of the new techniques emerging from
modern biotechnology with the well-established approaches of traditional
biotechnology. Biotechnology, an emerging knowledge-intensive field, is a set
of enabling techniques for bringing about specific man-made changes in
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), or genetic material, in plants, animals and
microbial systems, leading to useful products and technologies. By itself,
biotechnology cannot resolve all the fundamental problems of environment and
development, so expectations need to be tempered by realism. Nevertheless, it
promises to make a significant contribution in enabling the development of, for
example, better health care, enhanced food security through sustainable
agricultural practices, improved supplies of potable water, more efficient
industrial development processes for transforming raw materials, support for
sustainable methods of afforestation and reforestation, and detoxification of
hazardous wastes. Biotechnology also offers new opportunities for global
partnerships, especially between the countries rich in biological resources
(which include genetic resources) but lacking the expertise and investments
needed to apply such resources through biotechnology and the countries that
have developed the technological expertise to transform biological resources so
that they serve the needs of sustainable development. 1/ Biotechnology can
assist in the conservation of those resources through, for example, ex situ
techniques. The programme areas set out below seek to foster internationally
agreed principles to be applied to ensure the environmentally sound management
of biotechnology, to engender public trust and confidence, to promote the
development of sustainable applications of biotechnology and to establish
appropriate enabling mechanisms, especially within developing countries,
through the following activities:
(a) Increasing the availability of food, feed and renewable raw
materials;
(b) Improving human health;
(c) Enhancing protection of the environment;
(d) Enhancing safety and developing international mechanisms for
cooperation;
(e) Establishing enabling mechanisms for the development and the
environmentally sound application of biotechnology.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Increasing the availability of food,
feed and renewable raw materials
Basis for action
16.2. To meet the growing consumption needs of the global population, the
challenge is not only to increase food supply, but also to improve food
distribution significantly while simultaneously developing more sustainable
agricultural systems. Much of this increased productivity will need to take
place in developing countries. It will require the successful and
environmentally safe application of biotechnology in agriculture, in the
environment and in human health care. Most of the investment in modern
biotechnology has been in the industrialized world. Significant new
investments and human resource development will be required in biotechnology,
especially in the developing world.
Objectives
16.3. The following objectives are proposed, keeping in mind the need to
promote the use of appropriate safety measures based on programme area D:
(a) To increase to the optimum possible extent the yield of major crops,
livestock, and aquaculture species, by using the combined resources of modern
biotechnology and conventional plant/animal/micro-organism improvement,
including the more diverse use of genetic material resources, both hybrid and
original. 2/ Forest product yields should similarly be increased, to ensure
the sustainable use of forests; 3/
(b) To reduce the need for volume increases of food, feed and raw
materials by improving the nutritional value (composition) of the source crops,
animals and micro-organisms, and to reduce post-harvest losses of plant and
animal products;
(c) To increase the use of integrated pest, disease and crop management
techniques to eliminate overdependence on agrochemicals, thereby encouraging
environmentally sustainable agricultural practices;
(d) To evaluate the agricultural potential of marginal lands in
comparison with other potential uses and to develop, where appropriate, systems
allowing for sustainable productivity increases;
(e) To expand the applications of biotechnology in forestry, both for
increasing yields and more efficient utilization of forest products and for
improving afforestation and reforestation techniques. Efforts should be
concentrated on species and products that are grown in and are of value
particularly for developing countries;
(f) To increase the efficiency of nitrogen fixation and mineral
absorption by the symbiosis of higher plants with micro-organisms;
(g) To improve capabilities in basic and applied sciences and in the
management of complex interdisciplinary research projects.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
16.4. Governments at the appropriate level, with the assistance of
international and regional organizations and with the support of
non-governmental organizations, the private sector and academic and scientific
institutions, should improve both plant and animal breeding and micro-organisms
through the use of traditional and modern biotechnologies, to enhance
sustainable agricultural output to achieve food security, particularly in
developing countries, with due regard to the prior identification of desired
characteristics before modification, taking into account the needs of farmers,
the socio-economic, cultural and environmental impacts of modifications and the
need to promote sustainable social and economic development, paying particular
attention to how the use of biotechnology will impact on the maintenance of
environmental integrity.
16.5. More specifically, these entities should:
(a) Improve productivity, nutritional quality and shelf-life of food and
animal feed products, with efforts including work on pre- and post-harvest
losses;
(b) Further develop resistance to diseases and pests;
(c) Develop plant cultivars tolerant and/or resistant to stress from
factors such as pests and diseases and from abiotic causes;
(d) Promote the use of underutilized crops of possible future importance
for human nutrition and industrial supply of raw materials;
(e) Increase the efficiency of symbiotic processes that assist
sustainable agricultural production;
(f) Facilitate the conservation and safe exchange of plant, animal and
microbial germ plasm by applying risk assessment and management procedures,
including improved diagnostic techniques for detection of pests and diseases by
better methods of rapid propagation;
(g) Develop improved diagnostic techniques and vaccines for the
prevention and spread of diseases and for rapid assessment of toxins or
infectious organisms in products for human use or livestock feed;
(h) Identify more productive strains of fast-growing trees, especially
for fuel wood, and develop rapid propagation methods to aid their wider
dissemination and use;
(i) Evaluate the use of various biotechnology techniques to improve the
yields of fish, algal and other aquatic species;
(j) Promote sustainable agricultural output by strengthening and
broadening the capacity and scope of existing research centres to achieve the
necessary critical mass through encouragement and monitoring of research into
the development of biological products and processes of productive and
environmental value that are economically and socially feasible, while taking
safety considerations into account;
(k) Promote the integration of appropriate and traditional
biotechnologies for the purposes of cultivating genetically modified plants,
rearing healthy animals and protecting forest genetic resources;
(l) Develop processes to increase the availability of materials derived
from biotechnology for use in food, feed and renewable raw materials
production.
(b) Data and information
16.6. The following activities should be undertaken:
(a) Consideration of comparative assessments of the potential of the
different technologies for food production, together with a system for
assessing the possible effects of biotechnologies on international trade in
agricultural products;
(b) Examination of the implications of the withdrawal of subsidies and
the possible use of other economic instruments to reflect the environmental
costs associated with the unsustainable use of agrochemicals;
(c) Maintenance and development of data banks of information on
environmental and health impacts of organisms to facilitate risk assessment;
(d) Acceleration of technology acquisition, transfer and adaptation by
developing countries to support national activities that promote food security.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
16.7. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of relevant
international and regional organizations, should promote the following
activities in conformity with international agreements or arrangements on
biological diversity, as appropriate:
(a) Cooperation on issues related to conservation of, access to and
exchange of germ plasm; rights associated with intellectual property andinformal innovations, including farmers' and breeders' rights; access to the
benefits of biotechnology; and bio-safety;
(b) Promotion of collaborative research programmes, especially in
developing countries, to support activities outlined in this programme area,
with particular reference to cooperation with local and indigenous people and
their communities in the conservation of biological diversity and sustainable
use of biological resources, as well as the fostering of traditional methods
and knowledge of such groups in connection with these activities;
(c) Acceleration of technology acquisition, transfer and adaptation by
developing countries to support national activities that promote food security,
through the development of systems for substantial and sustainable productivity
increases that do not damage or endanger local ecosystems; 4/
(d) Development of appropriate safety procedures based on programme
area D, taking account of ethical considerations.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
16.8. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$5 billion, including about $50 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means*
(c) Human resource development
16.9. Training of competent professionals in the basic and applied sciences at
all levels (including scientific personnel, technical staff and extension
workers) is one of the most essential components of any programme of this kind.
Creating awareness of the benefits and risks of biotechnology is essential.
Given the importance of good management of research resources for the
successful completion of large multidisciplinary projects, continuing
programmes of formal training for scientists should include managerial
training. Training programmes should also be developed, within the context of
specific projects, to meet regional or national needs for comprehensively
trained personnel capable of using advanced technology to reduce the "brain
drain" from developing to developed countries. Emphasis should be given to
* See paras. 16.6 and 16.7.
encouraging collaboration between and training of scientists, extension workers
and users to produce integrated systems. Additionally, special consideration
should be given to the execution of programmes for training and exchange of
knowledge on traditional biotechnologies and for training on safety procedures.
(d) Capacity-building
16.10. Institutional upgrading or other appropriate measures will be needed to
build up technical, managerial, planning and administrative capacities at the
national level to support the activities in this programme area. Such measures
should be backed up by international, scientific, technical and financial
assistance adequate to facilitate technical cooperation and raise the
capacities of the developing countries. Programme area E contains further
details.
B. Improving human health
Basis for action
16.11. The improvement of human health is one of the most important objectives
of development. The deterioration of environmental quality, notably air, water
and soil pollution owing to toxic chemicals, hazardous wastes, radiation and
other sources, is a matter of growing concern. This degradation of the
environment resulting from inadequate or inappropriate development has a direct
negative effect on human health. Malnutrition, poverty, poor human
settlements, lack of good-quality potable water and inadequate sanitation
facilities add to the problems of communicable and non-communicable diseases.
As a consequence, the health and well-being of people are exposed to increasing
pressures.
Objectives
16.12. The main objective of this programme area is to contribute, through the
environmentally sound application of biotechnology to an overall health
programme, to: 5/
(a) Reinforce or inaugurate (as a matter of urgency) programmes to help
combat major communicable diseases;
(b) Promote good general health among people of all ages;
(c) Develop and improve programmes to assist in specific treatment of and
protection from major non-communicable diseases;
(d) Develop and strengthen appropriate safety procedures based on
programme area D, taking account of ethical considerations;
(e) Create enhanced capabilities for carrying out basic and applied
research and for managing interdisciplinary research.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
16.13. Governments at the appropriate level, with the assistance of
international and regional organizations, academic and scientific institutions,
and the pharmaceutical industry, should, taking into account appropriate safety
and ethical considerations:
(a) Develop national and international programmes for identifying and
targeting those populations of the world most in need of improvement in general
health and protection from diseases;
(b) Develop criteria for evaluating the effectiveness and the benefits
and risks of the proposed activities;
(c) Establish and enforce screening, systematic sampling and evaluation
procedures for drugs and medical technologies, with a view to barring the use
of those that are unsafe for the purposes of experimentation; ensure that drugs
and technologies relating to reproductive health are safe and effective and
take account of ethical considerations;
(d) Improve, systematically sample and evaluate drinking-water quality by
introducing appropriate specific measures, including diagnosis of water-borne
pathogens and pollutants;
(e) Develop and make widely available new and improved vaccines against
major communicable diseases that are efficient and safe and offer protection
with a minimum number of doses, including intensifying efforts directed at the
vaccines needed to combat common diseases of children;
(f) Develop biodegradable delivery systems for vaccines that eliminate
the need for present multiple-dose schedules, facilitate better coverage of the
population and reduce the costs of immunization;
(g) Develop effective biological control agents against
disease-transmitting vectors, such as mosquitoes and resistant variants, taking
account of environmental protection considerations;
(h) Using the tools provided by modern biotechnology, develop,
inter alia, improved diagnostics, new drugs and improved treatments and
delivery systems;
(i) Develop the improvement and more effective utilization of medicinal
plants and other related sources;
(j) Develop processes to increase the availability of materials derived
from biotechnology, for use in improving human health.
(b) Data and information
16.14. The following activities should be undertaken:
(a) Research to assess the comparative social, environmental and
financial costs and benefits of different technologies for basic and
reproductive health care within a framework of universal safety and ethical
considerations;
(b) Development of public education programmes directed at decision
makers and the general public to encourage awareness and understanding of the
relative benefits and risks of modern biotechnology, according to ethical and
cultural considerations.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
16.15. Governments at the appropriate levels, with the support of relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Develop and strengthen appropriate safety procedures based on
programme area D, taking account of ethical considerations;
(b) Support the development of national programmes, particularly in
developing countries, for improvements in general health, especially protection
from major communicable diseases, common diseases of children and
disease-transmitting factors.
Means of implementation
16.16. To achieve the above goals, the activities need to be implemented with
urgency if progress towards the control of major communicable diseases is to be
achieved by the beginning of the next century. The spread of some diseases to
all regions of the world calls for global measures. For more localized
diseases, regional or national policies will be more appropriate. The
achievement of goals calls for:
(a) Continuous international commitment;
(b) National priorities with a defined time-frame;
(c) Scientific and financial input at global and national levels.
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
16.17. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$14 billion, including about $130 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
16.18. Well-coordinated multidisciplinary efforts involving cooperation
between scientists, financial institutions and industries will be required. At
the global level, this may mean collaboration between research institutions in
different countries, with funding at the intergovernmental level, possibly
supported by similar collaboration at the national level. Research and
development support will also need to be strengthened, together with the
mechanisms for providing the transfer of relevant technology.
(c) Human resource development
16.19. Training and technology transfer is needed at the global level, with
regions and countries having access to, and participation in exchange of,
information and expertise, particularly indigenous or traditional knowledge and
related biotechnology. It is essential to create or enhance endogenous
capabilities in developing countries to enable them to participate actively in
the processes of biotechnology production. The training of personnel could be
undertaken at three levels:
(a) That of scientists required for basic and product-oriented research;
(b) That of health personnel (to be trained in the safe use of new
products) and of science managers required for complex intermultidisciplinary
research;
(c) That of tertiary-level technical workers required for delivery in the
field.
(d) Capacity-building*
C. Enhancing protection of the environment
Basis for action
16.20. Environmental protection is an integral component of sustainable
development. The environment is threatened in all its biotic and abiotic
components: animals, plants, microbes and ecosystems comprising biological
diversity; water, soil and air, which form the physical components of habitats
and ecosystems; and all the interactions between the components of biodiversity
and their sustaining habitats and ecosystems. With the continued increase in
the use of chemicals, energy and non-renewable resources by an
* See programme area E.
expanding global population, associated environmental problems will also
increase. Despite increasing efforts to prevent waste accumulation and to
promote recycling, the amount of environmental damage caused by
overconsumption, the quantities of waste generated and the degree of
unsustainable land use appear likely to continue growing.
16.21. The need for a diverse genetic pool of plant, animal and microbial germ
plasm for sustainable development is well established. Biotechnology is one of
many tools that can play an important role in supporting the rehabilitation of
degraded ecosystems and landscapes. This may be done through the development
of new techniques for reforestation and afforestation, germ plasm conservation,
and cultivation of new plant varieties. Biotechnology can also contribute to
the study of the effects exerted on the remaining organisms and on other
organisms by organisms introduced into ecosystems.
Objectives
16.22. The aim of this programme is to prevent, halt and reverse environmental
degradation through the appropriate use of biotechnology in conjunction with
other technologies, while supporting safety procedures as an integral component
of the programme. Specific objectives include the inauguration as soon as
possible of specific programmes with specific targets:
(a) To adopt production processes making optimal use of natural
resources, by recycling biomass, recovering energy and minimizing waste
generation; 6/
(b) To promote the use of biotechnologies, with emphasis on
bio-remediation of land and water, waste treatment, soil conservation,
reforestation, afforestation and land rehabilitation; 7/ 8/
(c) To apply biotechnologies and their products to protect environmental
integrity with a view to long-term ecological security.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
16.23. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of relevant
international and regional organizations, the private sector, non-governmental
organizations and academic and scientific institutions, should:
(a) Develop environmentally sound alternatives and improvements for
environmentally damaging production processes;
(b) Develop applications to minimize the requirement for unsustainable
synthetic chemical input and to maximize the use of environmentally appropriate
products, including natural products (see programme area A);
(c) Develop processes to reduce waste generation, treat waste before
disposal and make use of biodegradable materials;
(d) Develop processes to recover energy and provide renewable energy
sources, animal feed and raw materials from recycling organic waste and
biomass;
(e) Develop processes to remove pollutants from the environment,
including accidental oil spills, where conventional techniques are not
available or are expensive, inefficient or inadequate;
(f) Develop processes to increase the availability of planting materials,
particularly indigenous varieties, for use in afforestation and reforestation
and to improve sustainable yields from forests;
(g) Develop applications to increase the availability of stress-tolerant
planting material for land rehabilitation and soil conservation;
(h) Promote the use of integrated pest management based on the judicious
use of bio-control agents;
(i) Promote the appropriate use of bio-fertilizers within national
fertilizer programmes;
(j) Promote the use of biotechnologies relevant to the conservation and
scientific study of biological diversity and the sustainable use of biological
resources;
(k) Develop easily applicable technologies for the treatment of sewage
and organic waste;
(l) Develop new technologies for rapid screening of organisms for useful
biological properties;
(m) Promote new biotechnologies for tapping mineral resources in an
environmentally sustainable manner.
(b) Data and information
16.24. Steps should be taken to increase access both to existing information
about biotechnology and to facilities based on global databases.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
16.25. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of relevant
international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Strengthen research, training and development capabilities,
particularly in developing countries, to support the activities outlined in
this programme area;
(b) Develop mechanisms for scaling up and disseminating environmentally
sound biotechnologies of high environmental importance, especially in the short
term, even though those biotechnologies may have limited commercial potential;
(c) Enhance cooperation, including transfer of biotechnology, between
participating countries for capacity-building;
(d) Develop appropriate safety procedures based on programme area D,
taking account of ethical considerations.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
16.26. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$1 billion, including about $10 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means*
(c) Human resource development
16.27. The activities for this programme area will increase the demand for
trained personnel. Support for existing training programmes needs to be
increased, for example, at the university and technical institute level, as
well as the exchange of trained personnel between countries and regions. New
and additional training programmes also need to be developed, for example, for
technical and support personnel. There is also an urgent need to improve the
level of understanding of biological principles and their policy implications
among decision makers in Governments, and financial and other institutions.
(d) Capacity-building
16.28. Relevant institutions will need to have the responsibility for
undertaking, and the capacity (political, financial and workforce) to
undertake, the above-mentioned activities and to be dynamic in response to new
biotechnological developments (see programme area E).
* See paras. 16.23-16.25 above.
D. Enhancing safety and developing international
mechanisms for cooperation
Basis for action
16.29. There is a need for further development of internationally agreed
principles on risk assessment and management of all aspects of biotechnology,
which should build upon those developed at the national level. Only when
adequate and transparent safety and border-control procedures are in place will
the community at large be able to derive maximum benefit from, and be in a much
better position to accept the potential benefits and risks of, biotechnology.
Several fundamental principles could underlie many of these safety procedures,
including primary consideration of the organism, building on the principle of
familiarity, applied in a flexible framework, taking into account national
requirements and recognizing that the logical progression is to start with a
step-by-step and case-by-case approach, but also recognizing that experience
has shown that in many instances a more comprehensive approach should be used,
based on the experiences of the first period, leading, inter alia, to
streamlining and categorizing; complementary consideration of risk assessment
and risk management; and classification into contained use or release to the
environment.
Objectives
16.30. The aim of this programme area is to ensure safety in biotechnology
development, application, exchange and transfer through international agreement
on principles to be applied on risk assessment and management, with particular
reference to health and environmental considerations, including the widest
possible public participation and taking account of ethical considerations.
Activities
16.31. The proposed activities for this programme area call for close
international cooperation. They should build upon planned or existing
activities to accelerate the environmentally sound application of
biotechnology, especially in developing countries.
(a) Management-related activities
16.32. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of relevant
international and regional organizations, the private sector, non-governmental
organizations and academic and scientific institutions, should:
(a) Make the existing safety procedures widely available by collecting
the existing information and adapting it to the specific needs of different
countries and regions;
(b) Further develop, as necessary, the existing safety procedures to
promote scientific development and categorization in the areas of riskassessment and risk management (information requirements; databases; procedures
for assessing risks and conditions of release; establishment of safety
conditions; monitoring and inspections, taking account of ongoing national,
regional and international initiatives and avoiding duplication wherever
possible);
(c) Compile, update and develop compatible safety procedures into a
framework of internationally agreed principles as a basis for guidelines to be
applied on safety in biotechnology, including consideration of the need for and
feasibility of an international agreement, and promote information exchange as
a basis for further development, drawing on the work already undertaken by
international or other expert bodies;
(d) Undertake training programmes at the national and regional levels on
the application of the proposed technical guidelines;
(e) Assist in exchanging information about the procedures required for
safe handling and risk management and about the conditions of release of the
products of biotechnology, and cooperate in providing immediate assistance in
cases of emergencies that may arise in conjunction with the use of
biotechnology products.
(b) Data and information*
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
16.33. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant
international and regional organizations, should raise awareness of the
relative benefits and risks of biotechnology.
16.34. Further activities should include the following (see also para. 16.32):
(a) Organizing one or more regional meetings between countries to
identify further practical steps to facilitate international cooperation in
bio-safety;
(b) Establishing an international network incorporating national,
regional and global contact points;
(c) Providing direct assistance upon request through the international
network, using information networks, databases and information procedures;
(d) Considering the need for and feasibility of internationally agreed
guidelines on safety in biotechnology releases, including risk assessment and
risk management, and considering studying the feasibility of guidelines which
could facilitate national legislation on liability and compensation.
* See paras. 16.32 and 16.33.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
16.35. The UNCED secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programmes to be about
$2 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means*
(c) Human resource development*
(d) Capacity-building
16.36. Adequate international technical and financial assistance should be
provided and technical cooperation to developing countries facilitated in order
to build up technical, managerial, planning and administrative capacities at
the national level to support the activities in this programme area (see also
programme area E).
E. Establishing enabling mechanisms for the development and
the environmentally sound application of biotechnology
Basis for action
16.37. The accelerated development and application of biotechnologies,
particularly in developing countries, will require a major effort to build up
institutional capacities at the national and regional levels. In developing
countries, enabling factors such as training capacity, know-how, research and
development facilities and funds, industrial building capacity, capital
(including venture capital) protection of intellectual property rights, and
expertise in areas including marketing research, technology assessment,
socio-economic assessment and safety assessment are frequently inadequate.
Efforts will therefore need to be made to build up capacities in these and
other areas and to match such efforts with appropriate levels of financial
support. There is therefore a need to strengthen the endogenous capacities of
developing countries by means of new international initiatives to support
research in order to speed up the development and application of both new and
conventional biotechnologies to serve the needs of sustainable development at
the local, national and regional levels. National mechanisms to allow for
informed comment by the public with regard to biotechnology research and
application should be part of the process.
* See para. 16.32.
16.38. Some activities at the national, regional and global levels already
address the issues outlined in programme areas A, B, C and D, as well as the
provisioin of advice to individual countries on the development of national
guidelines and systems for the implementation of those guidelines. These
activities are generally uncoordinated, however, involving many different
organizations, priorities, constituencies, time-scales, funding sources and
resource constraints. There is a need for a much more cohesive and coordinated
approach to harness available resources in the most effective manner. As with
most new technologies, research in biotechnology and the application of its
findings could have significant positive and negative socio-economic as well as
cultural impacts. These impacts should be carefully identified in the earliest
phases of the development of biotechnology in order to enable appropriate
management of the consequences of transferring biotechnology.
Objectives
16.39. The objectives are as follows:
(a) To promote the development and application of biotechnologies, with
special emphasis on developing countries, by:
(i) Enhancing existing efforts at the national, regional and global
levels;
(ii) Providing the necessary support for biotechnology, particularly
research and product development, at the national, regional and
international levels;
(iii) Raising public awareness regarding the relative beneficial aspects of
and risks related to biotechnology, to contribute to sustainable
development;
(iv) Helping to create a favourable climate for investments, industrial
capacity-building and distribution/marketing;
(v) Encouraging the exchange of scientists among all countries and
discouraging the "brain drain";
(vi) Recognizing and fostering the traditional methods and knowledge of
indigenous peoples and their communities and ensuring the opportunity
for their participation in the economic and commercial benefits
arising from developments in biotechnology; 9/
(b) To identify ways and means of enhancing current efforts, building
wherever possible on existing enabling mechanisms, particularly regional, to
determine the precise nature of the needs for additional initiatives,
particularly in respect of developing countries, and to develop appropriate
response strategies, including proposals for any new international mechanisms;
(c) To establish or adapt appropriate mechanisms for safety appraisal and
risk assessment at the local, regional and international levels, as
appropriate.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
16.40. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of international
and regional organizations, the private sector, non-governmental organizations
and academic and scientific institutions, should:
(a) Develop policies and mobilize additional resources to facilitate
greater access to the new biotechnologies, particularly by and among developing
countries;
(b) Implement programmes to create greater awareness of the potential and
relative benefits and risks of the environmentally sound application of
biotechnology among the public and key decision makers;
(c) Undertake an urgent review of existing enabling mechanisms,
programmes and activities at the national, regional and global levels to
identify strengths, weaknesses and gaps, and to assess the priority needs of
developing countries;
(d) Undertake an urgent follow-up and critical review to identify ways
and means of strengthening endogenous capacities within and among developing
countries for the environmentally sound application of biotechnology,
including, as a first step, ways to improve existing mechanisms, particularly
at the regional level, and, as a subsequent step, the consideration of possible
new international mechanisms, such as regional biotechnology centres;
(e) Develop strategic plans for overcoming targeted constraints by means
of appropriate research, product development and marketing;
(f) Establish additional quality-assurance standards for biotechnology
applications and products, where necessary.
(b) Data and information
16.41. The following activities should be undertaken: facilitation of access
to existing information dissemination systems, especially among developing
countries; improvement of such access where appropriate; and consideration of
the development of a directory of information.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
16.42. Governments at the appropriate level, with the assistance of
international and regional organizations, should develop appropriate new
initiatives to identify priority areas for research based on specific problemsand facilitate access to new biotechnologies, particularly by and among
developing countries, among relevant undertakings within those countries, in
order to strengthen endogenous capacities and to support the building of
research and institutional capacity in those countries.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
16.43. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$5 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
16.44. Workshops, symposia, seminars and other exchanges among the scientific
community at the regional and global levels, on specific priority themes, will
need to be organized, making full use of the existing scientific and
technological manpower in each country for bringing about such exchanges.
(c) Human resource development
16.45. Personnel development needs will need to be identified and additional
training programmes developed at the national, regional and global levels,
especially in developing countries. These should be supported by increased
training at all levels, graduate, postgraduate and post-doctoral, as well as by
the training of technicians and support staff, with particular reference to the
generation of trained manpower in consultant services, design, engineering and
marketing research. Training programmes for lecturers training scientists and
technologists in advanced research institutions in different countries
throughout the world will also need to be developed, and systems giving
appropriate rewards, incentives and recognition to scientists and technologists
will need to be instituted (see para. 16.44). Conditions of service will also
need to be improved at the national level in developing countries to encourage
and nurture trained manpower with a view to retaining that manpower locally.
Society should be informed of the social and cultural impact of the development
and application of biotechnology.
(d) Capacity-building
16.46. Biotechnology research and development is undertaken both under highly
sophisticated conditions and at the practical level in many countries. Efforts
will be needed to ensure that the necessary infrastructure facilities for
research, extension and technology activities are available on a decentralized
basis. Global and regional collaboration for basic and applied research and
development will also need to be further enhanced and everyeffort should be made to ensure that existing national and regional facilities
are fully utilized. Such institutions already exist in some countries and it
should be possible to make use of them for training purposes and joint research
projects. Strengthening of universities, technical schools and local research
institutions for the development of biotechnologies and extension services for
their application will need to be developed, especially in developing
countries.
Notes
1/ See chap. 15 (Conservation of biological diversity).
2/ See chap. 14 (Promoting sustainable agriculture and rural
development).
3/ See chap. 11 (Combating deforestation).
4/ See chap. 34 (Transfer of environmentally sound technology,
cooperation and capacity-building).
5/ See chap. 6 (Protecting and promoting human health conditions).
6/ See chap. 21 (Environmentally sound management of solid wastes and
sewage-related issues).
7/ See chap. 10 (Integrated approach to the planning and management of
land resources).
8/ See chap. 18 (Protection of the quality and supply of freshwater
resources: application of integrated approaches to the development, management
and use of water resources).
9/ See chap. 26 (Recognizing and strengthening the role of indigenous
people and their communities).
Chapter 17
PROTECTION OF THE OCEANS, ALL KINDS OF SEAS, INCLUDING
ENCLOSED AND SEMI-ENCLOSED SEAS, AND COASTAL AREAS AND
THE PROTECTION, RATIONAL USE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THEIR
LIVING RESOURCES
INTRODUCTION
17.1. The marine environment - including the oceans and all seas and adjacent
coastal areas - forms an integrated whole that is an essential component of the
global life-support system and a positive asset that presents opportunities for
sustainable development. International law, as reflected in the provisions of
the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1/, 2/ referred to in this
chapter of Agenda 21, sets forth rights and obligations of States and provides
the international basis upon which to pursue the protection and sustainable
development of the marine and coastal environment and its resources. This
requires new approaches to marine and coastal area management and development,
at the national, subregional, regional and global levels, approaches that are
integrated in content and are precautionary and anticipatory in ambit, as
reflected in the following programme areas: 3/
(a) Integrated management and sustainable development of coastal areas,
including exclusive economic zones;
(b) Marine environmental protection;
(c) Sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources of the
high seas;
(d) Sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources under
national jurisdiction;
(e) Addressing critical uncertainties for the management of the marine
environment and climate change;
(f) Strengthening international, including regional, cooperation and
coordination;
(g) Sustainable development of small islands.
17.2. The implementation by developing countries of the activities set forth
below shall be commensurate with their individual technological and financial
capacities and priorities in allocating resources for development needs and
ultimately depends on the technology transfer and financial resources required
and made available to them.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Integrated management and sustainable development
of coastal and marine areas, including exclusive
economic zones
Basis for action
17.3. The coastal area contains diverse and productive habitats important for
human settlements, development and local subsistence. More than half the
world's population lives within 60 km of the shoreline, and this could rise to
three quarters by the year 2020. Many of the world's poor are crowded in
coastal areas. Coastal resources are vital for many local communities and
indigenous people. The exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is also an important
marine area where the States manage the development and conservation of natural
resources for the benefit of their people. For small island States or
countries, these are the areas most available for development activities.
17.4. Despite national, subregional, regional and global efforts, current
approaches to the management of marine and coastal resources have not always
proved capable of achieving sustainable development, and coastal resources and
the coastal environment are being rapidly degraded and eroded in many parts of
the world.
Objectives
17.5. Coastal States commit themselves to integrated management and
sustainable development of coastal areas and the marine environment under their
national jurisdiction. To this end, it is necessary to, inter alia:
(a) Provide for an integrated policy and decision-making process,
including all involved sectors, to promote compatibility and a balance of uses;
(b) Identify existing and projected uses of coastal areas and their
interactions;
(c) Concentrate on well-defined issues concerning coastal management;
(d) Apply preventive and precautionary approaches in project planning and
implementation, including prior assessment and systematic observation of the
impacts of major projects;
(e) Promote the development and application of methods, such as national
resource and environmental accounting, that reflect changes in value resulting
from uses of coastal and marine areas, including pollution, marine erosion,
loss of resources and habitat destruction;
(f) Provide access, as far as possible, for concerned individuals, groups
and organizations to relevant information and opportunities for consultation
and participation in planning and decision-making at appropriate levels.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
17.6. Each coastal State should consider establishing, or where necessary
strengthening, appropriate coordinating mechanisms (such as a high-level policy
planning body) for integrated management and sustainable development of coastal
and marine areas and their resources, at both the local and national levels.
Such mechanisms should include consultation, as appropriate, with the academic
and private sectors, non-governmental organizations, local communities,
resource user groups, and indigenous people. Such national coordinating
mechanisms could provide, inter alia, for:
(a) Preparation and implementation of land and water use and siting
policies;
(b) Implementation of integrated coastal and marine management and
sustainable development plans and programmes at appropriate levels;
(c) Preparation of coastal profiles identifying critical areas, including
eroded zones, physical processes, development patterns, user conflicts and
specific priorities for management;
(d) Prior environmental impact assessment, systematic observation and
follow-up of major projects, including the systematic incorporation of results
in decision-making;
(e) Contingency plans for human induced and natural disasters, including
likely effects of potential climate change and sealevel rise, as well as
contingency plans for degradation and pollution of anthropogenic origin,
including spills of oil and other materials;
(f) Improvement of coastal human settlements, especially in housing,
drinking water and treatment and disposal of sewage, solid wastes and
industrial effluents;
(g) Periodic assessment of the impacts of external factors and phenomena
to ensure that the objectives of integrated management and sustainable
development of coastal areas and the marine environment are met;
(h) Conservation and restoration of altered critical habitats;
(i) Integration of sectoral programmes on sustainable development for
settlements, agriculture, tourism, fishing, ports and industries affecting the
coastal area;
(j) Infrastructure adaptation and alternative employment;
(k) Human resource development and training;
(l) Public education, awareness and information programmes;
(m) Promoting environmentally sound technology and sustainable practices;
(n) Development and simultaneous implementation of environmental quality
criteria.
17.7. Coastal States, with the support of international organizations, upon
request, should undertake measures to maintain biological diversity and
productivity of marine species and habitats under national jurisdiction. Inter
alia, these measures might include: surveys of marine biodiversity,
inventories of endangered species and critical coastal and marine habitats;
establishment and management of protected areas; and support of scientific
research and dissemination of its results.
(b) Data and information
17.8. Coastal States, where necessary, should improve their capacity to
collect, analyse, assess and use information for sustainable use of resources,
including environmental impacts of activities affecting the coastal and marine
areas. Information for management purposes should receive priority support in
view of the intensity and magnitude of the changes occurring in the coastal and
marine areas. To this end, it is necessary to, inter alia:
(a) Develop and maintain databases for assessment and management of
coastal areas and all seas and their resources;
(b) Develop socio-economic and environmental indicators;
(c) Conduct regular environmental assessment of the state of the
environment of coastal and marine areas;
(d) Prepare and maintain profiles of coastal area resources, activities,
uses, habitats and protected areas based on the criteria of sustainable
development;
(e) Exchange information and data.
17.9. Cooperation with developing countries, and, where applicable,
subregional and regional mechanisms, should be strengthened to improve their
capacities to achieve the above.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
17.10. The role of international cooperation and coordination on a bilateral
basis and, where applicable, within a subregional, interregional, regional or
global framework, is to support and supplement national efforts of coastal
States to promote integrated management and sustainable development of coastal
and marine areas.
17.11. States should cooperate, as appropriate, in the preparation of national
guidelines for integrated coastal zone management and development, drawing on
existing experience. A global conference to exchange experience in the field
could be held before 1994.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
17.12. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$6 billion including about $50 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
17.13. States should cooperate in the development of necessary coastal
systematic observation, research and information management systems. They
should provide access to and transfer environmentally safe technologies and
methodologies for sustainable development of coastal and marine areas to
developing countries. They should also develop technologies and endogenous
scientific and technological capacities.
17.14. International organizations, whether subregional, regional or global,
as appropriate, should support coastal States, upon request, in these efforts,
as indicated above, devoting special attention to developing countries.
(c) Human resource development
17.15. Coastal States should promote and facilitate the organization of
education and training in integrated coastal and marine management and
sustainable development for scientists, technologists, managers (including
community-based managers) and users, leaders, indigenous peoples, fisherfolk,
women and youth, among others. Management and development, as well as
environmental protection concerns and local planning issues, should be
incorporated in educational curricula and public awareness campaigns, with due
regard to traditional ecological knowledge and socio-cultural values.
17.16. International organizations, whether subregional, regional or global,
as appropriate, should support coastal States, upon request, in the areas
indicated above, devoting special attention to developing countries.
(d) Capacity-building
17.17. Full cooperation should be extended, upon request, to coastal States in
their capacity-building efforts and, where appropriate, capacity-building
should be included in bilateral and multilateral development cooperation.
Coastal States may consider, inter alia:
(a) Ensuring capacity-building at the local level;
(b) Consulting on coastal and marine issues with local administrations,
the business community, the academic sector, resource user groups and the
general public;
(c) Coordinating sectoral programmes while building capacity;
(d) Identifying existing and potential capabilities, facilities and needs
for human resources development and scientific and technological
infrastructure;
(e) Developing scientific and technological means and research;
(f) Promoting and facilitating human resource development and education;
(g) Supporting "centres of excellence" in integrated coastal and marine
resource management;
(h) Supporting pilot demonstration programmes and projects in integrated
coastal and marine management.
B. Marine environmental protection
Basis for action
17.18. Degradation of the marine environment can result from a wide range of
sources. Land-based sources contribute 70 per cent of marine pollution, while
maritime transport and dumping-at-sea activities contribute 10 per cent each.
The contaminants that pose the greatest threat to the marine environment are,
in variable order of importance and depending on differing national or regional
situations, sewage, nutrients, synthetic organic compounds, sediments, litter
and plastics, metals, radionuclides, oil/hydrocarbons and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs). Many of the polluting substances originating from
land-based sources are of particular concern to the marine environment since
they exhibit at the same time toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulation in the
food chain. There is currently no global scheme to address marine pollution
from land-based sources.
17.19. Degradation of the marine environment can also result from a wide range
of activities on land. Human settlements, land use, construction of coastal
infrastructure, agriculture, forestry, urban development, tourism and industry
can affect the marine environment. Coastal erosion and siltation are of
particular concern.
17.20. Marine pollution is also caused by shipping and sea-based activities.
Approximately 600,000 tons of oil enter the oceans each year as a result of
normal shipping operations, accidents and illegal discharges. With respect to
offshore oil and gas activities, currently machinery space discharges are
regulated internationally and six regional conventions to control platform
discharges have been under consideration. The nature and extent of
environmental impacts from offshore oil exploration and production activities
generally account for a very small proportion of marine pollution.
17.21. A precautionary and anticipatory rather than a reactive approach is
necessary to prevent the degradation of the marine environment. This requires,
inter alia, the adoption of precautionary measures, environmental impact
assessments, clean production techniques, recycling, waste audits and
minimization, construction and/or improvement of sewage treatment facilities,
quality management criteria for the proper handling of hazardous substances,
and a comprehensive approach to damaging impacts from air, land and water. Any
management framework must include the improvement of coastal human settlements
and the integrated management and development of coastal areas.
Objectives
17.22. States, in accordance with the provisions of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea on protection and preservation of the marine
environment, commit themselves, in accordance with their policies, priorities
and resources, to prevent, reduce and control degradation of the marine
environment so as to maintain and improve its life-support and productive
capacities. To this end, it is necessary to:
(a) Apply preventive, precautionary and anticipatory approaches so as to
avoid degradation of the marine environment, as well as to reduce the risk of
long-term or irreversible adverse effects upon it;
(b) Ensure prior assessment of activities that may have significant
adverse impacts upon the marine environment;
(c) Integrate protection of the marine environment into relevant general
environmental, social and economic development policies;
(d) Develop economic incentives, where appropriate, to apply clean
technologies and other means consistent with the internalization of
environmental costs, such as the polluter pays principle, so as to avoid
degradation of the marine environment;
(e) Improve the living standards of coastal populations, particularly in
developing countries, so as to contribute to reducing the degradation of the
coastal and marine environment.
17.23. States agree that provision of additional financial resources, through
appropriate international mechanisms, as well as access to cleaner technologies
and relevant research, would be necessary to support action by developing
countries to implement this commitment.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
Prevention, reduction and control of degradation of the marine environment
from land-based activities
17.24. In carrying out their commitment to deal with degradation of the marine
environment from land-based activities, States should take action at the
national level and, where appropriate, at the regional and subregional levels,
in concert with action to implement programme area A, and should take account
of the Montreal Guidelines for the Protection of the Marine Environment from
Land-Based Sources.
17.25. To this end, States, with the support of the relevant international
environmental, scientific, technical and financial organizations, should
cooperate, inter alia, to:
(a) Consider updating, strengthening and extending the Montreal
Guidelines, as appropriate;
(b) Assess the effectiveness of existing regional agreements and action
plans, where appropriate, with a view to identifying means of strengthening
action, where necessary, to prevent, reduce and control marine degradation
caused by land-based activities;
(c) Initiate and promote the development of new regional agreements,
where appropriate;
(d) Develop means of providing guidance on technologies to deal with the
major types of pollution of the marine environment from land-based sources,
according to the best scientific evidence;
(e) Develop policy guidance for relevant global funding mechanisms;
(f) Identify additional steps requiring international cooperation.
17.26. The UNEP Governing Council is invited to convene, as soon as
practicable, an intergovernmental meeting on protection of the marine
environment from land-based activities.
17.27. As concerns sewage, priority actions to be considered by States may
include:
(a) Incorporating sewage concerns when formulating or reviewing coastal
development plans, including human settlement plans;
(b) Building and maintaining sewage treatment facilities in accordance
with national policies and capacities and international cooperation available;
(c) Locating coastal outfalls so as to maintain an acceptable level of
environmental quality and to avoid exposing shell fisheries, water intakes and
bathing areas to pathogens;
(d) Promoting environmentally sound co-treatments of domestic and
compatible industrial effluents, with the introduction, where practicable, of
controls on the entry of effluents that are not compatible with the system;
(e) Promoting primary treatment of municipal sewage discharged to rivers,
estuaries and the sea, or other solutions appropriate to specific sites;
(f) Establishing and improving local, national, subregional and regional,
as necessary, regulatory and monitoring programmes to control effluent
discharge, using minimum sewage effluent guidelines and water quality criteria
and giving due consideration to the characteristics of receiving bodies and the
volume and type of pollutants.
17.28. As concerns other sources of pollution, priority actions to be
considered by States may include:
(a) Establishing or improving, as necessary, regulatory and monitoring
programmes to control effluent discharges and emissions, including the
development and application of control and recycling technologies;
(b) Promoting risk and environmental impact assessments to help ensure an
acceptable level of environmental quality;
(c) Promoting assessment and cooperation at the regional level, where
appropriate, with respect to the input of point source pollutants from new
installations;
(d) Eliminating the emission or discharge of organohalogen compounds that
threaten to accumulate to dangerous levels in the marine environment;
(e) Reducing the emission or discharge of other synthetic organic
compounds that threaten to accumulate to dangerous levels in the marine
environment;
(f) Promoting controls over anthropogenic inputs of nitrogen and
phosphorus that enter coastal waters where such problems as eutrophication
threaten the marine environment or its resources;
(g) Cooperating with developing countries, through financial and
technological support, to maximize the best practicable control and reduction
of substances and wastes that are toxic, persistent or liable to bio-accumulate
and to establish environmentally sound land-based waste disposal alternatives
to sea dumping;
(h) Cooperating in the development and implementation of environmentally
sound land-use techniques and practices to reduce run-off to water-courses and
estuaries which would cause pollution or degradation of the marine environment;
(i) Promoting the use of environmentally less harmful pesticides and
fertilizers and alternative methods for pest control, and considering the
prohibition of those found to be environmentally unsound;
(j) Adopting new initiatives at national, subregional and regional levels
for controlling the input of non-point source pollutants, which require broad
changes in sewage and waste management, agricultural practices, mining,
construction and transportation.
17.29. As concerns physical destruction of coastal and marine areas causing
degradation of the marine environment, priority actions should include control
and prevention of coastal erosion and siltation due to anthropogenic factors
related to, inter alia, land-use and construction techniques and practices.
Watershed management practices should be promoted so as to prevent, control and
reduce degradation of the marine environment.
Prevention, reduction and control of degradation of the marine environment
from sea-based activities
17.30. States, acting individually, bilaterally, regionally or multilaterally
and within the framework of IMO and other relevant international organizations,
whether subregional, regional or global, as appropriate, should assess the need
for additional measures to address degradation of the marine environment:
(a) From shipping, by:
(i) Supporting wider ratification and implementation of relevant shipping
conventions and protocols;
(ii) Facilitating the processes in (i), providing support to individual
States upon request to help them overcome the obstacles identified by
them;
(iii) Cooperating in monitoring marine pollution from ships, especially
from illegal discharges (e.g., aerial surveillance), and enforcing
MARPOL discharge, provisions more rigorously;
(iv) Assessing the state of pollution caused by ships in particularly
sensitive areas identified by IMO and taking action to implement
applicable measures, where necessary, within such areas to ensure
compliance with generally accepted international regulations;
(v) Taking action to ensure respect of areas designated by coastal
States, within their exclusive economic zones, consistent with
international law, in order to protect and preserve rare or fragile
ecosystems, such as coral reefs and mangroves;
(vi) Considering the adoption of appropriate rules on ballast water
discharge to prevent the spread of non-indigenous organisms;
(vii) Promoting navigational safety by adequate charting of coasts and
ship-routing, as appropriate;
(viii) Assessing the need for stricter international regulations to further
reduce the risk of accidents and pollution from cargo ships
(including bulk carriers);
(ix) Encouraging IMO and IAEA to work together to complete consideration
of a code on the carriage of irradiated nuclear fuel in flasks on
board ships;
(x) Revising and updating the IMO Code of Safety for Nuclear Merchant
Ships and considering how best to implement a revised code;
(xi) Supporting the ongoing activity within IMO regarding development of
appropriate measures for reducing air pollution from ships;
(xii) Supporting the ongoing activity within IMO regarding the development
of an international regime governing the transportation of hazardous
and noxious substances carried by ships and further considering
whether the compensation funds similar to the ones established under
the Fund Convention would be appropriate in respect of pollution
damage caused by substances other than oil;
(b) From dumping, by:
(i) Supporting wider ratification, implementation and participation in
relevant Conventions on dumping at sea, including early conclusion of
a future strategy for the London Dumping Convention;
(ii) Encouraging the London Dumping Convention parties to take appropriate
steps to stop ocean dumping and incineration of hazardous substances;
(c) From offshore oil and gas platforms, by assessing existing regulatory
measures to address discharges, emissions and safety and assessing the need for
additional measures;
(d) From ports, by facilitating establishment of port reception
facilities for the collection of oily and chemical residues and garbage from
ships, especially in MARPOL special areas, and promoting the establishment of
smaller scale facilities in marinas and fishing harbours.
17.31. IMO and as appropriate, other competent United Nations organizations,
when requested by the States concerned, should assess, where appropriate, the
state of marine pollution in areas of congested shipping, such as heavily used
international straits, with a view to ensuring compliance with generally
accepted international regulations, particularly those related to illegal
discharges from ships, in accordance with the provisions of Part III of the
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.
17.32. States should take measures to reduce water pollution caused by
organotin compounds used in anti-fouling paints.
17.33. States should consider ratifying the Convention on Oil Pollution
Preparedness, Response and Cooperation, which addresses, inter alia, the
development of contingency plans on the national and international level, as
appropriate, including provision of oil-spill response material and training of
personnel, including its possible extension to chemical spill response.
17.34. States should intensify international cooperation to strengthen or
establish, where necessary, regional oil/chemical-spill response centres
and/or, as appropriate, mechanisms in cooperation with relevant subregional,
regional or global intergovernmental organizations and, where appropriate,
industry-based organizations.
(b) Data and information
17.35. States should, as appropriate, and in accordance with the means at
their disposal and with due regard for their technical and scientific capacity
and resources, make systematic observations on the state of the marine
environment. To this end, States should, as appropriate, consider:
(a) Establishing systematic observation systems to measure marine
environmental quality, including causes and effects of marine degradation, as a
basis for management;
(b) Regularly exchanging information on marine degradation caused by
land-based and sea-based activities and on actions to prevent, control and
reduce such degradation;
(c) Supporting and expanding international programmes for systematic
observations such as the mussel watch programme, building on existing
facilities with special attention to developing countries;
(d) Establishing a clearing-house on marine pollution control
information, including processes and technologies to address marine pollution
control and to support their transfer to developing countries and other
countries with demonstrated needs;
(e) Establishing a global profile and database providing information on
the sources, types, amounts and effects of pollutants reaching the marine
environment from land-based activities in coastal areas and sea-based sources;
(f) Allocating adequate funding for capacity-building and training
programmes to ensure the full participation of developing countries, in
particular, in any international scheme under the organs and organizations of
the United Nations system for the collection, analysis and use of data and
information.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
17.36. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$200 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
17.37. National, subregional and regional action programmes will, where
appropriate, require technology transfer, in conformity with chapter 34, and
financial resources, particularly where developing countries are concerned,
including:
(a) Assistance to industries in identifying and adopting clean production
or cost-effective pollution control technologies;
(b) Planning development and application of low-cost and low-maintenance
sewage installation and treatment technologies for developing countries;
(c) Equipment of laboratories to observe systematically human and other
impacts on the marine environment;
(d) Identification of appropriate oil- and chemical-spill control
materials, including low-cost locally available materials and techniques,
suitable for pollution emergencies in developing countries;
(e) Study of the use of persistent organohalogens that are liable to
accumulate in the marine environment to identify those that cannot be
adequately controlled and to provide a basis for a decision on a time schedule
for phasing them out as soon as practicable;
(f) Establishment of a clearing-house for information on marine pollution
control, including processes and technologies to address marine pollution
control, and support for their transfer to developing and other countries with
demonstrated needs.
(c) Human resource development
17.38. States individually or in cooperation with each other and with the
support of international organizations, whether subregional, regional or
global, as appropriate, should:
(a) Provide training for critical personnel required for the adequate
protection of the marine environment as identified by training needs' surveys
at the national, regional or subregional levels;
(b) Promote the introduction of marine environmental protection topics
into the curriculum of marine studies programmes;
(c) Establish training courses for oil- and chemical-spill response
personnel, in cooperation, where appropriate, with the oil and chemical
industries;
(d) Conduct workshops on environmental aspects of port operations and
development;
(e) Strengthen and provide secure financing for new and existing
specialized international centres of professional maritime education;
(f) States should, through bilateral and multilateral cooperation,
support and supplement the national efforts of developing countries as regards
human resource development in relation to prevention and reduction of
degradation of the marine environment.
(d) Capacity-building
17.39. National planning and coordinating bodies should be given the capacity
and authority to review all land-based activities and sources of pollution for
their impacts on the marine environment and to propose appropriate control
measures.
17.40. Research facilities should be strengthened or, where appropriate,
developed in developing countries for systematic observation of marine
pollution, environmental impact assessment and development of control
recommendations and should be managed and staffed by local experts.
17.41. Special arrangements will be needed to provide adequate financial and
technical resources to assist developing countries in preventing and solving
problems associated with activities that threaten the marine environment.
17.42. An international funding mechanism should be created for the
application of appropriate sewage treatment technologies and building sewage
treatment facilities, including grants or concessional loans from international
agencies and appropriate regional funds, replenished at least in part on a
revolving basis by user fees.
17.43. In carrying out these programme activities, particular attention needs
to be given to the problems of developing countries that would bear an unequal
burden because of their lack of facilities, expertise or technical capacities.
C. Sustainable use and conservation of marine living
resources of the high seas
Basis for action
17.44. Over the last decade, fisheries on the high seas have considerably
expanded and currently represent approximately 5 per cent of total world
landings. The provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea on the marine living resources of the high seas sets forth rights and
obligations of States with respect to conservation and utilization of those
resources.
17.45. However, management of high seas fisheries, including the adoption,
monitoring and enforcement of effective conservation measures, is inadequate in
many areas and some resources are overutilized. There are problems of
unregulated fishing, overcapitalization, excessive fleet size, vessel
reflagging to escape controls, insufficiently selective gear, unreliable
databases and lack of sufficient cooperation between States. Action by States
whose nationals and vessels fish on the high seas, as well as cooperation at
the bilateral, subregional, regional and global levels, is essential
particularly for highly migratory species and straddling stocks. Such action
and cooperation should address inadequacies in fishing practices, as well as in
biological knowledge, fisheries statistics and improvement of systems for
handling data. Emphasis should also be on multi-species management and other
approaches that take into account the relationships among species, especially
in addressing depleted species, but also in identifying the potential of
underutilized or unutilized populations.
Objectives
17.46. States commit themselves to the conservation and sustainable use of
marine living resources on the high seas. To this end, it is necessary to:
(a) Develop and increase the potential of marine living resources to meet
human nutritional needs, as well as social, economic and development goals;
(b) Maintain or restore populations of marine species at levels that can
produce the maximum sustainable yield as qualified by relevant environmental
and economic factors, taking into consideration relationships among species;
(c) Promote the development and use of selective fishing gear and
practices that minimize waste in the catch of target species and minimize
by-catch of non-target species;
(d) Ensure effective monitoring and enforcement with respect to fishing
activities;
(e) Protect and restore endangered marine species;
(f) Preserve habitats and other ecologically sensitive areas;
(g) Promote scientific research with respect to the marine living
resources in the high seas.
17.47. Nothing in paragraph 17.46 above restricts the right of a State or the
competence of an international organization, as appropriate, to prohibit, limit
or regulate the exploitation of marine mammals on the high seas more strictly
than provided for in that paragraph. States shall cooperate with a view to the
conservation of marine mammals and, in the case of cetaceans, shall in
particular work through the appropriate international organizations for their
conservation, management and study.
17.48. The ability of developing countries to fulfil the above objectives is
dependent upon their capabilities, including the financial, scientific and
technological means at their disposal. Adequate financial, scientific and
technological cooperation should be provided to support action by them to
implement these objectives.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
17.49. States should take effective action, including bilateral and
multilateral cooperation, where appropriate at the subregional, regional and
global levels, to ensure that high seas fisheries are managed in accordance
with the provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. In
particular, they should:
(a) Give full effect to these provisions with regard to fisheries
populations whose ranges lie both within and beyond exclusive economic zones
(straddling stocks);
(b) Give full effect to these provisions with regard to highly migratory
species;
(c) Negotiate, where appropriate, international agreements for the
effective management and conservation of fishery stocks;
(d) Define and identify appropriate management units;
(e) States should convene, as soon as possible, an intergovernmental
conference under United Nations auspices, taking into account relevant
activities at the subregional, regional and global levels, with a view to
promoting effective implementation of the provisions of the United NationsConvention on the Law of the Sea on straddling fish stocks and highly migratory
fish stocks. The conference, drawing, inter alia, on scientific and technical
studies by FAO, should identify and assess existing problems related to the
conservation and management of such fish stocks, and consider means of
improving cooperation on fisheries among States, and formulate appropriate
recommendations. The work and the results of the conference should be fully
consistent with the provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of
the Sea, in particular the rights and obligations of coastal States and States
fishing on the high seas.
17.50. States should ensure that fishing activities by vessels flying their
flags on the high seas take place in a manner so as to minimize incidental
catch.
17.51. States should take effective action consistent with international law
to monitor and control fishing activities by vessels flying their flags on the
high seas to ensure compliance with applicable conservation and management
rules, including full, detailed, accurate and timely reporting of catches and
effort.
17.52. States should take effective action, consistent with international law,
to deter reflagging of vessels by their nationals as a means of avoiding
compliance with applicable conservation and management rules for fishing
activities on the high seas.
17.53. States should prohibit dynamiting, poisoning and other comparable
destructive fishing practices.
17.54. States should fully implement General Assembly resolution 46/215 on
large-scale pelagic drift-net fishing.
17.55. States should take measures to increase the availability of marine
living resources as human food by reducing wastage, post-harvest losses and
discards, and improving techniques of processing, distribution and
transportation.
(b) Data and information
17.56. States, with the support of international organizations, whether
subregional, regional or global, as appropriate, should cooperate to:
(a) Promote enhanced collection of data necessary for the conservation
and sustainable use of the marine living resources of the high seas;
(b) Exchange on a regular basis up-to-date data and information adequate
for fisheries assessment;
(c) Develop and share analytical and predictive tools, such as stock
assessment and bioeconomic models;
(d) Establish or expand appropriate monitoring and assessment programmes.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
17.57. States, through bilateral and multilateral cooperation and within the
framework of subregional and regional fisheries bodies, as appropriate, and
with the support of other international intergovernmental agencies, should
assess high seas resource potentials and develop profiles of all stocks (target
and non-target).
17.58. States should, where and as appropriate, ensure adequate coordination
and cooperation in enclosed and semi-enclosed seas and between subregional,
regional and global intergovernmental fisheries bodies.
17.59. Effective cooperation within existing subregional, regional or global
fisheries bodies should be encouraged. Where such organizations do not exist,
States should, as appropriate, cooperate to establish such organizations.
17.60. States with an interest in a high seas fishery regulated by an existing
subregional and/or regional high seas fisheries organization of which they are
not members should be encouraged to join that organization, where appropriate.
17.61. States recognize:
(a) The responsibility of the International Whaling Commission for the
conservation and management of whale stocks and the regulation of whaling
pursuant to the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling;
(b) The work of the International Whaling Commission Scientific Committee
in carrying out studies of large whales in particular, as well as of other
cetaceans;
(c) The work of other organizations, such as the Inter-American Tropical
Tuna Commission and the Agreement on Small Cetaceans in the Baltic and North
Sea under the Bonn Convention, in the conservation, management and study of
cetaceans and other marine mammals.
17.62. States should cooperate for the conservation, management and study of
cetaceans.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
17.63. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$12 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
17.64. States, with the support of relevant international organizations, where
necessary, should develop collaborative technical and research programmes to
improve understanding of the life cycles and migrations of species found on the
high seas, including identifying critical areas and life stages.
17.65. States, with the support of relevant international organizations,
whether subregional, regional or global, as appropriate, should:
(a) Develop databases on the high seas marine living resources and
fisheries;
(b) Collect and correlate marine environmental data with high seas marine
living resources data, including the impacts of regional and global changes
brought about by natural causes and by human activities;
(c) Cooperate in coordinating research programmes to provide the
knowledge necessary to manage high seas resources.
(c) Human resource development
17.66. Human resource development at the national level should be targeted at
both development and management of high seas resources, including training in
high seas fishing techniques and in high seas resource assessment,
strengthening cadres of personnel to deal with high seas resource management
and conservation and related environmental issues, and training observers and
inspectors to be placed on fishing vessels.
(d) Capacity-building
17.67. States, with the support, where appropriate, of relevant international
organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, should cooperate to
develop or upgrade systems and institutional structures for monitoring, control
and surveillance, as well as the research capacity for assessment of marine
living resource populations.
17.68. Special support, including cooperation among States, will be needed to
enhance the capacities of developing countries in the areas of data and
information, scientific and technological means, and human resource development
in order to participate effectively in the conservation and sustainable
utilization of high seas marine living resources.
D. Sustainable use and conservation of marine living
resources under national jurisdiction
Basis for action
17.69. Marine fisheries yield 80 to 90 million tons of fish and shellfish
per year, 95 per cent of which is taken from waters under national
jurisdiction. Yields have increased nearly fivefold over the past four
decades. The provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
on marine living resources of the exclusive economic zone and other areas under
national jurisdiction set forth rights and obligations of States with respect
to conservation and utilization of those resources.
17.70. Marine living resources provide an important source of protein in many
countries and their use is often of major importance to local communities and
indigenous people. Such resources provide food and livelihoods to millions of
people and, if sustainably utilized, offer increased potential to meet
nutritional and social needs, particularly in developing countries. To realize
this potential requires improved knowledge and identification of marine living
resource stocks, particularly of underutilized and unutilized stocks and
species, use of new technologies, better handling and processing facilities to
avoid wastage, and improved quality and training of skilled personnel to manage
and conserve effectively the marine living resources of the exclusive economic
zone and other areas under national jurisdiction. Emphasis should also be on
multi-species management and other approaches that take into account the
relationships among species.
17.71. Fisheries in many areas under national jurisdiction face mounting
problems, including local overfishing, unauthorized incursions by foreign
fleets, ecosystem degradation, overcapitalization and excessive fleet sizes,
underevaluation of catch, insufficiently selective gear, unreliable databases,
and increasing competition between artisanal and large-scale fishing, and
between fishing and other types of activities.
17.72. Problems extend beyond fisheries. Coral reefs and other marine and
coastal habitats, such as mangroves and estuaries, are among the most highly
diverse, integrated and productive of the Earth's ecosystems. They often serve
important ecological functions, provide coastal protection, and are critical
resources for food, energy, tourism and economic development. In many parts of
the world, such marine and coastal systems are under stress or are threatened
from a variety of sources, both human and natural.
Objectives
17.73. Coastal States, particularly developing countries and States whose
economies are overwhelmingly dependent on the exploitation of the marine living
resources of their exclusive economic zones, should obtain the full social and
economic benefits from sustainable utilization of marine living resources
within their exclusive economic zones and other areas under national
jurisdiction.
17.74. States commit themselves to the conservation and sustainable use of
marine living resources under national jurisdiction. To this end, it is
necessary to:
(a) Develop and increase the potential of marine living resources to meet
human nutritional needs, as well as social, economic and development goals;
(b) Take into account traditional knowledge and interests of local
communities, small-scale artisanal fisheries and indigenous people in
development and management programmes;
(c) Maintain or restore populations of marine species at levels that can
produce the maximum sustainable yield as qualified by relevant environmental
and economic factors, taking into consideration relationships among species;
(d) Promote the development and use of selective fishing gear and
practices that minimize waste in the catch of target species and minimize
by-catch of non-target species;
(e) Protect and restore endangered marine species;
(f) Preserve rare or fragile ecosystems, as well as habitats and other
ecologically sensitive areas.
17.75. Nothing in paragraph 17.74 above restricts the right of a coastal State
or the competence of an international organization, as appropriate, to
prohibit, limit or regulate the exploitation of marine mammals more strictly
than provided for in that paragraph. States shall cooperate with a view to the
conservation of marine mammals and in the case of cetaceans shall in particular
work through the appropriate international organizations for their
conservation, management and study.
17.76. The ability of developing countries to fulfil the above objectives is
dependent upon their capabilities, including the financial, scientific and
technological means at their disposal. Adequate financial, scientific and
technological cooperation should be provided to support action by them to
implement these objectives.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
17.77. States should ensure that marine living resources of the exclusive
economic zone and other areas under national jurisdiction are conserved and
managed in accordance with the provisions of the United Nations Convention on
the Law of the Sea.
17.78. States, in implementing the provisions of the United Nations Convention
on the Law of the Sea, should address the issues of straddlingstocks and highly migratory species, and, taking fully into account the
objective set out in paragraph 17.73, access to the surplus of allowable
catches.
17.79. Coastal States, individually or through bilateral and/or multilateral
cooperation and with the support, as appropriate of international
organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, should inter alia:
(a) Assess the potential of marine living resources, including
underutilized or unutilized stocks and species, by developing inventories,
where necessary, for their conservation and sustainable use;
(b) Implement strategies for the sustainable use of marine living
resources, taking into account the special needs and interests of small-scale
artisanal fisheries, local communities and indigenous people to meet human
nutritional and other development needs;
(c) Implement, in particular in developing countries, mechanisms to
develop mariculture, aquaculture and small-scale, deep-sea and oceanic
fisheries within areas under national jurisdiction where assessments show that
marine living resources are potentially available;
(d) Strengthen their legal and regulatory frameworks, where appropriate,
including management, enforcement and surveillance capabilities, to regulate
activities related to the above strategies;
(e) Take measures to increase the availability of marine living resources
as human food by reducing wastage, post-harvest losses and discards, and
improving techniques of processing, distribution and transportation;
(f) Develop and promote the use of environmentally sound technology under
criteria compatible with the sustainable use of marine living resources,
including assessment of the environmental impact of major new fishery
practices;
(g) Enhance the productivity and utilization of their marine living
resources for food and income.
17.80. Coastal States should explore the scope for expanding recreational and
tourist activities based on marine living resources, including those for
providing alternative sources of income. Such activities should be compatible
with conservation and sustainable development policies and plans.
17.81. Coastal States should support the sustainability of small-scale
artisanal fisheries. To this end, they should, as appropriate:
(a) Integrate small-scale artisanal fisheries development in marine and
coastal planning, taking into account the interests and, where appropriate,
encouraging representation of fishermen, small-scale fisherworkers, women,
local communities and indigenous people;
(b) Recognize the rights of small-scale fishworkers and the special
situation of indigenous people and local communities, including their rights to
utilization and protection of their habitats on a sustainable basis;
(c) Develop systems for the acquisition and recording of traditional
knowledge concerning marine living resources and environment and promote the
incorporation of such knowledge into management systems.
17.82. Coastal States should ensure that, in the negotiation and
implementation of international agreements on the development or conservation
of marine living resources, the interests of local communities and indigenous
people are taken into account, in particular their right to subsistence.
17.83. Coastal States, with the support, as appropriate, of international
organizations should conduct analyses of the potential for aquaculture in
marine and coastal areas under national jurisdiction and apply appropriate
safeguards as to the introduction of new species.
17.84. States should prohibit dynamiting, poisoning and other comparable
destructive fishing practices.
17.85. States should identify marine ecosystems exhibiting high levels of
biodiversity and productivity and other critical habitat areas and should
provide necessary limitations on use in these areas, through, inter alia,
designation of protected areas. Priority should be accorded, as appropriate,
to:
(a) Coral reef ecosystems;
(b) Estuaries;
(c) Temperate and tropical wetlands, including mangroves;
(d) Seagrass beds;
(e) Other spawning and nursery areas.
(b) Data and information
17.86. States, individually or through bilateral and multilateral cooperation
and with the support, as appropriate, of international organizations, whether
subregional, regional or global, should:
(a) Promote enhanced collection and exchange of data necessary for the
conservation and sustainable use of the marine living resources under national
jurisdiction;
(b) Exchange on a regular basis up-to-date data and information necessary
for fisheries assessment;
(c) Develop and share analytical and predictive tools, such as stock
assessment and bioeconomic models;
(d) Establish or expand appropriate monitoring and assessment programmes;
(e) Complete or update marine biodiversity, marine living resource and
critical habitat profiles of exclusive economic zones and other areas under
national jurisdiction, taking account of changes in the environment brought
about by natural causes and human activities.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
17.87. States, through bilateral and multilateral cooperation, and with the
support of relevant United Nations and other international organizations,
should cooperate to:
(a) Develop financial and technical cooperation to enhance the capacities
of developing countries in small-scale and oceanic fisheries, as well as in
coastal aquaculture and mariculture;
(b) Promote the contribution of marine living resources to eliminate
malnutrition and to achieve food self-sufficiency in developing countries,
inter alia, by minimizing post-harvest losses and managing stocks for
guaranteed sustainable yields;
(c) Develop agreed criteria for the use of selective fishing gear and
practices to minimize waste in the catch of target species and minimize
by-catch of non-target species;
(d) Promote seafood quality, including through national quality assurance
systems for seafood, in order to promote access to markets, improve consumer
confidence and maximize economic returns.
17.88. States should, where and as appropriate, ensure adequate coordination
and cooperation in enclosed and semi-enclosed seas and between subregional,
regional and global intergovernmental fisheries bodies.
17.89. States recognize:
(a) The responsibility of the International Whaling Commission for the
conservation and management of whale stocks and the regulation of whaling
pursuant to the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling;
(b) The work of the International Whaling Commission Scientific Committee
in carrying out studies of large whales in particular, as well as of other
cetaceans;
(c) The work of other organizations, such as the Inter-American Tropical
Tuna Commission and the Agreement on Small Cetaceans in the Baltic and North
Sea under the Bonn Convention, in the conservation, management and study of
cetaceans and other marine mammals.
17.90. States should cooperate for the conservation, management and study of
cetaceans.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
17.91. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$6 billion, including about $60 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs will
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments
decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
17.92. States, with the support of relevant intergovernmental organizations,
as appropriate, should:
(a) Provide for the transfer of environmentally sound technologies to
develop fisheries, aquaculture and mariculture, particularly to developing
countries;
(b) Accord special attention to mechanisms for transferring resource
information and improved fishing and aquaculture technologies to fishing
communities at the local level;
(c) Promote the study, scientific assessment and use of appropriate
traditional management systems;
(d) Consider observing, as appropriate, the FAO/ICES Code of Practice for
Consideration of Transfer and Introduction of Marine and Freshwater Organisms;
(e) Promote scientific research on marine areas of particular importance
for marine living resources, such as areas of high diversity, endemism and
productivity and migratory stopover points.
(c) Human resource development
17.93. States individually, or through bilateral and multilateral cooperation
and with the support of relevant international organizations, whether
subregional, regional or global, as appropriate, should encourage and provide
support for developing countries, inter alia, to:
(a) Expand multidisciplinary education, training and research on marine
living resources, particularly in the social and economic sciences;
(b) Create training opportunities at national and regional levels to
support artisanal (including subsistence) fisheries, to develop small-scale use
of marine living resources and to encourage equitable participation of local
communities, small-scale fish workers, women and indigenous people;
(c) Introduce topics relating to the importance of marine living
resources in educational curricula at all levels.
(d) Capacity-building
17.94. Coastal States, with the support of relevant subregional, regional and
global agencies, where appropriate, should:
(a) Develop research capacities for assessment of marine living resource
populations and monitoring;
(b) Provide support to local fishing communities, in particular those
that rely on fishing for subsistence, indigenous people and women, including,
as appropriate, the technical and financial assistance to organize, maintain,
exchange and improve traditional knowledge of marine living resources and
fishing techniques, and upgrade knowledge on marine ecosystems;
(c) Establish sustainable aquaculture development strategies, including
environmental management in support of rural fish-farming communities;
(d) Develop and strengthen, where the need may arise, institutions
capable of implementing the objectives and activities related to the
conservation and management of marine living resources.
17.95. Special support, including cooperation among States, will be needed to
enhance the capacities of developing countries in the areas of data and
information, scientific and technological means and human resource development
in order to enable them to participate effectively in the conservation and
sustainable use of marine living resources under national jurisdiction.
E. Addressing critical uncertainties for the management
of the marine environment and climate change
Basis for action
17.96. The marine environment is vulnerable and sensitive to climate and
atmospheric changes. Rational use and development of coastal areas, all seas
and marine resources, as well as conservation of the marine environment,
requires the ability to determine the present state of these systems and to
predict future conditions. The high degree of uncertainty in present
information inhibits effective management and limits the ability to make
predictions and assess environmental change. Systematic collection of data on
marine environmental parameters will be needed to apply integrated management
approaches and to predict effects of global climate change and of atmosphericphenomena, such as ozone depletion, on living marine resources and the marine
environment. In order to determine the role of the oceans and all seas in
driving global systems and to predict natural and human-induced changes in
marine and coastal environments, the mechanisms to collect, synthesize and
disseminate information from research and systematic observation activities
need to be restructured and reinforced considerably.
17.97. There are many uncertainties about climate change and particularly
about sealevel rise. Small increases in sealevel have the potential of causing
significant damage to small islands and low-lying coasts. Response strategies
should be based on sound data. A long-term cooperative research commitment is
needed to provide the data required for global climate models and to reduce
uncertainty. Meanwhile, precautionary measures should be undertaken to
diminish the risks and effects, particularly on small islands and on low-lying
and coastal areas of the world.
17.98. Increased ultraviolet radiation derived from ozone depletion has been
reported in some areas of the world. An assessment of its effects in the
marine environment is needed to reduce uncertainty and to provide a basis for
action.
Objectives
17.99. States, in accordance with provisions of the United Nations Convention
on the Law of the Sea on marine scientific research, commit themselves to
improve the understanding of the marine environment and its role on global
processes. To this end, it is necessary to:
(a) Promote scientific research on and systematic observation of the
marine environment within the limits of national jurisdiction and high seas,
including interactions with atmospheric phenomena, such as ozone depletion;
(b) Promote exchange of data and information resulting from scientific
research and systematic observation and from traditional ecological knowledge
and ensure its availability to policy makers and the public at the national
level;
(c) Cooperate with a view to the development of standard inter-calibrated
procedures, measuring techniques, data storage and management capabilities for
scientific research on and systematic observation of the marine environment.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
17.100. States should consider, inter alia:
(a) Coordinating national and regional observation programmes for coastal
and near-shore phenomena related to climate change and for research parameters
essential for marine and coastal management in all regions;
(b) Providing improved forecasts of marine conditions for the safety of
inhabitants of coastal areas and for the efficiency of maritime operations;
(c) Cooperating with a view to adopting special measures to cope with and
adapt to potential climate change and sealevel rise, including the development
of globally accepted methodologies for coastal vulnerability assessment,
modelling and response strategies particularly for priority areas, such as
small islands and low-lying and critical coastal areas;
(d) Identifying ongoing and planned programmes of systematic observation
of the marine environment, with a view to integrating activities and
establishing priorities to address critical uncertainties for oceans and all
seas;
(e) Initiating a programme of research to determine the marine biological
effects of increased levels of ultraviolet rays due to the depletion of the
stratospheric ozone layer and to evaluate the possible effects.
17.101. Recognizing the important role that oceans and all seas play in
attenuating potential climate change, IOC and other relevant competent United
Nations bodies, with the support of countries having the resources and
expertise, should carry out analysis, assessments and systematic observation of
the role of oceans as a carbon sink.
(b) Data and information
17.102. States should consider, inter alia:
(a) Increasing international cooperation particularly with a view to
strengthening national scientific and technological capabilities for analysing,
assessing and predicting global climate and environmental change;
(b) Supporting the role of the IOC in cooperation with WMO, UNEP and
other international organizations in the collection, analysis and distribution
of data and information from the oceans and all seas, including as appropriate,
through the Global Ocean Observing System, giving special attention to the need
for IOC to develop fully the strategy for providing training and technical
assistance for developing countries through its Training, Education and Mutual
Assistance (TEMA) programme;
(c) Creating national multisectoral information bases, covering the
results of research and systematic observation programmes;
(d) Linking these databases to existing data and information services and
mechanisms, such as World Weather Watch and Earthwatch;
(e) Cooperating with a view to the exchange of data and information and
its storage and archiving through the world and regional data centres;
(f) Cooperating to ensure full participation of developing countries, in
particular, in any international scheme under the organs and organizations of
the United Nations system for the collection, analysis and use of data and
information.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
17.103. States should consider bilaterally and multilaterally and in
cooperation with international organizations, whether subregional, regional,
interregional or global, where appropriate:
(a) Providing technical cooperation in developing the capacity of coastal
and island States for marine research and systematic observation and for using
its results;
(b) Strengthening existing national institutions and creating, where
necessary, international analysis and prediction mechanisms in order to prepare
and exchange regional and global oceanographic analyses and forecasts and to
provide facilities for international research and training at national,
subregional and regional levels, where applicable.
17.104. In recognition of the value of Antarctica as an area for the conduct
of scientific research, in particular research essential to understanding the
global environment, States carrying out such research activities in Antarctica
should, as provided for in Article III of the Antarctic Treaty, continue to:
(a) Ensure that data and information resulting from such research are
freely available to the international community;
(b) Enhance access of the international scientific community and
specialized agencies of the United Nations to such data and information,
including the encouragement of periodic seminars and symposia.
17.105. States should strengthen high-level inter-agency, subregional,
regional and global coordination, as appropriate, and review mechanisms to
develop and integrate systematic observation networks. This would include:
(a) Review of existing regional and global databases;
(b) Mechanisms to develop comparable and compatible techniques, validate
methodologies and measurements, organize regular scientific reviews, develop
options for corrective measures, agree on formats for presentation and storage,
and communicate the information gathered to potential users;
(c) Systematic observation of coastal habitats and sealevel changes,
inventories of marine pollution sources and reviews of fisheries statistics;
(d) Organization of periodic assessments of ocean and all seas and
coastal area status and trends.
17.106. International cooperation, through relevant organizations within the
United Nations system, should support countries to develop and integrate
regional systematic long-term observation programmes, when applicable, into the
Regional Seas Programmes in a coordinated fashion to implement, where
appropriate, subregional, regional and global observing systems based on the
principle of exchange of data. One aim should be the predicting of the effects
of climate-related emergencies on existing coastal physical and socio-economic
infrastructure.
17.107. Based on the results of research on the effects of the additional
ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface, in the fields of human
health, agriculture and marine environment, States and international
organizations should consider taking appropriate remedial measures.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
17.108. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$750 million, including about $480 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
17.109. Developed countries should provide the financing for the further
development and implementation of the Global Ocean Observing System.
(b) Scientific and technological means
17.110. To address critical uncertainties through systematic coastal and
marine observations and research, coastal States should cooperate in the
development of procedures that allow for comparable analysis and soundness of
data. They should also cooperate on a subregional and regional basis, through
existing programmes where applicable, share infrastructure and expensive and
sophisticated equipment, develop quality assurance procedures and develop human
resources jointly. Special attention should be given to transfer of scientific
and technological knowledge and means to support States, particularly
developing countries, in the development of endogenous capabilities.
17.111. International organizations should support, when requested, coastal
countries in implementing research projects on the effects of additional
ultraviolet radiation.
(c) Human resource development
17.112. States, individually or through bilateral and multilateral cooperation
and with the support, as appropriate, of international organizations whether
subregional, regional or global, should develop and implement comprehensive
programmes, particularly in developing countries, for a broad and coherent
approach to meeting their core human resource needs in the marine sciences.
(d) Capacity-building
17.113. States should strengthen or establish as necessary, national
scientific and technological oceanographic commissions or equivalent bodies to
develop, support and coordinate marine science activities and work closely with
international organizations.
17.114. States should use existing subregional and regional mechanisms, where
applicable, to develop knowledge of the marine environment, exchange
information, organize systematic observations and assessments, and make the
most effective use of scientists, facilities and equipment. They should also
cooperate in the promotion of endogenous research capabilities in developing
countries.
F. Strengthening international, including
regional, cooperation and coordination
Basis for action
17.115. It is recognized that the role of international cooperation is to
support and supplement national efforts. Implementation of strategies and
activities under the programme areas relative to marine and coastal areas and
seas requires effective institutional arrangements at national, subregional,
regional and global levels, as appropriate. There are numerous national and
international, including regional, institutions, both within and outside the
United Nations system, with competence in marine issues, and there is a need to
improve coordination and strengthen links among them. It is also important to
ensure that an integrated and multisectoral approach to marine issues is
pursued at all levels.
Objectives
17.116. States commit themselves, in accordance with their policies,
priorities and resources, to promote institutional arrangements necessary to
support the implementation of the programme areas in this chapter. To this
end, it is necessary, as appropriate, to:
(a) Integrate relevant sectoral activities addressing environment and
development in marine and coastal areas at national, subregional, regional and
global levels, as appropriate;
(b) Promote effective information exchange and, where appropriate,
institutional linkages between bilateral and multilateral national, regional,
subregional and interregional institutions dealing with environment and
development in marine and coastal areas;
(c) Promote within the United Nations system, regular intergovernmental
review and consideration of environment and development issues with respect to
marine and coastal areas;
(d) Promote the effective operation of coordinating mechanisms for the
components of the United Nations system dealing with issues of environment and
development in marine and coastal areas, as well as links with relevant
international development bodies.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
Global
17.117. The General Assembly should provide for regular consideration, within
the United Nations system, at the intergovernmental level of general marine and
coastal issues, including environment and development matters, and should
request the Secretary-General and executive heads of United Nations agencies
and organizations to:
(a) Strengthen coordination and develop improved arrangements among the
relevant United Nations organizations with major marine and coastal
responsibilities, including their subregional and regional components;
(b) Strengthen coordination between those organizations and other United
Nations organizations, institutions and specialized agencies dealing with
development, trade and other related economic issues, as appropriate;
(c) Improve representation of United Nations agencies dealing with the
marine environment in United Nations system-wide coordination efforts;
(d) Promote, where necessary, greater collaboration between the United
Nations agencies and subregional and regional coastal and marine programmes;
(e) Develop a centralized system to provide for information on
legislation and advice on implementation of legal agreements on marine
environmental and development issues.
17.118. States recognize that environmental policies should deal with the root
causes of environmental degradation, thus preventing environmental measures
from resulting in unnecessary restrictions to trade. Trade policy measures for
environmental purposes should not constitute a means of arbitrary or
unjustifiable discrimination or a disguised restriction on international trade.
Unilateral actions to deal with environmental challenges outside thejurisdiction of the importing country should be avoided. Environmental
measures addressing international environmental problems should, as far as
possible, be based on an international consensus. Domestic measures targeted
to achieve certain environmental objectives may need trade measures to render
them effective. Should trade policy measures be found necessary for the
enforcement of environmental policies, certain principles and rules should
apply. These could include, inter alia, the principle of non-discrimination;
the principle that the trade measure chosen should be the least
trade-restrictive necessary to achieve the objectives; an obligation to ensure
transparency in the use of trade measures related to the environment and to
provide adequate notification of national regulations; and the need to give
consideration to the special conditions and development requirements of
developing countries as they move towards internationally agreed environmental
objectives.
Subregional and regional
17.119. States should consider, as appropriate:
(a) Strengthening, and extending where necessary, intergovernmental
regional cooperation, the Regional Seas Programmes of UNEP, regional and
subregional fisheries organizations and regional commissions;
(b) Introduce, where necessary, coordination among relevant United
Nations and other multilateral organizations at the subregional and regional
levels, including consideration of co-location of their staff;
(c) Arrange for periodic intraregional consultations;
(d) Facilitate access to and use of expertise and technology through
relevant national bodies to subregional and regional centres and networks, such
as the Regional Centres for Marine Technology.
(b) Data and information
17.120. States should, where appropriate:
(a) Promote exchange of information on marine and coastal issues;
(b) Strengthen the capacity of international organizations to handle
information and support the development of national, subregional and regional
data and information systems, where appropriate. This could also include
networks linking countries with comparable environmental problems;
(c) Further develop existing international mechanisms such as Earthwatch
and GESAMP.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
17.121. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about $50
million from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These
are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed
by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means, human resource development and
capacity-building
17.122. The means of implementation outlined in the other programme areas on
marine and coastal issues, under the sections on Scientific and technological
means, human resource development and capacity-building are entirely relevant
for this programme area as well. Additionally, States should, through
international cooperation, develop a comprehensive programme for meeting the
core human resource needs in marine sciences at all levels.
G. Sustainable development of small islands
Basis for action
17.123. Small island developing States, and islands supporting small
communities are a special case both for environment and development. They are
ecologically fragile and vulnerable. Their small size, limited resources,
geographic dispersion and isolation from markets, place them at a disadvantage
economically and prevent economies of scale. For small island developing
States the ocean and coastal environment is of strategic importance and
constitutes a valuable development resource.
17.124. Their geographic isolation has resulted in their habitation of a
comparatively large number of unique species of flora and fauna, giving them a
very high share of global biodiversity. They also have rich and diverse
cultures with special adaptations to island environments and knowledge of the
sound management of island resources.
17.125. Small island developing States have all the environmental problems and
challenges of the coastal zone concentrated in a limited land area. They are
considered extremely vulnerable to global warming and sealevel rise, with
certain small low-lying islands facing the increasing threat of the loss of
their entire national territories. Most tropical islands are also now
experiencing the more immediate impacts of increasing frequency of cyclones,
storms and hurricanes associated with climate change. These are causing major
set-backs to their socio-economic development.
17.126. Because small island development options are limited, there are
special challenges to planning for and implementing sustainable development.
Small island developing States will be constrained in meeting these challenges
without the cooperation and assistance of the international community.
Objectives
17.127. States commit themselves to addressing the problems of sustainable
development of small island developing States. To this end, it is necessary:
(a) To adopt and implement plans and programmes to support the
sustainable development and utilization of their marine and coastal resources,
including meeting essential human needs, maintaining biodiversity and improving
the quality of life for island people;
(b) To adopt measures which will enable small island developing States to
cope effectively, creatively and sustainably with environmental change and to
mitigate impacts and reduce the threats posed to marine and coastal resources.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
17.128. Small island developing States, with the assistance as appropriate of
the international community and on the basis of existing work of national and
international organizations, should:
(a) Study the special environmental and developmental characteristics of
small islands, producing an environmental profile and inventory of their
natural resources, critical marine habitats and biodiversity;
(b) Develop techniques for determining and monitoring the carrying
capacity of small islands under different development assumptions and resource
constraints;
(c) Prepare medium- and long-term plans for sustainable development that
emphasize multiple use of resources, integrate environmental considerations
with economic and sectoral planning and policies, define measures for
maintaining cultural and biological diversity and conserve endangered species
and critical marine habitats;
(d) Adapt coastal area management techniques, such as planning, siting
and environmental impact assessments, using Geographical Information Systems
(GIS), suitable to the special characteristics of small islands, taking into
account the traditional and cultural values of indigenous people of island
countries;
(e) Review the existing institutional arrangements and identify and
undertake appropriate institutional reforms essential to the effectiveimplementation of sustainable development plans, including intersectoral
coordination and community participation in the planning process;
(f) Implement sustainable development plans, including the review and
modification of existing unsustainable policies and practices;
(g) Based on precautionary and anticipatory approaches, design and
implement rational response strategies to address the environmental, social and
economic impacts of climate change and sealevel rise, and prepare appropriate
contingency plans;
(h) Promote environmentally sound technology for sustainable development
within small island developing States and identify technologies that should be
excluded because of their threats to essential island ecosystems.
(b) Data and information
17.129. Additional information on the geographic, environmental, cultural and
socio-economic characteristics of islands should be compiled and assessed to
assist in the planning process. Existing island databases should be expanded
and geographic information systems developed and adapted to suit the special
characteristics of islands.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
17.130. Small island developing States, with the support, as appropriate, of
international organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, should
develop and strengthen inter-island, regional and interregional cooperation and
information exchange, including periodic regional and global meetings on
sustainable development of small island developing States with the first global
conference on the sustainable development of small island developing States, to
be held in 1993.
17.131. International organizations, whether subregional, regional or global,
must recognize the special development requirements of small island developing
States and give adequate priority in the provision of assistance, particularly
with respect to the development and implementation of sustainable development
plans.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
17.132. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$130 million, including about $50 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technical means
17.133. Centres for the development and diffusion of scientific information
and advice on technical means and technologies appropriate to small island
developing States, especially with reference to the management of the coastal
zone, the exclusive economic zone and marine resources, should be established
or strengthened, as appropriate, on a regional basis.
(c) Human resource development
17.134. Since populations of small island developing States cannot maintain
all necessary specializations, training for integrated coastal management and
development should aim to produce cadres of managers or scientists, engineers
and coastal planners able to integrate the many factors that need to be
considered in integrated coastal management. Resource users should be prepared
to execute both management and protection functions and to apply the polluter
pays principle and support the training of their personnel. Educational
systems should be modified to meet these needs and special training programmes
developed in integrated island management and development. Local planning
should be integrated in educational curricula of all levels and public
awareness campaigns developed with the assistance of non-governmental
organizations and indigenous coastal populations.
(d) Capacity-building
17.135. The total capacity of small island developing States will always be
limited. Existing capacity must therefore be restructured to meet efficiently
the immediate needs for sustainable development and integrated management. At
the same time, adequate and appropriate assistance from the international
community must be directed at strengthening the full range of human resources
needed on a continuous basis to implement sustainable development plans.
17.136. New technologies that can increase the output and range of capability
of the limited human resources should be employed to increase the capacity of
very small populations to meet their needs. The development and application of
traditional knowledge to improve the capacity of countries to implement
sustainable development should be fostered.
Notes
1/ References to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea in
this chapter of Agenda 21 do not prejudice the position of any State with
respect to signature, ratification of or accession to the Convention.
2/ References to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea in
this chapter of Agenda 21 do not prejudice the position of States which view
the Convention as having a unified character.
3/ Nothing in the programme areas of this chapter should be interpreted
as prejudicing the rights of the States involved in a dispute of sovereignty or
in the delimitation of the maritime areas concerned.
Chapter 18
PROTECTION OF THE QUALITY AND SUPPLY OF FRESHWATER RESOURCES:
APPLICATION OF INTEGRATED APPROACHES TO THE DEVELOPMENT,
MANAGEMENT AND USE OF WATER RESOURCES
INTRODUCTION
18.1. Freshwater resources are an essential component of the Earth's
hydrosphere and an indispensable part of all terrestrial ecosystems. The
freshwater environment is characterized by the hydrological cycle, including
floods and droughts, which in some regions have become more extreme and
dramatic in their consequences. Global climate change and atmospheric
pollution could also have an impact on freshwater resources and their
availability and, through sea-level rise, threaten low-lying coastal areas and
small island ecosystems.
18.2. Water is needed in all aspects of life. The general objective is to
make certain that adequate supplies of water of good quality are maintained for
the entire population of this planet, while preserving the hydrological,
biological and chemical functions of ecosystems, adapting human activities
within the capacity limits of nature and combating vectors of water-related
diseases. Innovative technologies, including the improvement of indigenous
technologies, are needed to fully utilize limited water resources and to
safeguard those resources against pollution.
18.3. The widespread scarcity, gradual destruction and aggravated pollution of
freshwater resources in many world regions, along with the progressive
encroachment of incompatible activities, demand integrated water resources
planning and management. Such integration must cover all types of interrelated
freshwater bodies, including both surface water and groundwater, and duly
consider water quantity and quality aspects. The multisectoral nature of water
resources development in the context of socio-economic development must be
recognized, as well as the multi-interest utilization of water resources for
water supply and sanitation, agriculture, industry, urban development,
hydropower generation, inland fisheries, transportation, recreation, low and
flat lands management and other activities. Rational water utilization schemes
for the development of surface and underground water-supply sources and other
potential sources have to be supported by concurrent water conservation and
wastage minimization measures. Priority, however, must be accorded to flood
prevention and control measures, as well as sedimentation control, where
required.
18.4. Transboundary water resources and their use are of great importance to
riparian States. In this connection, cooperation among those States may be
desirable in conformity with existing agreements and/or other relevant
arrangements, taking into account the interests of all riparian States
concerned.
18.5. The following programme areas are proposed for the freshwater sector:
(a) Integrated water resources development and management;
(b) Water resources assessment;
(c) Protection of water resources, water quality and aquatic ecosystems;
(d) Drinking-water supply and sanitation;
(e) Water and sustainable urban development;
(f) Water for sustainable food production and rural development;
(g) Impacts of climate change on water resources.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Integrated water resources development and management
Basis for action
18.6. The extent to which water resources development contributes to economic
productivity and social well-being is not usually appreciated, although all
social and economic activities rely heavily on the supply and quality of
freshwater. As populations and economic activities grow, many countries are
rapidly reaching conditions of water scarcity or facing limits to economic
development. Water demands are increasing rapidly, with 70-80 per cent
required for irrigation, less than 20 per cent for industry and a mere
6 per cent for domestic consumption. The holistic management of freshwater as
a finite and vulnerable resource, and the integration of sectoral water plans
and programmes within the framework of national economic and social policy, are
of paramount importance for action in the 1990s and beyond. The fragmentation
of responsibilities for water resources development among sectoral agencies is
proving, however, to be an even greater impediment to promoting integrated
water management than had been anticipated. Effective implementation and
coordination mechanisms are required.
Objectives
18.7. The overall objective is to satisfy the freshwater needs of all
countries for their sustainable development.
18.8. Integrated water resources management is based on the perception of
water as an integral part of the ecosystem, a natural resource and a social and
economic good, whose quantity and quality determine the nature of its
utilization. To this end, water resources have to be protected, taking into
account the functioning of aquatic ecosystems and the perenniality of the
resource, in order to satisfy and reconcile needs for water in human
activities. In developing and using water resources, priority has to be given
to the satisfaction of basic needs and the safeguarding of ecosystems. Beyond
these requirements, however, water users should be charged appropriately.
18.9. Integrated water resources management, including the integration of
land- and water-related aspects, should be carried out at the level of the
catchment basin or sub-basin. Four principal objectives should be pursued, as
follows:
(a) To promote a dynamic, interactive, iterative and multisectoral
approach to water resources management, including the identification and
protection of potential sources of freshwater supply, that integrates
technological, socio-economic, environmental and human health considerations;
(b) To plan for the sustainable and rational utilization, protection,
conservation and management of water resources based on community needs and
priorities within the framework of national economic development policy;
(c) To design, implement and evaluate projects and programmes that are
both economically efficient and socially appropriate within clearly defined
strategies, based on an approach of full public participation, including that
of women, youth, indigenous people and local communities in water management
policy-making and decision-making;
(d) To identify and strengthen or develop, as required, in particular in
developing countries, the appropriate institutional, legal and financial
mechanisms to ensure that water policy and its implementation are a catalyst
for sustainable social progress and economic growth.
18.10. In the case of transboundary water resources, there is a need for
riparian States to formulate water resources strategies, prepare water
resources action programmes and consider, where appropriate, the harmonization
of those strategies and action programmes.
18.11. All States, according to their capacity and available resources, and
through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United Nations and
other relevant organizations as appropriate, could set the following targets:
(a) By the year 2000:
(i) To have designed and initiated costed and targeted national action
programmes, and to have put in place appropriate institutional
structures and legal instruments;
(ii) To have established efficient water-use programmes to attain
sustainable resource utilization patterns;
(b) By the year 2025:
(i) To have achieved subsectoral targets of all freshwater programme
areas.
It is understood that the fulfilment of the targets quantified in (i) and (ii)
above will depend upon new and additional financial resources that will be made
available to developing countries in accordance with the relevant provisions of
General Assembly resolution 44/228.
Activities
18.12. All States, according to their capacity and available resources, and
through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United Nations and
other relevant organizations as appropriate, could implement the following
activities to improve integrated water resources management:
(a) Formulation of costed and targeted national action plans and
investment programmes;
(b) Integration of measures for the protection and conservation of
potential sources of freshwater supply, including the inventorying of water
resources, with land-use planning, forest resource utilization, protection of
mountain slopes and riverbanks and other relevant development and conservation
activities;
(c) Development of interactive databases, forecasting models, economic
planning models and methods for water management and planning, including
environmental impact assessment methods;
(d) Optimization of water resources allocation under physical and
socio-economic constraints;
(e) Implementation of allocation decisions through demand management,
pricing mechanisms and regulatory measures;
(f) Flood and drought management, including risk analysis and
environmental and social impact assessment;
(g) Promotion of schemes for rational water use through public
awareness-raising, educational programmes and levying of water tariffs and
other economic instruments;
(h) Mobilization of water resources, particularly in arid and semi-arid
areas;
(i) Promotion of international scientific research cooperation on
freshwater resources;
(j) Development of new and alternative sources of water-supply such as
sea-water desalination, artificial groundwater recharge, use of
marginal-quality water, waste-water reuse and water recycling;
(k) Integration of water (including surface and underground water
resources) quantity and quality management;
(l) Promotion of water conservation through improved water-use efficiency
and wastage minimization schemes for all users, including the development of
water-saving devices;
(m) Support to water-users groups to optimize local water resources
management;
(n) Development of public participatory techniques and their
implementation in decision-making, particularly the enhancement of the role of
women in water resources planning and management;
(o) Development and strengthening, as appropriate, of cooperation,
including mechanisms where appropriate, at all levels concerned, namely:
(i) At the lowest appropriate level, delegation of water resources
management, generally, to such a level, in accordance with national
legislation, including decentralization of government services to
local authorities, private enterprises and communities;
(ii) At the national level, integrated water resources planning and
management in the framework of the national planning process and,
where appropriate, establishment of independent regulation and
monitoring of freshwater, based on national legislation and economic
measures;
(iii) At the regional level, consideration, where appropriate, of the
harmonization of national strategies and action programmes;
(iv) At the global level, improved delineation of responsibilities,
division of labour and coordination of international organizations
and programmes, including facilitating discussions and sharing of
experiences in areas related to water resources management;
(p) Dissemination of information, including operational guidelines, and
promotion of education for water users, including the consideration by the
United Nations of a World Water Day.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
18.13. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$115 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
18.14. The development of interactive databases, forecasting methods and
economic planning models appropriate to the task of managing water resources in
an efficient and sustainable manner will require the application of new
techniques such as geographical information systems and expert systems to
gather, assimilate, analyse and display multisectoral information and to
optimize decision-making. In addition, the development of new and alternative
sources of water-supply and low-cost water technologies will require innovative
applied research. This will involve the transfer, adaptation and diffusion of
new techniques and technology among developing countries, as well as the
development of endogenous capacity, for the purpose of being able to deal with
the added dimension of integrating engineering, economic, environmental and
social aspects of water resources management and predicting the effects in
terms of human impact.
18.15. Pursuant to the recognition of water as a social and economic good, the
various available options for charging water users (including domestic, urban,
industrial and agricultural water-user groups) have to be further evaluated and
field-tested. Further development is required for economic instruments that
take into account opportunity costs and environmental externalities. Field
studies on the willingness to pay should be conducted in rural and urban
situations.
18.16. Water resources development and management should be planned in an
integrated manner, taking into account long-term planning needs as well as
those with narrower horizons, that is to say, they should incorporate
environmental, economic and social considerations based on the principle of
sustainability; include the requirements of all users as well as those relating
to the prevention and mitigation of water-related hazards; and constitute an
integral part of the socio-economic development planning process. A
prerequisite for the sustainable management of water as a scarce vulnerable
resource is the obligation to acknowledge in all planning and development its
full costs. Planning considerations should reflect benefits investment,
environmental protection and operation costs, as well as the opportunity costs
reflecting the most valuable alternative use of water. Actual charging need
not necessarily burden all beneficiaries with the consequences of those
considerations. Charging mechanisms should, however, reflect as far as
possible both the true cost of water when used as an economic good and the
ability of the communities to pay.
18.17. The role of water as a social, economic and life-sustaining good should
be reflected in demand management mechanisms and implemented through water
conservation and reuse, resource assessment and financial instruments.
18.18. The setting afresh of priorities for private and public investment
strategies should take into account (a) maximum utilization of existing
projects, through maintenance, rehabilitation and optimal operation; (b) new or
alternative clean technologies; and (c) environmentally and socially benign
hydropower.
(c) Human resources development
18.19. The delegation of water resources management to the lowest appropriate
level necessitates educating and training water management staff at all levels
and ensuring that women participate equally in the education and training
programmes. Particular emphasis has to be placed on the introduction of public
participatory techniques, including enhancement of the role of women, youth,
indigenous people and local communities. Skills related to various water
management functions have to be developed by municipal government and water
authorities, as well as in the private sector, local/national non-governmental
organizations, cooperatives, corporations and other water-user groups.
Education of the public regarding the importance of water and its proper
management is also needed.
18.20. To implement these principles, communities need to have adequate
capacities. Those who establish the framework for water development and
management at any level, whether international, national or local, need to
ensure that the means exist to build those capacities. The means will vary
from case to case. They usually include:
(a) Awareness-creation programmes, including mobilizing commitment and
support at all levels and initiating global and local action to promote such
programmes;
(b) Training of water managers at all levels so that they have an
appropriate understanding of all the elements necessary for their
decision-making;
(c) Strengthening of training capacities in developing countries;
(d) Appropriate training of the necessary professionals, including
extension workers;
(e) Improvement of career structures;
(f) Sharing of appropriate knowledge and technology, both for the
collection of data and for the implementation of planned development including
non-polluting technologies and the knowledge needed to extract the best
performance from the existing investment system.
(d) Capacity-building
18.21. Institutional capacity for implementing integrated water management
should be reviewed and developed when there is a clear demand. Existing
administrative structures will often be quite capable of achieving local water
resources management, but the need may arise for new institutions based upon
the perspective, for example, of river catchment areas, district development
councils and local community committees. Although water is managed at various
levels in the socio-political system, demand-driven management requires the
development of water-related institutions at appropriate levels, taking into
account the need for integration with land-use management.
18.22. In creating the enabling environment for lowest-appropriate-level
management, the role of Government includes mobilization of financial and human
resources, legislation, standard-setting and other regulatory functions,
monitoring and assessment of the use of water and land resources, and creating
of opportunities for public participation. International agencies and donors
have an important role to play in providing support to developing countries in
creating the required enabling environment for integrated water resources
management. This should include, as appropriate, donor support to local levels
in developing countries, including community-based institutions,
non-governmental organizations and women's groups.
B. Water resources assessment
Basis for action
18.23. Water resources assessment, including the identification of potential
sources of freshwater supply, comprises the continuing determination of
sources, extent, dependability and quality of water resources and of the human
activities that affect those resources. Such assessment constitutes the
practical basis for their sustainable management and a prerequisite for
evaluation of the possibilities for their development. There is, however,
growing concern that at a time when more precise and reliable information is
needed about water resources, hydrologic services and related bodies are less
able than before to provide this information, especially information on
groundwater and water quality. Major impediments are the lack of financial
resources for water resources assessment, the fragmented nature of hydrologic
services and the insufficient numbers of qualified staff. At the same time,
the advancing technology for data capture and management is increasingly
difficult to access for developing countries. Establishment of national
databases is, however, vital to water resources assessment and to mitigation of
the effects of floods, droughts, desertification and pollution.
Objectives
18.24. Based upon the Mar del Plata Action Plan, this programme area has been
extended into the 1990s and beyond with the overall objective of ensuring the
assessment and forecasting of the quantity and quality of water resources, in
order to estimate the total quantity of water resources available and their
future supply potential, to determine their current quality status, to predict
possible conflicts between supply and demand and to provide a scientific
database for rational water resources utilization.
18.25. Five specific objectives have been set accordingly, as follows:
(a) To make available to all countries water resources assessment
technology that is appropriate to their needs, irrespective of their level of
development, including methods for the impact assessment of climate change on
freshwaters;
(b) To have all countries, according to their financial means, allocate
to water resources assessment financial resources in line with the economic and
social needs for water resources data;
(c) To ensure that the assessment information is fully utilized in the
development of water management policies;
(d) To have all countries establish the institutional arrangements needed
to ensure the efficient collection, processing, storage, retrieval and
dissemination to users of information about the quality and quantity of
available water resources at the level of catchments and groundwater aquifers
in an integrated manner;
(e) To have sufficient numbers of appropriately qualified and capable
staff recruited and retained by water resources assessment agencies and
provided with the training and retraining they will need to carry out their
responsibilities successfully.
18.26. All States, according to their capacity and available resources, and
through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including cooperation with the
United Nations and other relevant organizations, as appropriate, could set the
following targets:
(a) By the year 2000, to have studied in detail the feasibility of
installing water resources assessment services;
(b) As a long-term target, to have fully operational services available
based upon high-density hydrometric networks.
Activities
18.27. All States, according to their capacity and available resources, and
through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United Nations and
other relevant organizations as appropriate, could undertake the following
activities:
(a) Institutional framework:
(i) Establish appropriate policy frameworks and national priorities;
(ii) Establish and strengthen the institutional capabilities of countries,
including legislative and regulatory arrangements, that are required
to ensure the adequate assessment of their water resources and the
provision of flood and drought forecasting services;
(iii) Establish and maintain effective cooperation at the national level
between the various agencies responsible for the collection, storage
and analysis of hydrologic data;
(iv) Cooperate in the assessment of transboundary water resources, subject
to the prior agreement of each riparian State concerned;
(b) Data systems:
(i) Review existing data-collection networks and assess their adequacy,
including those that provide real-time data for flood and drought
forecasting;
(ii) Improve networks to meet accepted guidelines for the provision of
data on water quantity and quality for surface and groundwater, as
well as relevant land-use data;
(iii) Apply standards and other means to ensure data compatibility;
(iv) Upgrade facilities and procedures used to store, process and analyse
hydrologic data and make such data and the forecasts derived from
them available to potential users;
(v) Establish databases on the availability of all types of hydrologic
data at the national level;
(vi) Implement "data rescue" operations, for example, establishment of
national archives of water resources;
(vii) Implement appropriate well-tried techniques for the processing of
hydrologic data;
(viii) Derive area-related estimates from point hydrologic data;
(ix) Assimilate remotely sensed data and the use, where appropriate, of
geographical information systems;
(c) Data dissemination:
(i) Identify the need for water resources data for various planning
purposes;
(ii) Analyse and present data and information on water resources in the
forms required for planning and management of countries'
socio-economic development and for use in environmental protection
strategies and in the design and operation of specific water-related
projects;
(iii) Provide forecasts and warnings of flood and drought to the general
public and civil defence;
(d) Research and development:
(i) Establish or strengthen research and development programmes at the
national, subregional, regional and international levels in support
of water resources assessment activities;
(ii) Monitor research and development activities to ensure that they make
full use of local expertise and other local resources and that they
are appropriate for the needs of the country or countries concerned.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
18.28. The Conference secretariat has estimated the everage total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$355 million, including about $145 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
18.29. Important research needs include (a) development of global hydrologic
models in support of analysis of climate change impact and of macroscale water
resources assessment; (b) closing of the gap between terrestrial hydrology and
ecology at different scales, including the critical water-related processes
behind loss of vegetation and land degradation and its restoration; and
(c) study of the key processes in water-quality genesis, closing the gap
between hydrologic flows and biogeochemical processes. The research models
should build upon hydrologic balance studies and also include the consumptive
use of water. This approach should also, when appropriate, be applied at the
catchment level.
18.30. Water resources assessment necessitates the strengthening of existing
systems for technology transfer, adaptation and diffusion, and the development
of new technology for use under field conditions, as well as the development of
endogenous capacity. Prior to inaugurating the above activities, it is
necessary to prepare catalogues of the water resources information held by
government services, the private sector, educational institutes, consultants,
local water-use organizations and others.
(c) Human resource development
18.31. Water resources assessment requires the establishment and maintenance
of a body of well-trained and motivated staff sufficient in number to undertake
the above activities. Education and training programmes designed to ensure an
adequate supply of these trained personnel should be established or
strengthened at the local, national, subregional or regional level. In
addition, the provision of attractive terms of employment and career paths forprofessional and technical staff should be encouraged. Human resource needs
should be monitored periodically, including all levels of employment. Plans
have to be established to meet those needs through education and training
opportunities and international programmes of courses and conferences.
18.32. Because well-trained people are particularly important to water
resources assessment and hydrologic forecasting, personnel matters should
receive special attention in this area. The aim should be to attract and
retain personnel to work on water resources assessment who are sufficient in
number and adequate in their level of education to ensure the effective
implementation of the activities that are planned. Education may be called for
at both the national and the international level, with adequate terms of
employment being a national responsibility.
18.33. Recommended actions include:
(a) Identifying education and training needs geared to the specific
requirements of countries;
(b) Establishing and strengthening education and training programmes on
water-related topics, within an environmental and developmental context, for
all categories of staff involved in water resources assessment activities,
using advanced educational technology, where appropriate, and involving both
men and women;
(c) Developing sound recruitment, personnel and pay policies for staff of
national and local water agencies.
(d) Capacity-building
18.34. The conduct of water resources assessment on the basis of operational
national hydrometric networks requires an enabling environment at all levels.
The following national support action is necessary for enhanced national
capacities:
(a) Review of the legislative and regulatory basis of water resources
assessment;
(b) Facilitation of close collaboration among water sector agencies,
particularly between information producers and users;
(c) Implementation of water management policies based upon realistic
appraisals of water resources conditions and trends;
(d) Strengthening of the managerial capabilities of water-user groups,
including women, youth, indigenous people and local communities, to improve
water-use efficiency at the local level.
C. Protection of water resources, water
quality and aquatic ecosystems
Basis for action
18.35. Freshwater is a unitary resource. Long-term development of global
freshwater requires holistic management of resources and a recognition of the
interconnectedness of the elements related to freshwater and freshwater
quality. There are few regions of the world that are still exempt from
problems of loss of potential sources of freshwater supply, degraded water
quality and pollution of surface and groundwater sources. Major problems
affecting the water quality of rivers and lakes arise, in variable order of
importance according to different situations, from inadequately treated
domestic sewage, inadequate controls on the discharges of industrial waste
waters, loss and destruction of catchment areas, ill-considered siting of
industrial plants, deforestation, uncontrolled shifting cultivation and poor
agricultural practices. This gives rise to the leaching of nutrients and
pesticides. Aquatic ecosystems are disturbed and living freshwater resources
are threatened. Under certain circumstances, aquatic ecosystems are also
affected by agricultural water resource development projects such as dams,
river diversions, water installations and irrigation schemes. Erosion,
sedimentation, deforestation and desertification have led to increased land
degradation, and the creation of reservoirs has, in some cases, resulted in
adverse effects on ecosystems. Many of these problems have arisen from a
development model that is environmentally destructive and from a lack of public
awareness and education about surface and groundwater resource protection.
Ecological and human health effects are the measurable consequences, although
the means to monitor them are inadequate or non-existent in many countries.
There is a widespread lack of perception of the linkages between the
development, management, use and treatment of water resources and aquatic
ecosystems. A preventive approach, where appropriate, is crucial to the
avoiding of costly subsequent measures to rehabilitate, treat and develop new
water supplies.
Objectives
18.36. The complex interconnectedness of freshwater systems demands that
freshwater management be holistic (taking a catchment management approach) and
based on a balanced consideration of the needs of people and the environment.
The Mar del Plata Action Plan has already recognized the intrinsic linkage
between water resource development projects and their significant physical,
chemical, biological, health and socio-economic repercussions. The overall
environmental health objective was set as follows: "to evaluate the
consequences which the various users of water have on the environment, to
support measures aimed at controlling water-related diseases, and to protect
ecosystems". 1/
18.37. The extent and severity of contamination of unsaturated zones and
aquifers have long been underestimated owing to the relative inaccessibility of
aquifers and the lack of reliable information on aquifer systems. Theprotection of groundwater is therefore an essential element of water resource
management.
18.38. Three objectives will have to be pursued concurrently to integrate
water-quality elements into water resource management:
(a) Maintenance of ecosystem integrity, according to a management
principle of preserving aquatic ecosystems, including living resources, and of
effectively protecting them from any form of degradation on a drainage basin
basis;
(b) Public health protection, a task requiring not only the provision of
safe drinking-water but also the control of disease vectors in the aquatic
environment;
(c) Human resources development, a key to capacity-building and a
prerequisite for implementing water-quality management.
18.39. All States, according to their capacity and available resources,
through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United Nations and
other relevant organizations as appropriate, could set the following targets:
(a) To identify the surface and groundwater resources that could be
developed for use on a sustainable basis and other major developable
water-dependent resources and, simultaneously, to initiate programmes for the
protection, conservation and rational use of these resources on a sustainable
basis;
(b) To identify all potential sources of water-supply and prepared
outlines for their protection, conservation and rational use;
(c) To initiate effective water pollution prevention and control
programmes, based on an appropriate mixture of pollution reduction-at-source
strategies, environmental impact assessments and enforceable standards for
major point-source discharges and high-risk non-point sources, commensurate
with their socio-economic development;
(d) To participate, as far as appropriate, in international water-quality
monitoring and management programmes such as the Global Water Quality
Monitoring Programme (GEMS/WATER), the UNEP Environmentally Sound Management of
Inland Waters (EMINWA), the FAO regional inland fishery bodies, and the
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl
Habitat (Ramsar Convention);
(e) To reduce the prevalence of water-associated diseases, starting with
the eradication of dracunculiasis (guinea worm disease) and onchocerciasis
(river blindness) by the year 2000;
(f) To establish, according to capacities and needs, biological, health,
physical and chemical quality criteria for all water bodies (surface and
groundwater), with a view to an ongoing improvement of water quality;
(g) To adopt an integrated approach to environmentally sustainable
management of water resources, including the protection of aquatic ecosystems
and freshwater living resources;
(h) To put in place strategies for the environmentally sound management
of freshwaters and related coastal ecosystems, including consideration of
fisheries, aquaculture, animal grazing, agricultural activities and
biodiversity.
Activities
18.40. All States, according to their capacity and available resources, and
through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including United Nations and
other relevant organizations as appropriate, could implement the following
activities:
(a) Water resources protection and conservation:
(i) Establishment and strengthening of technical and institutional
capacities to identify and protect potential sources of water-supply
within all sectors of society;
(ii) Identification of potential sources of water-supply and preparation
of national profiles;
(iii) Preparation of national plans for water resources protection and
conservation;
(iv) Rehabilitation of important, but degraded, catchment areas,
particularly on small islands;
(v) Strengthening of administrative and legislative measures to prevent
encroachment on existing and potentially usable catchment areas;
(b) Water pollution prevention and control:
(i) Application of the "polluter pays" principle, where appropriate, to
all kinds of sources, including on-site and off-site sanitation;
(ii) Promotion of the construction of treatment facilities for domestic
sewage and industrial effluents and the development of appropriate
technologies, taking into account sound traditional and indigenous
practices;
(iii) Establishment of standards for the discharge of effluents and for the
receiving waters;
(iv) Introduction of the precautionary approach in water-quality
management, where appropriate, with a focus on pollution minimization
and prevention through use of new technologies, product and process
change, pollution reduction at source and effluent reuse, recycling
and recovery, treatment and environmentally safe disposal;
(v) Mandatory environmental impact assessment of all major water resource
development projects potentially impairing water quality and aquatic
ecosystems, combined with the delineation of appropriate remedial
measures and a strengthened control of new industrial installations,
solid waste landfills and infrastructure development projects;
(vi) Use of risk assessment and risk management in reaching decisions in
this area and ensuring compliance with those decisions;
(vii) Identification and application of best environmental practices at
reasonable cost to avoid diffuse pollution, namely, through a
limited, rational and planned use of nitrogenous fertilizers and
other agrochemicals (pesticides, herbicides) in agricultural
practices;
(viii) Encouragement and promotion of the use of adequately treated and
purified waste waters in agriculture, aquaculture, industry and other
sectors;
(c) Development and application of clean technology:
(i) Control of industrial waste discharges, including low-waste
production technologies and water recirculation, in an integrated
manner and through application of precautionary measures derived from
a broad-based life-cycle analysis;
(ii) Treatment of municipal waste water for safe reuse in agriculture and
aquaculture;
(iii) Development of biotechnology, inter alia, for waste treatment,
production of biofertilizers and other activities;
(iv) Development of appropriate methods for water pollution control,
taking into account sound traditional and indigenous practices;
(d) Groundwater protection:
(i) Development of agricultural practices that do not degrade
groundwaters;
(ii) Application of the necessary measures to mitigate saline intrusion
into aquifers of small islands and coastal plains as a consequence of
sealevel rise or overexploitation of coastal aquifers;
(iii) Prevention of aquifer pollution through the regulation of toxic
substances that permeate the ground and the establishment of
protection zones in groundwater recharge and abstraction areas;
(iv) Design and management of landfills based upon sound hydrogeologic
information and impact assessment, using the best practicable and
best available technology;
(v) Promotion of measures to improve the safety and integrity of wells
and well-head areas to reduce intrusion of biological pathogens and
hazardous chemicals into aquifers at well sites;
(vi) Water-quality monitoring, as needed, of surface and groundwaters
potentially affected by sites storing toxic and hazardous materials;
(e) Protection of aquatic ecosystems:
(i) Rehabilitation of polluted and degraded water bodies to restore
aquatic habitats and ecosystems;
(ii) Rehabilitation programmes for agricultural lands and for other users,
taking into account equivalent action for the protection and use of
groundwater resources important for agricultural productivity and for
the biodiversity of the tropics;
(iii) Conservation and protection of wetlands (owing to their ecological
and habitat importance for many species), taking into account social
and economic factors;
(iv) Control of noxious aquatic species that may destroy some other water
species;
(f) Protection of freshwater living resources:
(i) Control and monitoring of water quality to allow for the sustainable
development of inland fisheries;
(ii) Protection of ecosystems from pollution and degradation for the
development of freshwater aquaculture projects;
(g) Monitoring and surveillance of water resources and waters receiving
wastes:
(i) Establishment of networks for the monitoring and continuous
surveillance of waters receiving wastes and of point and diffuse
sources of pollution;
(ii) Promotion and extension of the application of environmental impact
assessments of geographical information systems;
(iii) Surveillance of pollution sources to improve compliance with
standards and regulations and to regulate the issue of discharge
permits;
(iv) Monitoring of the utilization of chemicals in agriculture that may
have an adverse environmental effect;
(v) Rational land use to prevent land degradation, erosion and siltation
of lakes and other water bodies;
(h) Development of national and international legal instruments that may
be required to protect the quality of water resources, as appropriate,
particularly for:
(i) Monitoring and control of pollution and its effects in national and
transboundary waters;
(ii) Control of long-range atmospheric transport of pollutants;
(iii) Control of accidental and/or deliberate spills in national and/or
transboundary water bodies;
(iv) Environmental impact assessment.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
18.41. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$1 billion, including about $340 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
18.42. States should undertake cooperative research projects to develop
solutions to technical problems that are appropriate for the conditions in each
watershed or country. States should consider strengthening and developing
national research centres linked through networks and supported by regional
water research institutes. The North-South twinning of research centres and
field studies by international water research institutions should be actively
promoted. It is important that a minimum percentage of funds for water
resource development projects is allocated to research and development,
particularly in externally funded projects.
18.43. Monitoring and assessment of complex aquatic systems often require
multidisciplinary studies involving several institutions and scientists in a
joint programme. International water-quality programmes, such as GEMS/WATER,
should be oriented towards the water-quality of developing countries.
User-friendly software and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Global
Resource Information Database (GRID) methods should be developed for the
handling, analysis and interpretation of monitoring data and for the
preparation of management strategies.
(c) Human resource development
18.44. Innovative approaches should be adopted for professional and managerial
staff training in order to cope with changing needs and challenges.
Flexibility and adaptability regarding emerging water pollution issues should
be developed. Training activities should be undertaken periodically at all
levels within the organizations responsible for water-quality management and
innovative teaching techniques adopted for specific aspects of water-quality
monitoring and control, including development of training skills, in-service
training, problem-solving workshops and refresher training courses.
18.45. Suitable approaches include the strengthening and improvement of the
human resource capabilities of local Governments in managing water protection,
treatment and use, particularly in urban areas, and the establishment of
national and regional technical and engineering courses on the subjects of
water-quality protection and control at existing schools and education/training
courses on water resources protection and conservation for laboratory and field
technicians, women and other water-user groups.
(d) Capacity-building
18.46. The effective protection of water resources and ecosystems from
pollution requires considerable upgrading of most countries' present
capacities. Water-quality management programmes require a certain minimum
infrastructure and staff to identify and implement technical solutions and to
enforce regulatory action. One of the key problems today and for the future is
the sustained operation and maintenance of these facilities. In order not to
allow resources gained from previous investments to deteriorate further,
immediate action is required in a number of areas.
D. Drinking-water supply and sanitation
Basis for action
18.47. Safe water-supplies and environmental sanitation are vital for
protecting the environment, improving health and alleviating poverty. Safe
water is also crucial to many traditional and cultural activities. An
estimated 80 per cent of all diseases and over one third of deaths in
developing countries are caused by the consumption of contaminated water, and
on average as much as one tenth of each person's productive time is sacrificedto water-related diseases. Concerted efforts during the 1980s brought water
and sanitation services to hundreds of millions of the world's poorest people.
The most outstanding of these efforts was the launching in 1981 of the
International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade, which resulted from
the Mar del Plata Action Plan adopted by the United Nations Water Conference in
1977. The commonly agreed premise was that "all peoples, whatever their stage
of development and their social and economic conditions, have the right to have
access to drinking water in quantities and of a quality equal to their basic
needs". 2/ The target of the Decade was to provide safe drinking-water and
sanitation to underserved urban and rural areas by 1990, but even the
unprecedented progress achieved during the Decade was not enough. One in three
people in the developing world still lacks these two most basic requirements
for health and dignity. It is also recognized that human excreta and sewage
are important causes of the deterioration of water-quality in developing
countries, and the introduction of available technologies, including
appropriate technologies, and the construction of sewage treatment facilities
could bring significant improvement.
Objectives
18.48. The New Delhi Statement (adopted at the Global Consultation on Safe
Water and Sanitation for the 1990s, which was held in New Delhi from 10 to
14 September 1990) formalized the need to provide, on a sustainable basis,
access to safe water in sufficient quantities and proper sanitation for all,
emphasizing the "some for all rather than more for some" approach. Four
guiding principles provide for the programme objectives:
(a) Protection of the environment and safeguarding of health through the
integrated management of water resources and liquid and solid wastes;
(b) Institutional reforms promoting an integrated approach and including
changes in procedures, attitudes and behaviour, and the full participation of
women at all levels in sector institutions;
(c) Community management of services, backed by measures to strengthen
local institutions in implementing and sustaining water and sanitation
programmes;
(d) Sound financial practices, achieved through better management of
existing assets, and widespread use of appropriate technologies.
18.49. Past experience has shown that specific targets should be set by each
individual country. At the World Summit for Children, in September 1990, heads
of State or Government called for both universal access to water-supply and
sanitation and the eradication of guinea worm disease by 1995. Even for the
more realistic target of achieving full coverage in water-supply by 2025, it is
estimated that annual investments must reach double the current levels. One
realistic strategy to meet present and future needs, therefore, is to develop
lower-cost but adequate services that can be implemented and sustained at the
community level.
Activities
18.50. All States, according to their capacity and available resources, and
through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United Nations and
other relevant organizations as appropriate, could implement the following
activities:
(a) Environment and health:
(i) Establishment of protected areas for sources of drinking-water
supply;
(ii) Sanitary disposal of excreta and sewage, using appropriate systems to
treat waste waters in urban and rural areas;
(iii) Expansion of urban and rural water-supply and development and
expansion of rainwater catchment systems, particularly on small
islands, in addition to the reticulated water-supply system;
(iv) Building and expansion, where appropriate, of sewage treatment
facilities and drainage systems;
(v) Treatment and safe reuse of domestic and industrial waste waters in
urban and rural areas;
(vi) Control of water-associated diseases;
(b) People and institutions:
(i) Strengthening of the functioning of Governments in water resources
management and, at the same time, giving of full recognition to the
role of local authorities;
(ii) Encouragement of water development and management based on a
participatory approach, involving users, planners and policy makers
at all levels;
(iii) Application of the principle that decisions are to be taken at the
lowest appropriate level, with public consultation and involvement of
users in the planning and implementation of water projects;
(iv) Human resource development at all levels, including special
programmes for women;
(v) Broad-based education programmes, with particular emphasis on
hygiene, local management and risk reduction;
(vi) International support mechanisms for programme funding,
implementation and follow-up;
(c) National and community management:
(i) Support and assistance to communities in managing their own systems
on a sustainable basis;
(ii) Encouragement of the local population, especially women, youth,
indigenous people and local communities, in water management;
(iii) Linkages between national water plans and community management of
local waters;
(iv) Integration of community management of water within the context of
overall planning;
(v) Promotion of primary health and environmental care at the local
level, including training for local communities in appropriate water
management techniques and primary health care;
(vi) Assistance to service agencies in becoming more cost-effective and
responsive to consumer needs;
(vii) Providing of more attention to underserved rural and low-income
periurban areas;
(viii) Rehabilitation of defective systems, reduction of wastage and safe
reuse of water and waste water;
(ix) Programmes for rational water use and ensured operation and
maintenance;
(x) Research and development of appropriate technical solutions;
(xi) Substantially increase urban treatment capacity commensurate with
increasing loads;
(d) Awareness creation and public information/participation:
(i) Strengthening of sector monitoring and information management at
subnational and national levels;
(ii) Annual processing, analysis and publication of monitoring results at
national and local levels as a sector management and
advocacy/awareness creation tool;
(iii) Use of limited sector indicators at regional and global levels to
promote the sector and raise funds;
(iv) Improvement of sector coordination, planning and implementation, with
the assistance of improved monitoring and information management, to
increase the sector's absorptive capacity, particularly in
community-based self-help projects.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
18.51. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$20 billion, including about $7.4 billion from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
18.52. To ensure the feasibility, acceptability and sustainability of planned
water-supply services, adopted technologies should be responsive to the needs
and constraints imposed by the conditions of the community concerned. Thus,
design criteria will involve technical, health, social, economic, provincial,
institutional and environmental factors that determine the characteristics,
magnitude and cost of the planned system. Relevant international support
programmes should address the developing countries concerning, inter alia:
(a) Pursuit of low-cost scientific and technological means, as far as
practicable;
(b) Utilization of traditional and indigenous practices, as far as
practicable, to maximize and sustain local involvement;
(c) Assistance to country-level technical/scientific institutes to
facilitate curricula development to support fields critical to the water and
sanitation sector.
(c) Human resource development
18.53. To effectively plan and manage water-supply and sanitation at the
national, provincial, district and community level, and to utilize funds most
effectively, trained professional and technical staff must be developed within
each country in sufficient numbers. To do this, countries must establish
manpower development plans, taking into consideration present requirements and
planned developments. Subsequently, the development and performance of
country-level training institutions should be enhanced so that they can play a
pivotal role in capacity-building. It is also important that countries provide
adequate training for women in the sustainable maintenance of equipment, water
resources management and environmental sanitation.
(d) Capacity-building
18.54. The implementation of water-supply and sanitation programmes is a
national responsibility. To varying degrees, responsibility for the
implementation of projects and the operating of systems should be delegated toall administrative levels down to the community and individual served. This
also means that national authorities, together with the agencies and bodies of
the United Nations system and other external support agencies providing support
to national programmes, should develop mechanisms and procedures to collaborate
at all levels. This is particularly important if full advantage is to be taken
of community-based approaches and self-reliance as tools for sustainability.
This will entail a high degree of community participation, involving women, in
the conception, planning, decision-making, implementation and evaluation
connected with projects for domestic water-supply and sanitation.
18.55. Overall national capacity-building at all administrative levels,
involving institutional development, coordination, human resources, community
participation, health and hygiene education and literacy, has to be developed
according to its fundamental connection both with any efforts to improve health
and socio-economic development through water-supply and sanitation and with
their impact on the human environment. Capacity-building should therefore be
one of the underlying keys in implementation strategies. Institutional
capacity-building should be considered to have an importance equal to that of
the sector supplies and equipment component so that funds can be directed to
both. This can be undertaken at the planning or programme/project formulation
stage, accompanied by a clear definition of objectives and targets. In this
regard, technical cooperation among developing countries owing to their
available wealth of information and experience and the need to avoid
"reinventing the wheel", is crucial. Such a course has proved cost-effective
in many country projects already.
E. Water and sustainable urban development
Basis for action
18.56. Early in the next century, more than half of the world's population
will be living in urban areas. By the year 2025, that proportion will have
risen to 60 per cent, comprising some 5 billion people. Rapid urban population
growth and industrialization are putting severe strains on the water resources
and environmental protection capabilities of many cities. Special attention
needs to be given to the growing effects of urbanization on water demands and
usage and to the critical role played by local and municipal authorities in
managing the supply, use and overall treatment of water, particularly in
developing countries for which special support is needed. Scarcity of
freshwater resources and the escalating costs of developing new resources have
a considerable impact on national industrial, agricultural and human settlement
development and economic growth. Better management of urban water resources,
including the elimination of unsustainable consumption patterns, can make a
substantial contribution to the alleviation of poverty and improvement of the
health and quality of life of the urban and rural poor. A high proportion of
large urban agglomerations are located around estuaries and in coastal zones.
Such an arrangement leads to pollution frommunicipal and industrial discharges combined with overexploitation of available
water resources and threatens the marine environment and the supply of
freshwater resources.
Objectives
18.57. The development objective of this programme is to support local and
central Governments' efforts and capacities to sustain national development and
productivity through environmentally sound management of water resources for
urban use. Supporting this objective is the identification and implementation
of strategies and actions to ensure the continued supply of affordable water
for present and future needs and to reverse current trends of resource
degradation and depletion.
18.58. All States, according to their capacity and available resources, and
through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United Nations and
other relevant organizations as appropriate, could set the following targets:
(a) By the year 2000, to have ensured that all urban residents have
access to at least 40 litres per capita per day of safe water and that
75 per cent of the urban population are provided with on-site or community
facilities for sanitation;
(b) By the year 2000, to have established and applied quantitative and
qualitative discharge standards for municipal and industrial effluents;
(c) By the year 2000, to have ensured that 75 per cent of solid waste
generated in urban areas are collected and recycled or disposed of in an
environmentally safe way.
Activities
18.59. All States, according to their capacity and available resources, and
through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United Nations and
other relevant organizations as appropriate, could implement the following
activities:
(a) Protection of water resources from depletion, pollution and
degradation:
(i) Introduction of sanitary waste disposal facilities based on
environmentally sound low-cost and upgradable technologies;
(ii) Implementation of urban storm-water run-off and drainage programmes;
(iii) Promotion of recycling and reuse of waste water and solid wastes;
(iv) Control of industrial pollution sources to protect water resources;
(v) Protection of watersheds with respect to depletion and degradation of
their forest cover and from harmful upstream activities;
(vi) Promotion of research into the contribution of forests to sustainable
water resources development;
(vii) Encouragement of the best management practices for the use of
agrochemicals with a view to minimizing their impact on water
resources;
(b) Efficient and equitable allocation of water resources:
(i) Reconciliation of city development planning with the availability and
sustainability of water resources;
(ii) Satisfaction of the basic water needs of the urban population;
(iii) Introduction of water tariffs, taking into account the circumstances
in each country and where affordable, that reflect the marginal and
opportunity cost of water, especially for productive activities;
(c) Institutional/legal/management reforms:
(i) Adoption of a city-wide approach to the management of water
resources;
(ii) Promotion at the national and local level of the elaboration of
land-use plans that give due consideration to water resources
development;
(iii) Utilization of the skills and potential of non-governmental
organizations, the private sector and local people, taking into
account the public's and strategic interests in water resources;
(d) Promotion of public participation:
(i) Initiation of public-awareness campaigns to encourage the public's
move towards rational water utilization;
(ii) Sensitization of the public to the issue of protecting water quality
within the urban environment;
(iii) Promotion of public participation in the collection, recycling and
elimination of wastes;
(e) Support to local capacity-building:
(i) Development of legislation and policies to promote investments in
urban water and waste management, reflecting the major contribution
of cities to national economic development;
(ii) Provision of seed money and technical support to the local handling
of materials supply and services;
(iii) Encouragement, to the extent possible, of autonomy and financial
viability of city water, solid waste and sewerage utilities;
(iv) Creation and maintenance of a cadre of professionals and
semi-professionals, for water, waste-water and solid waste
management;
(f) Provision of enhanced access to sanitary services:
(i) Implementation of water, sanitation and waste management programmes
focused on the urban poor;
(ii) Making available of low-cost water-supply and sanitation technology
choices;
(iii) Basing of choice of technology and service levels on user preferences
and willingness to pay;
(iv) Mobilization and facilitation of the active involvement of women in
water management teams;
(v) Encouragement and equipment of local water associations and water
committees to manage community water-supply systems and communal
latrines, with technical back-up available when required;
(vi) Consideration of the merits and practicality of rehabilitating
existing malfunctioning systems and of correcting operation and
maintenance inadequacies.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
18.60. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$20 billion, including about $4.5 billion from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
18.61. The 1980s saw considerable progress in the development and application
of low-cost water-supply and sanitation technologies. The programme envisages
continuation of this work, with particular emphasis on development ofappropriate sanitation and waste disposal technologies for low-income
high-density urban settlements. There should also be international information
exchange, to ensure a widespread recognition among sector professionals of the
availability and benefits of appropriate low-cost technologies. The
public-awareness campaigns will also include components to overcome user
resistance to second-class services by emphasizing the benefits of reliability
and sustainability.
(c) Human resource development
18.62. Implicit in virtually all elements of this programme is the need for
progressive enhancement of the training and career development of personnel at
all levels in sector institutions. Specific programme activities will involve
the training and retention of staff with skills in community involvement,
low-cost technology, financial management, and integrated planning of urban
water resources management. Special provision should be made for mobilizing
and facilitating the active participation of women, youth, indigenous people
and local communities in water management teams and for supporting the
development of water associations and water committees, with appropriate
training of such personnel as treasurers, secretaries and caretakers. Special
education and training programmes for women should be launched with regard to
the protection of water resources and water-quality within urban areas.
(d) Capacity-building
18.63. In combination with human resource development, strengthening of
institutional, legislative and management structures are key elements of the
programme. A prerequisite for progress in enhancing access to water and
sanitation services is the establishment of an institutional framework that
ensures that the real needs and potential contributions of currently unserved
populations are reflected in urban development planning. The multisectoral
approach, which is a vital part of urban water resources management, requires
institutional linkages at the national and city levels, and the programme
includes proposals for establishing intersectoral planning groups. Proposals
for greater pollution control and prevention depend for their success on the
right combination of economic and regulatory mechanisms, backed by adequate
monitoring and surveillance and supported by enhanced capacity to address
environmental issues on the part of local Governments.
18.64. Establishment of appropriate design standards, water-quality objectives
and discharge consents is therefore among the proposed activities. The
programme also includes support for strengthening the capability of water and
sewerage agencies and for developing their autonomy and financial viability.
Operation and maintenance of existing water and sanitation facilities have been
recognized as entailing a serious shortcoming in many countries. Technical and
financial support are needed to help countries correct present inadequacies and
build up the capacity to operate and maintain rehabilitated and new systems.
F. Water for sustainable food production and rural development
Basis for action
18.65. Sustainability of food production increasingly depends on sound and
efficient water use and conservation practices consisting primarily of
irrigation development and management, including water management with respect
to rain-fed areas, livestock water-supply, inland fisheries and agro-forestry.
Achieving food security is a high priority in many countries, and agriculture
must not only provide food for rising populations, but also save water for
other uses. The challenge is to develop and apply water-saving technology and
management methods and, through capacity-building, enable communities to
introduce institutions and incentives for the rural population to adopt new
approaches, for both rain-fed and irrigated agriculture. The rural population
must also have better access to a potable water-supply and to sanitation
services. It is an immense task but not an impossible one, provided
appropriate policies and programmes are adopted at all levels - local, national
and international. While significant expansion of the area under rain-fed
agriculture has been achieved during the past decade, the productivity response
and sustainability of irrigation systems have been constrained by problems of
waterlogging and salinization. Financial and market constraints are also a
common problem. Soil erosion, mismanagement and overexploitation of natural
resources and acute competition for water have all influenced the extent of
poverty, hunger and famine in the developing countries. Soil erosion caused by
overgrazing of livestock is also often responsible for the siltation of lakes.
Most often, the development of irrigation schemes is supported neither by
environmental impact assessments identifying hydrologic consequences within
watersheds of interbasin transfers, nor by the assessment of social impacts on
peoples in river valleys.
18.66. The non-availability of water-supplies of suitable quality is a
significant limiting factor to livestock production in many countries, and
improper disposal of animal wastes can in certain circumstances result in
pollution of water-supplies for both humans and animals. The drinking-water
requirements of livestock vary according to species and the environment in
which they are kept. It is estimated that the current global livestock
drinking-water requirement is about 60 billion litres per day and based on
livestock population growth estimates, this daily requirement is predicted to
increase by 0.4 billion litres per annum in the foreseeable future.
18.67. Freshwater fisheries in lakes and streams are an important source of
food and protein. Fisheries of inland waters should be so managed as to
maximize the yield of aquatic food organisms in an environmentally sound
manner. This requires the conservation of water-quality and quantity, as well
as of the functional morphology of the aquatic environment. On the other hand,
fishing and aquaculture may themselves damage the aquatic ecosystem; hence
their development should conform to guidelines for impact limitation. Present
levels of production from inland fisheries, from both fresh and brackish water,
are about 7 million tons per year and could increase to 16 million tons per
year by the year 2000; however, any increase in environmental stress could
jeopardize this rise.
Objectives
18.68. The key strategic principles for holistic and integrated
environmentally sound management of water resources in the rural context may be
set forth as follows:
(a) Water should be regarded as a finite resource having an economic
value with significant social and economic implications reflecting the
importance of meeting basic needs;
(b) Local communities must participate in all phases of water management,
ensuring the full involvement of women in view of their crucial role in the
practical day-to-day supply, management and use of water;
(c) Water resource management must be developed within a comprehensive
set of policies for (i) human health; (ii) food production, preservation and
distribution; (iii) disaster mitigation plans; (iv) environmental protection
and conservation of the natural resource base;
(d) It is necessary to recognize and actively support the role of rural
populations, with particular emphasis on women.
18.69. An International Action Programme on Water and Sustainable Agricultural
Development (IAP-WASAD) has been initiated by FAO in cooperation with other
international organizations. The main objective of the Action Programme is to
assist developing countries in planning, developing and managing water
resources on an integrated basis to meet present and future needs for
agricultural production, taking into account environmental considerations.
18.70. The Action Programme has developed a framework for sustainable water
use in the agricultural sector and identified priority areas for action at
national, regional and global levels. Quantitative targets for new irrigation
development, improvement of existing irrigation schemes and reclamation of
waterlogged and salinized lands through drainage for 130 developing countries
are estimated on the basis of food requirements, agro-climatic zones and
availability of water and land.
18.71. FAO global projections for irrigation, drainage and small-scale water
programmes by the year 2000 for 130 developing countries are as follows:
(a) 15.2 million hectares of new irrigation development; (b) 12 million
hectares of improvement/modernization of existing schemes; (c) 7 million
hectares installed with drainage and water control facilities; and
(d) 10 million hectares of small-scale water programmes and conservation.
18.72. The development of new irrigation areas at the above-mentioned level
may give rise to environmental concerns in so far as it implies the destruction
of wetlands, water pollution, increased sedimentation and a reduction in
biodiversity. Therefore, new irrigation schemes should be accompanied by an
environmental impact assessment, depending upon the scale of the scheme, in
case significant negative environmental impacts are expected. When considering proposals for new irrigation schemes, consideration should
also be given to a more rational exploitation, and an increase in the
efficiency or productivity, of any existing schemes capable of serving the same
localities. Technologies for new irrigation schemes should be thoroughly
evaluated, including their potential conflicts with other land uses. The
active involvement of water-users groups is a supporting objective.
18.73. It should be ensured that rural communities of all countries, according
to their capacities and available resources and taking advantage of
international cooperation as appropriate, will have access to safe water in
sufficient quantities and adequate sanitation to meet their health needs and
maintain the essential qualities of their local environments.
18.74. The objectives with regard to water management for inland fisheries and
aquaculture include conservation of water-quality and water-quantity
requirements for optimum production and prevention of water pollution by
aquacultural activities. The Action Programme seeks to assist member countries
in managing the fisheries of inland waters through the promotion of sustainable
management of capture fisheries as well as the development of environmentally
sound approaches to intensification of aquaculture.
18.75. The objectives with regard to water management for livestock supply are
twofold: provision of adequate amounts of drinking-water and safeguarding of
drinking-water quality in accordance with the specific needs of different
animal species. This entails maximum salinity tolerance levels and the absence
of pathogenic organisms. No global targets can be set owing to large regional
and intra-country variations.
Activities
18.76. All States, according to their capacity and available resources, and
through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United Nations and
other relevant organizations as appropriate, could implement the following
activities:
(a) Water-supply and sanitation for the unserved rural poor:
(i) Establish national policies and budget priorities with regard to
increasing service coverage;
(ii) Promote appropriate technologies;
(iii) Introduce suitable cost-recovery mechanisms, taking into account
efficiency and equity through demand management mechanisms;
(iv) Promote community ownership and rights to water-supply and sanitation
facilities;
(v) Establish monitoring and evaluation systems;
(vi) Strengthen the rural water-supply and sanitation sector with emphasis
on institutional development, efficient management and an appropriate
framework for financing of services;
(vii) Increase hygiene education and eliminate disease transmission foci;
(viii) Adopt appropriate technologies for water treatment;
(ix) Adopt wide-scale environmental management measures to control disease
vectors;
(b) Water-use efficiency:
(i) Increase of efficiency and productivity in agricultural water use for
better utilization of limited water resources;
(ii) Strengthen water and soil management research under irrigation and
rain-fed conditions;
(iii) Monitor and evaluate irrigation project performance to ensure,
inter alia, the optimal utilization and proper maintenance of the
project;
(iv) Support water-users groups with a view to improving management
performance at the local level;
(v) Support the appropriate use of relatively brackish water for
irrigation;
(c) Waterlogging, salinity control and drainage:
(i) Introduce surface drainage in rain-fed agriculture to prevent
temporary waterlogging and flooding of lowlands;
(ii) Introduce artificial drainage in irrigated and rain-fed agriculture;
(iii) Encourage conjunctive use of surface and groundwaters, including
monitoring and water-balance studies;
(iv) Practise drainage in irrigated areas of arid and semi-arid regions;
(d) Water-quality management:
(i) Establish and operate cost-effective water-quality monitoring systems
for agricultural water uses;
(ii) Prevent adverse effects of agricultural activities on water-quality
for other social and economic activities and on wetlands, inter alia,
through optimal use of on-farm input and the minimization of the use
of external input in agricultural activities;
(iii) Establish biological, physical and chemical water-quality criteria
for agricultural water-users and for marine and riverine ecosystems;
(iv) Minimize soil run-off and sedimentation;
(v) Dispose properly of sewage from human settlements and of manure
produced by intensive livestock breeding;
(vi) Minimize adverse effects from agricultural chemicals by use of
integrated pest management;
(vii) Educate communities about the pollution-related impacts of the use of
fertilizers and chemicals on water-quality, food safety and human
health;
(e) Water resources development programmes:
(i) Develop small-scale irrigation and water-supply for humans and
livestock and for water and soil conservation;
(ii) Formulate large-scale and long-term irrigation development
programmes, taking into account their effects on the local level, the
economy and the environment;
(iii) Promote local initiatives for the integrated development and
management of water resources;
(iv) Provide adequate technical advice and support and enhancement of
institutional collaboration at the local community level;
(v) Promote a farming approach for land and water management that takes
account of the level of education, the capacity to mobilize local
communities and the ecosystem requirements of arid and semi-arid
regions;
(vi) Plan and develop multi-purpose hydroelectric power schemes, making
sure that environmental concerns are duly taken into account;
(f) Scarce water resources management:
(i) Develop long-term strategies and practical implementation programmes
for agricultural water use under scarcity conditions with competing
demands for water;
(ii) Recognize water as a social, economic and strategic good in
irrigation planning and management;
(iii) Formulate specialized programmes focused on drought preparedness,
with emphasis on food scarcity and environmental safeguards;
(iv) Promote and enhance waste-water reuse in agriculture;
(g) Water-supply for livestock:
(i) Improve quality of water available to livestock, taking into account
their tolerance limits;
(ii) Increase the quantity of water sources available to livestock, in
particular those in extensive grazing systems, in order to both
reduce the distance needed to travel for water and to prevent
overgrazing around water sources;
(iii) Prevent contamination of water sources with animal excrement in order
to prevent the spread of diseases, in particular zoonosis;
(iv) Encourage multiple use of water-supplies through promotion of
integrated agro-livestock-fishery systems;
(v) Encourage water spreading schemes for increasing water retention of
extensive grasslands to stimulate forage production and prevent
run-off;
(h) Inland fisheries:
(i) Develop the sustainable management of fisheries as part of national
water resources planning;
(ii) Study specific aspects of the hydrobiology and environmental
requirements of key inland fish species in relation to varying water
regimes;
(iii) Prevent or mitigate modification of aquatic environments by other
users or rehabilitate environments subjected to such modification on
behalf of the sustainable use and conservation of biological
diversity of living aquatic resources;
(iv) Develop and disseminate environmentally sound water resources
development and management methodologies for the intensification of
fish yield from inland waters;
(v) Establish and maintain adequate systems for the collection and
interpretation of data on water quality and quantity and channel
morphology related to the state and management of living aquatic
resources, including fisheries;
(i) Aquaculture development:
(i) Develop environmentally sound aquaculture technologies that are
compatible with local, regional and national water resources
management plans and take into consideration social factors;
(ii) Introduce appropriate aquaculture techniques and related water
development and management practices in countries not yet experienced
in aquaculture;
(iii) Assess environmental impacts of aquaculture with specific reference
to commercialized culture units and potential water pollution from
processing centres;
(iv) Evaluate economic feasibility of aquaculture in relation to
alternative use of water, taking into consideration the use of
marginal-quality water and investment and operational requirements.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
18.77. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$13.2 billion, including about $4.5 billion from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
18.78. There is an urgent need for countries to monitor water resources and
water-quality, water and land use and crop production; compile inventories of
type and extent of agricultural water development and of present and future
contributions to sustainable agricultural development; evaluate the potential
for fisheries and aquaculture development; and improve the availability and
dissemination of data to planners, technicians, farmers and fishermen.
Priority requirements for research are as follows:
(a) Identification of critical areas for water-related adaptive research;
(b) Strengthening of the adaptive research capacities of institutions in
developing countries;
(c) Enhancement of translation of water-related farming and fishing
systems research results into practical and accessible technologies and
provision of the support needed for their rapid adoption at the field level.
18.79. Transfer of technology, both horizontal and vertical, needs to be
strengthened. Mechanisms to provide credit, input supplies, markets,
appropriate pricing and transportation must be developed jointly by countries
and external support agencies. Integrated rural water-supply infrastructure,
including facilities for water-related education and training and support
services for agriculture, should be expanded for multiple uses and should
assist in developing the rural economy.
(c) Human resource development
18.80. Education and training of human resources should be actively pursued at
the national level through: (a) assessment of current and long-term human
resources management and training needs; (b) establishment of a national policy
for human resources development; and (c) initiation and implementation of
training programmes for staff at all levels as well as for farmers. The
necessary actions are as follows:
(a) Assess training needs for agricultural water management;
(b) Increase formal and informal training activities;
(c) Develop practical training courses for improving the ability of
extension services to disseminate technologies and strengthen farmers'
capabilities, with special reference to small-scale producers;
(d) Train staff at all levels, including farmers, fishermen and members
of local communities, with particular reference to women;
(e) Increase the opportunities for career development to enhance the
capabilities of administrators and officers at all levels involved in land- and
water-management programmes.
(d) Capacity-building
18.81. The importance of a functional and coherent institutional framework at
the national level to promote water and sustainable agricultural development
has generally been fully recognized at present. In addition, an adequate legal
framework of rules and regulations should be in place to facilitate actions on
agricultural water-use, drainage, water-quality management, small-scale water
programmes and the functioning of water-users' and fishermen's associations.
Legislation specific to the needs of the agricultural water sector should be
consistent with, and stem from, general legislation for the management of water
resources. Actions should be pursued in the following areas:
(a) Improvement of water-use policies related to agriculture, fisheries
and rural development and of legal frameworks for implementing such policies;
(b) Review, strengthening and restructuring, if required, of existing
institutions in order to enhance their capacities in water-related activities,
while recognizing the need to manage water resources at the lowest appropriate
level;
(c) Review and strengthening, where necessary, of organizational
structure, functional relationships and linkages among ministries and
departments within a given ministry;
(d) Provision of specific measures that require support for institutional
strengthening, inter alia, through long-term programme budgeting, staff
training, incentives, mobility, equipment and coordination mechanisms;
(e) Enhancement of involvement of the private sector, where appropriate,
in human resource development and provision of infrastructure;
(f) Transfer of existing and new water-use technologies by creating
mechanisms for cooperation and information exchange among national and regional
institutions.
G. Impacts of climate change on water resources
Basis for action
18.82. There is uncertainty with respect to the prediction of climate change
at the global level. Although the uncertainties increase greatly at the
regional, national and local levels, it is at the national level that the most
important decisions would need to be made. Higher temperatures and decreased
precipitation would lead to decreased water-supplies and increased water
demands; they might cause deterioration in the quality of freshwater bodies,
putting strains on the already fragile balance between supply and demand in
many countries. Even where precipitation might increase, there is no guarantee
that it would occur at the time of year when it could be used; in addition,
there might be a likelihood of increased flooding. Any rise in sealevel will
often cause the intrusion of salt water into estuaries, small islands and
coastal aquifers and the flooding of low-lying coastal areas; this puts
low-lying countries at great risk.
18.83. The Ministerial Declaration of the Second World Climate Conference
states that "the potential impact of such climate change could pose an
environmental threat of an up to now unknown magnitude ... and could even
threaten survival in some small island States and in low-lying coastal, arid
and semi-arid areas". 3/ The Conference recognized that among the most
important impacts of climate change were its effects on the hydrologic cycle
and on water management systems and, through these, on socio-economic systems.
Increase in incidence of extremes, such as floods and droughts, would cause
increased frequency and severity of disasters. The Conference therefore called
for a strengthening of the necessary research and monitoring programmes and the
exchange of relevant data and information, these actions to be undertaken at
the national, regional and international levels.
Objectives
18.84. The very nature of this topic calls first and foremost for more
information about and greater understanding of the threat being faced. This
topic may be translated into the following objectives, consistent with the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change:
(a) To understand and quantify the threat of the impact of climate change
on freshwater resources;
(b) To facilitate the implementation of effective national
countermeasures, as and when the threatening impact is seen as sufficiently
confirmed to justify such action;
(c) To study the potential impacts of climate change on areas prone to
droughts and floods.
Activities
18.85. All States, according to their capacity and available resources, and
through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United Nations and
other relevant organizations as appropriate, could implement the following
activities:
(a) Monitor the hydrologic regime, including soil moisture, groundwater
balance, penetration and transpiration of water-quality, and related climate
factors, especially in the regions and countries most likely to suffer from the
adverse effects of climate change and where the localities vulnerable to these
effects should therefore be defined;
(b) Develop and apply techniques and methodologies for assessing the
potential adverse effects of climate change, through changes in temperature,
precipitation and sealevel rise, on freshwater resources and the flood risk;
(c) Initiate case-studies to establish whether there are linkages between
climate changes and the current occurrences of droughts and floods in certain
regions;
(d) Assess the resulting social, economic and environmental impacts;
(e) Develop and initiate response strategies to counter the adverse
effects that are identified, including changing groundwater levels and to
mitigate saline intrusion into aquifers;
(f) Develop agricultural activities based on brackish-water use;
(g) Contribute to the research activities under way within the framework
of current international programmes.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
18.86. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$100 million, including about $40 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitudeestimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
18.87. Monitoring of climate change and its impact on freshwater bodies must
be closely integrated with national and international programmes for monitoring
the environment, in particular those concerned with the atmosphere, as
discussed under other sections of Agenda 21, and the hydrosphere, as discussed
under programme area B above. The analysis of data for indication of climate
change as a basis for developing remedial measures is a complex task.
Extensive research is necessary in this area and due account has to be taken of
the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the World
Climate Programme, the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) and
other relevant international programmes.
18.88. The development and implementation of response strategies requires
innovative use of technological means and engineering solutions, including the
installation of flood and drought warning systems and the construction of new
water resource development projects such as dams, aqueducts, well fields,
waste-water treatment plants, desalination works, levees, banks and drainage
channels. There is also a need for coordinated research networks such as the
International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme/Global Change System for Analysis,
Research and Training (IGBP/START) network.
(c) Human resource development
18.89. The developmental work and innovation depend for their success on good
academic training and staff motivation. International projects can help by
enumerating alternatives, but each country needs to establish and implement the
necessary policies and to develop its own expertise in the scientific and
engineering challenges to be faced, as well as a body of dedicated individuals
who are able to interpret the complex issues concerned for those required to
make policy decisions. Such specialized personnel need to be trained, hired
and retained in service, so that they may serve their countries in these tasks.
(d) Capacity-building
18.90. There is a need, however, to build a capacity at the national level to
develop, review and implement response strategies. Construction of major
engineering works and installation of forecasting systems will require
significant strengthening of the agencies responsible, whether in the public or
the private sector. Most critical is the requirement for a socio-economic
mechanism that can review predictions of the impact of climate change and
possible response strategies and make the necessary judgements and decisions.
Notes
1/ Report of the United Nations Water Conference, Mar del Plata,
14-25 March 1977 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.77.II.A.12),
part one, chap. I, sect. C, para. 35.
2/ Ibid., part one, chap. I, resolution II.
3/ A/45/696/Add.1, annex III, preamble, para. 2.
Chapter 19
ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND MANAGEMENT OF TOXIC CHEMICALS, INCLUDING
PREVENTION OF ILLEGAL INTERNATIONAL TRAFFIC IN TOXIC AND
DANGEROUS PRODUCTS
INTRODUCTION
19.1. A substantial use of chemicals is essential to meet the social and
economic goals of the world community and today's best practice demonstrates
that they can be used widely in a cost-effective manner and with a high degree
of safety. However, a great deal remains to be done to ensure the
environmentally sound management of toxic chemicals, within the principles of
sustainable development and improved quality of life for humankind. Two of the
major problems, particularly in developing countries, are (a) lack of
sufficient scientific information for the assessment of risks entailed by the
use of a great number of chemicals, and (b) lack of resources for assessment of
chemicals for which data are at hand.
19.2. Gross chemical contamination, with grave damage to human health, genetic
structures and reproductive outcomes, and the environment, has in recent times
been continuing within some of the world's most important industrial areas.
Restoration will require major investment and development of new techniques.
The long-range effects of pollution, extending even to the fundamental chemical
and physical processes of the Earth's atmosphere and climate, are becoming
understood only recently and the importance of those effects is becoming
recognized only recently as well.
19.3. A considerable number of international bodies are involved in work on
chemical safety. In many countries work programmes for the promotion of
chemical safety are in place. Such work has international implications, as
chemical risks do not respect national boundaries. However, a significant
strengthening of both national and international efforts is needed to achieve
an environmentally sound management of chemicals.
19.4. Six programme areas are proposed:
(a) Expanding and accelerating international assessment of chemical
risks;
(b) Harmonization of classification and labelling of chemicals;
(c) Information exchange on toxic chemicals and chemical risks;
(d) Establishment of risk reduction programmes;
(e) Strengthening of national capabilities and capacities for management
of chemicals;
(f) Prevention of illegal international traffic in toxic and dangerous
products.
In addition, the short final subsection G deals with the enhancement of
cooperation related to several programme areas.
19.5. The six programme areas are together dependent for their successful
implementation on intensive international work and improved coordination of
current international activities, as well as on the identification and
application of technical, scientific, educational and financial means, in
particular for developing countries. To varying degrees, the programme areas
involve hazard assessment (based on the intrinsic properties of chemicals),
risk assessment (including assessment of exposure), risk acceptability and risk
management.
19.6. Collaboration on chemical safety between the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP), the International Labour Organisation (ILO) and the World
Health Organization (WHO) in the International Programme on Chemical Safety
(IPCS) should be the nucleus for international cooperation on environmentally
sound management of toxic chemicals. All efforts should be made to strengthen
this programme. Cooperation with other programmes, such as those of the
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the European
Communities (EC) and other regional and governmental chemical programmes,
should be promoted.
19.7. Increased coordination of United Nations bodies and other international
organizations involved in chemicals assessment and management should be further
promoted. Within the framework of IPCS, an intergovernmental meeting, convened
by the Executive Director of UNEP, was held in London in December 1991 to
further explore this matter (see paras. 19.75 and 19.76).
19.8. The broadest possible awareness of chemical risks is a prerequisite for
achieving chemical safety. The principle of the right of the community and of
workers to know those risks should be recognized. However, the right to know
the identity of hazardous ingredients should be balanced with industry's right
to protect confidential business information. (Industry, as referred to in
this chapter, shall be taken to include large industrial enterprises and
transnational corporations as well as domestic industries.) The industry
initiative on responsible care and product stewardship should be developed and
promoted. Industry should apply adequate standards of operation in all
countries in order not to damage human health and the environment.
19.9. There is international concern that part of the international movement
of toxic and dangerous products is being carried out in contravention of
existing national legislation and international instruments, to the detriment
of the environment and public health of all countries, particularly developing
countries.
19.10. In resolution 44/226 of 22 December 1989, the General Assembly
requested each regional commission, within existing resources, to contribute to
the prevention of the illegal traffic in toxic and dangerous products and
wastes by monitoring and making regional assessments of that illegal traffic
and its environmental and health implications. The Assembly also requested the
regional commissions to interact among themselves and to cooperate with the
United Nations Environment Programme, with a view to maintaining efficient and
coordinated monitoring and assessment of the illegal traffic in toxic and
dangerous products and wastes.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Expanding and accelerating international
assessment of chemical risks
19.11. Assessing the risks to human health and the environment hazards that a
chemical may cause is a prerequisite to planning for its safe and beneficial
use. Among the approximately 100,000 chemical substances in commerce and the
thousands of substances of natural origin with which human beings come into
contact, many appear as pollutants and contaminants in food, commercial
products and the various environmental media. Fortunately, exposure to most
chemicals (some 1,500 cover over 95 per cent of total world production) is
rather limited, as most are used in very small amounts. However, a serious
problem is that even for a great number of chemicals characterized by
high-volume production, crucial data for risk assessment are often lacking.
Within the framework of the OECD chemicals programme such data are now being
generated for a number of chemicals.
19.12. Risk assessment is resource-intensive. It could be made cost-effective
by strengthening international cooperation and better coordination, thereby
making the best use of available resources and avoiding unnecessary duplication
of effort. However, each nation should have a critical mass of technical staff
with experience in toxicity testing and exposure analysis, which are two
important components of risk assessment.
Objectives
19.13. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To strengthen international risk assessment. Several hundred
priority chemicals or groups of chemicals, including major pollutants and
contaminants of global significance, should be assessed by the year 2000, using
current selection and assessment criteria;
(b) To produce guidelines for acceptable exposure for a greater number of
toxic chemicals, based on peer review and scientific consensus distinguishing
between health- or environment-based exposure limits and those relating to
socio-economic factors.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
19.14. Governments, through the cooperation of relevant international
organizations and industry, where appropriate, should:
(a) Strengthen and expand programmes on chemical risk assessment within
the United Nations system IPCS (UNEP, ILO, WHO) and the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO), together with other organizations,
including the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD),
based on an agreed approach to data-quality assurance, application of
assessment criteria, peer review and linkages to risk management activities,
taking into account the precautionary approach;
(b) Promote mechanisms to increase collaboration among Governments,
industry, academia and relevant non-governmental organizations involved in the
various aspects of risk assessment of chemicals and related processes, in
particular the promoting and coordinating of research activities to improve
understanding of the mechanisms of action of toxic chemicals;
(c) Encourage the development of procedures for the exchange by countries
of their assessment reports on chemicals with other countries for use in
national chemical assessment programmes.
(b) Data and information
19.15. Governments, through the cooperation of relevant international
organizations and industry, where appropriate, should:
(a) Give high priority to hazard assessment of chemicals, that is, of
their intrinsic properties as the appropriate basis for risk assessment;
(b) Generate data necessary for assessment, building, inter alia, on
programmes of IPCS (UNEP, WHO, ILO), FAO, OECD and EC and on established
programmes other regions and Governments. Industry should participate
actively.
19.16. Industry should provide data for substances produced that are needed
specifically for the assessment of potential risks to human health and the
environment. Such data should be made available to relevant national competent
authorities and international bodies and other interested parties involved in
hazard and risk assessment, and to the greatest possible extent to the public
also, taking into account legitimate claims of confidentiality.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
19.17. Governments, through the cooperation of relevant international
organizations and industry, where appropriate, should:
(a) Develop criteria for priority-setting for chemicals of global concern
with respect to assessment;
(b) Review strategies for exposure assessment and environmental
monitoring to allow for the best use of available resources, to ensure
compatibility of data and to encourage coherent national and international
strategies for that assessment.
Means of implementation
(a) Financial and cost evaluation
19.18. Most of the data and methods for chemical risk assessment are generated
in the developed countries and an expansion and acceleration of the assessment
work will call for a considerable increase in research and safety testing by
industry and research institutions. The cost projections address the needs to
strengthen the capacities of relevant United Nations bodies and are based on
current experience in IPCS. It should be noted that there are considerable
costs, often not possible to quantify, that are not included. These comprise
costs to industry and Governments of generating the safety data underlying the
assessments and costs to Governments of providing background documents and
draft assessment statements to IPCS, the International Register of Potentially
Toxic Chemicals (IRPTC) and OECD. They also include the cost of accelerated
work in non-United Nations bodies such as OECD and EC.
19.19. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$30 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
19.20. Major research efforts should be launched in order to improve methods
for assessment of chemicals as work towards a common framework for risk
assessment and to improve procedures for using toxicological and
epidemiological data to predict the effects of chemicals on human health and
the environment, so as to enable decision makers to adopt adequate policies and
measures to reduce risks posed by chemicals.
19.21. Activities include:
(a) Strengthening research on safe/safer alternatives to toxic chemicals
that pose an unreasonable and otherwise unmanageable risk to the environment or
human health and to those that are toxic, persistent and bio-accumulative and
that cannot be adequately controlled;
(b) Promotion of research on, and validation of, methods constituting a
replacement for those using test animals (thus reducing the use of animals for
testing purposes);
(c) Promotion of relevant epidemiological studies with a view to
establishing a cause-and-effect relationship between exposure to chemicals and
the occurrence of certain diseases;
(d) Promotion of ecotoxicological studies with the aim of assessing the
risks of chemicals to the environment.
(c) Human resource development
19.22. International organizations, with the participation of Governments and
non-governmental organizations, should launch training and education projects
involving women and children, who are at greatest risk, in order to enable
countries, and particularly developing countries, to make maximum national use
of international assessments of chemical risks.
(d) Capacity-building
19.23. International organizations, building on past, present and future
assessment work, should support countries, particularly developing countries,
in developing and strengthening risk assessment capabilities at national and
regional levels to minimize, and as far as possible control and prevent, risk
in the manufacturing and use of toxic and hazardous chemicals. Technical
cooperation and financial support or other contributions should be given to
activities aimed at expanding and accelerating the national and international
assessment and control of chemical risks to enable the best choice of
chemicals.
B. Harmonization of classification and labelling of chemicals
Basis for action
19.24. Adequate labelling of chemicals and the dissemination of safety data
sheets such as ICSCs (International Chemical Safety Cards) and similarly
written materials, based on assessed hazards to health and environment, are the
simplest and most efficient way of indicating how to handle and use chemicals
safely.
19.25. For the safe transport of dangerous goods, including chemicals, a
comprehensive scheme elaborated within the United Nations system is in current
use. This scheme mainly takes into account the acute hazards of chemicals.
19.26. Globally harmonized hazard classification and labelling systems are not
yet available to promote the safe use of chemicals, inter alia, at the
workplace or in the home. Classification of chemicals can be made fordifferent purposes and is a particularly important tool in establishing
labelling systems. There is a need to develop harmonized hazard classification
and labelling systems, building on ongoing work.
Objectives
19.27. A globally harmonized hazard classification and compatible labelling
system, including material safety data sheets and easily understandable
symbols, should be available, if feasible, by the year 2000.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
19.28. Governments, through the cooperation of relevant international
organizations and industry, where appropriate, should launch a project with a
view to establishing and elaborating a harmonized classification and compatible
labelling system for chemicals for use in all United Nations official languages
including adequate pictograms. Such a labelling system should not lead to the
imposition of unjustified trade barriers. The new system should draw on
current systems to the greatest extent possible; it should be developed in
steps and should address the subject of compatibility with labels of various
applications.
(b) Data and information
19.29. International bodies including, inter alia, IPCS (UNEP, ILO, WHO), FAO,
the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the United Nations Committee of
Experts on the Transport of Dangerous Goods and OECD, in cooperation with
regional and national authorities having existing classification and labelling
and other information-dissemination systems, should establish a coordinating
group to:
(a) Evaluate and, if appropriate, undertake studies of existing hazard
classification and information systems to establish general principles for a
globally harmonized system;
(b) Develop and implement a work plan for the establishment of a globally
harmonized hazard classification system. The plan should include a description
of the tasks to be completed, deadline for completion and assignment of tasks
to the participants in the coordinating group;
(c) Elaborate a harmonized hazard classification system;
(d) Draft proposals for standardization of hazard communication
terminology and symbols in order to enhance risk management of chemicals and
facilitate both international trade and translation of information into the
end-user's language;
(e) Elaborate a harmonized labelling system.
Means of implementation
(a) Financial and cost evaluation
19.30. The Conference secretariat has included the technical assistance costs
related to this programme in estimates provided in programme area E. They
estimate the average total annual cost (1993-2000) for strengthening
international organizations to be about $3 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments
decide upon for implementation.
(b) Human resource development
19.31. Governments and institutions and non-governmental organizations, with
the collaboration of appropriate organizations and programmes of the United
Nations, should launch training courses and information campaigns to facilitate
the understanding and use of a new harmonized classification and compatible
labelling system for chemicals.
(c) Capacity-building
19.32. In strengthening national capacities for management of chemicals,
including development and implementation of, and adaptation to, new
classification and labelling systems, the creation of trade barriers should be
avoided and the limited capacities and resources of a large number of
countries, particularly developing countries, for implementing such systems,
should be taken into full account.
C. Information exchange on toxic chemicals and chemical risks
Basis for action
19.33. The following activities, related to information exchange on the
benefits as well as the risks associated with the use of chemicals, are aimed
at enhancing the sound management of toxic chemicals through the exchange of
scientific, technical, economic and legal information.
19.34. The London Guidelines for the Exchange of Information on Chemicals in
International Trade are a set of guidelines adopted by Governments with a view
to increasing chemical safety through the exchange of information on chemicals.
Special provisions have been included in the guidelines with regard to the
exchange of information on banned and severely restricted chemicals.
19.35. The export to developing countries of chemicals that have been banned
in producing countries or whose use has been severely restricted in some
industrialized countries has been the subject of concern, as some importing
countries lack the ability to ensure safe use, owing to inadequate
infrastructure for controlling the importation, distribution, storage,
formulation and disposal of chemicals.
19.36. In order to address this issue, provisions for Prior Informed
Consent (PIC) procedures were introduced in 1989 in the London Guidelines
(UNEP) and in the International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of
Pesticides (FAO). In addition a joint FAO/UNEP programme has been launched for
the operation of the PIC procedures for chemicals, including the selection of
chemicals to be included in the PIC procedure and preparation of PIC decision
guidance documents. The ILO chemicals convention calls for communication
between exporting and importing countries when hazardous chemicals have been
prohibited for reasons of safety and health at work. Within the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) framework, negotiations have been pursued
with a view to creating a binding instrument on products banned or severely
restricted in the domestic market. Further, the GATT Council has agreed, as
stated in its decision contained in C/M/251, to extend the mandate of the
working group for a period of three months, to begin from the date of the
group's next meeting, and has authorized the Chairman to hold consultations on
timing with respect to convening this meeting.
19.37. Notwithstanding the importance of the PIC procedure, information
exchange on all chemicals is necessary.
Objectives
19.38. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To promote intensified exchange of information on chemical safety,
use and emissions among all involved parties;
(b) To achieve by the year 2000, as feasible, full participation in and
implementation of the PIC procedure, including possible mandatory applications
through legally binding instruments contained in the Amended London Guidelines
and in the FAO International Code of Conduct, taking into account the
experience gained within the PIC procedure.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
19.39. Governments and relevant international organizations with the
cooperation of industry should:
(a) Strengthen national institutions responsible for information exchange
on toxic chemicals and promote the creation of national centres where these
centres do not exist;
(b) Strengthen international institutions and networks, such as IRPTC,
responsible for information exchange on toxic chemicals;
(c) Establish technical cooperation with, and provide information to,
other countries, especially those with shortages of technical expertise,
including training in the interpretation of relevant technical data, such as
Environmental Health Criteria Documents, Health and Safety Guides and
International Chemical Safety Cards (published by IPCS); monographs on the
Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks of Chemicals to Humans (published by the
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)); and decision guidance
documents (provided through the FAO/UNEP joint programme on PIC), as well as
those submitted by industry and other sources;
(d) Implement the PIC procedures as soon as possible and, in the light of
experience gained, invite relevant international organizations, such as UNEP,
GATT, FAO, WHO and others, in their respective area of competence to consider
working expeditiously towards the conclusion of legally binding instruments.
(b) Data and information
19.40. Governments and relevant international organizations with the
cooperation of industry should:
(a) Assist in the creation of national chemical information systems in
developing countries and improve access to existing international systems;
(b) Improve databases and information systems on toxic chemicals, such as
emission inventory programmes, through provision of training in the use of
those systems as well as software, hardware and other facilities;
(c) Provide knowledge and information on severely restricted or banned
chemicals to importing countries to enable them to judge and take decisions on
whether to import, and how to handle, those chemicals and establish joint
responsibilities in trade of chemicals between importing and exporting
countries;
(d) Provide data necessary to assess risks to human health and the
environment of possible alternatives to banned or severely restricted
chemicals.
19.41. United Nations organizations should provide, as far as possible, all
international information material on toxic chemicals in all United Nations
official languages.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
19.42. Governments and relevant international organizations with the
cooperation of industry should cooperate in establishing, strengthening and
expanding, as appropriate, the network of designated national authorities forexchange of information on chemicals and establish a technical exchange
programme to produce a core of trained personnel within each participating
country.
Means of implementation
Financing and cost evaluation
19.43. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$10 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
D. Establishment of risk reduction programmes
Basis for action
19.44. There are often alternatives to toxic chemicals currently in use.
Thus, risk reduction can sometimes be achieved by using other chemicals or even
non-chemical technologies. The classic example of risk reduction is the
substitution of harmless or less harmful substances for harmful ones.
Establishment of pollution prevention procedures and setting standards for
chemicals in each environmental medium, including food and water, and in
consumer goods, constitute another example of risk reduction. In a wider
context, risk reduction involves broad-based approaches to reducing the risks
of toxic chemicals, taking into account the entire life cycle of the chemicals.
Such approaches could encompass both regulatory and non-regulatory measures,
such as promotion of the use of cleaner products and technologies, pollution
prevention procedures and programmes, emission inventories, product labelling,
use limitations, economic incentives, procedures for safe handling and exposure
regulations, and the phasing out or banning of chemicals that pose unreasonable
and otherwise unmanageable risks to human health and the environment and of
those that are toxic, persistent and bio-accumulative and whose use cannot be
adequately controlled.
19.45. In the agricultural area, integrated pest management, including the use
of biological control agents as alternatives to toxic pesticides, is one
approach to risk reduction.
19.46. Other areas of risk reduction encompass the prevention of chemical
accidents, prevention of poisoning by chemicals and the undertaking of
toxicovigilance and coordination of clean-up and rehabilitation of areas
damaged by toxic chemicals.
19.47. The OECD Council has decided that OECD member countries should
establish or strengthen national risk reduction programmes. The International
Council of Chemical Associations (ICCA) has introduced initiatives regardingresponsible care and product stewardship aimed at reduction of chemical risks.
The Awareness and Preparedness for Emergencies at Local Level (APELL) programme
of UNEP is designed to assist decision makers and technical personnel in
improving community awareness of hazardous installations and in preparing
response plans. ILO has published a Code of Practice on the prevention of
major industrial accidents and is preparing an international instrument on the
prevention of industrial disasters for eventual adoption in 1993.
Objectives
19.48. The objective of the programme area is to eliminate unacceptable or
unreasonable risks and, to the extent economically feasible, to reduce risks
posed by toxic chemicals, by employing a broad-based approach involving a wide
range of risk reduction options and by taking precautionary measures derived
from a broad-based life-cycle analysis.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
19.49. Governments, through the cooperation of relevant international
organizations and industry, where appropriate, should:
(a) Consider adopting policies based on accepted producer liability
principles, where appropriate, as well as precautionary, anticipatory and
life-cycle approaches to chemical management, covering manufacturing, trade,
transport, use and disposal;
(b) Undertake concerted activities to reduce risks for toxic chemicals,
taking into account the entire life cycle of the chemicals. These activities
could encompass both regulatory and non-regulatory measures, such as promotion
of the use of cleaner products and technologies; emission inventories; product
labelling; use limitations; economic incentives; and the phasing out or banning
of toxic chemicals that pose an unreasonable and otherwise unmanageable risk to
the environment or human health and those that are toxic, persistent and
bio-accumulative and whose use cannot be adequately controlled;
(c) Adopt policies and regulatory and non-regulatory measures to
identify, and minimize exposure to, toxic chemicals by replacing them with less
toxic substitutes and ultimately phasing out the chemicals that pose
unreasonable and otherwise unmanageable risk to human health and the
environment and those that are toxic, persistent and bio-accumulative and whose
use cannot be adequately controlled;
(d) Increase efforts to identify national needs for standard setting and
implementation in the context of the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius in order to
minimize adverse effects of chemicals in food;
(e) Develop national policies and adopt the necessary regulatory
framework for prevention of accidents, preparedness and response, inter alia,through land-use planning, permit systems and reporting requirements on
accidents, and work with the OECD/UNEP international directory of regional
response centres and the APELL programme;
(f) Promote establishment and strengthening, as appropriate, of national
poison control centres to ensure prompt and adequate diagnosis and treatment of
poisonings;
(g) Reduce overdependence on the use of agricultural chemicals through
alternative farming practices, integrated pest management and other appropriate
means;
(h) Require manufacturers, importers and others handling toxic chemicals
to develop, with the cooperation of producers of such chemicals, where
applicable, emergency response procedures and preparation of on-site and
off-site emergency response plans;
(i) Identify, assess, reduce and minimize, or eliminate as far as
feasible by environmentally sound disposal practices, risks from storage of
outdated chemicals.
19.50. Industry should be encouraged to:
(a) Develop an internationally agreed upon code of principles for the
management of trade in chemicals, recognizing in particular the responsibility
for making available information on potential risks and environmentally sound
disposal practices if those chemicals become wastes, in cooperation with
Governments and relevant international organizations and appropriate agencies
of the United Nations system;
(b) Develop application of a "responsible care" approach by producers and
manufacturers towards chemical products, taking into account the total life
cycle of such products;
(c) Adopt, on a voluntary basis, community right-to-know programmes based
on international guidelines, including sharing of information on causes of
accidental and potential releases and means of preventing them, and reporting
on annual routine emissions of toxic chemicals to the environment in the
absence of host country requirements.
(b) Data and information
19.51. Governments, through the cooperation of relevant international
organizations and industry, where appropriate, should:
(a) Promote exchange of information on national and regional activities
to reduce the risks of toxic chemicals;
(b) Cooperate in the development of communication guidelines on chemical
risks at the national level to promote information exchange with the public and
the understanding of risks.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
19.52. Governments, through the cooperation of relevant international
organizations and industry, where appropriate, should:
(a) Collaborate to develop common criteria to determine which chemicals
are suitable candidates for concerted risk reduction activities;
(b) Coordinate concerted risk reduction activities;
(c) Develop guidelines and policies for the disclosure by manufacturers,
importers and others using toxic chemicals of toxicity information declaring
risks and emergency response arrangements;
(d) Encourage large industrial enterprises including transnational
corporations and other enterprises wherever they operate to introduce policies
demonstrating the commitment, with reference to the environmentally sound
management of toxic chemicals, to adopt standards of operation equivalent to or
not less stringent than those existing in the country of origin;
(e) Encourage and support the development and adoption by small- and
medium-sized industries of relevant procedures for risk reduction in their
activities;
(f) Develop regulatory and non-regulatory measures and procedures aimed
at preventing the export of chemicals that are banned, severely restricted,
withdrawn or not approved for health or environmental reasons, except when such
export has received prior written consent from the importing country or is
otherwise in accordance with the PIC procedure;
(g) Encourage national and regional work to harmonize evaluation of
pesticides;
(h) Promote and develop mechanisms for the safe production, management
and use of dangerous materials, formulating programmes to substitute for them
safer alternatives, where appropriate;
(i) Formalize networks of emergency response centres;
(j) Encourage industry, with the help of multilateral cooperation, to
phase out as appropriate, and dispose of, any banned chemicals that are still
in stock or in use in an environmentally sound manner, including safe reuse,
where approved and appropriate.
Means of implementation
(a) Financial and cost evaluation
19.53. The Conference secretariat has included most costs related to this
programme in estimates provided for programme areas A and E. They estimateother requirements for training and strengthening the emergency and poison
control centres to be about $4 million annually from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments
decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
19.54. Governments, in cooperation with relevant international organizations
and programmes, should:
(a) Promote technology that would minimize release of, and exposure to,
toxic chemicals in all countries;
(b) Carry out national reviews, as appropriate, of previously accepted
pesticides whose acceptance was based on criteria now recognized as
insufficient or outdated and of their possible replacement with other pest
control methods, particularly in the case of pesticides that are toxic,
persistent and/or bio-accumulative.
E. Strengthening of national capabilities and capacities
for management of chemicals
Basis for action
19.55. Many countries la