| United Nations | A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. II) |
General Assembly
Distr. GENERAL
13 August 1992
ORIGINAL: ENGLISH
REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON ENVIRONMENT
AND DEVELOPMENT*
(Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992)
*The present document is a
preliminary version of the report of the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development and is being issued in five volumes. The Rio
Declaration on Environment and Development and section I (Social and
economic dimensions) of Agenda 21 are in volume I; section II (Conservation
and management of resources for development) of Agenda 21 is in volume II;
and sections III (Strengthening the role of major groups) and IV (Means of
implementation) of Agenda 21 and the non-legally binding authoritative
statement of principles for a global consensus on the management,
conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests are in
volume III. The proceedings of the Conference and opening and closing
statements are in volume IV. Statements made during the Summit Segment are
in volume V.
92-38358 3401-03i (E) 110992
/... CONTENTS*
Annex II. AGENDA 21 (continued)
Chapter Paragraphs
Page
SECTION II. CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF RESOURCES
FOR DEVELOPMENT
9. Protection of the atmosphere ....................... 9.1 - 9.354
10. Integrated approach to the planning and management
of land resources .................................. 10.1 - 10.1817
11. Combating deforestation ............................ 11.1 - 11.4024
12. Managing fragile ecosystems: combating
desertification and drought ........................ 12.1 - 12.6342
13. Managing fragile ecosystems: sustainable mountain
development ........................................ 13.1 - 13.2462
14. Promoting sustainable agriculture and rural
development ........................................ 14.1 - 14.10471
15. Conservation of biological diversity ............... 15.1 - 15.11103
16. Environmentally sound management of biotechnology .. 16.1 - 16.46111
17. Protection of the oceans, all kinds of seas,
including enclosed and semi-enclosed seas, and
coastal areas and the protection, rational use and
development of their living resources .............. 17.1 - 17.136130
18. Protection of the quality and supply of freshwater
resources: application of integrated approaches to
the development, management and use of water
resources .......................................... 18.1 - 18.90167
19. Environmentally sound management of toxic chemicals,
including prevention of illegal international
traffic in toxic and dangerous products ............ 19.1 - 19.76207
* For section I (Social and economic dimensions), see
A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. I); for section III (Strengthening the role of major
groups) and section IV (Means of implementation), see
A.CONF/151/26 (Vol. III).
CONTENTS (continued)
Chapter Paragraphs
Page
20. Environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes,
including prevention of illegal international traffic
in hazardous wastes ................................. 20.1 - 20.46227
21. Environmentally sound management of solid wastes and
sewage-related issues ............................... 21.1 - 21.49245
22. Safe and environmentally sound management of
radioactive wastes .................................. 22.1 - 22.9262 Chapter 9
PROTECTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
INTRODUCTION
9.1. Protection of the atmosphere is a broad and multidimensional endeavour
involving various sectors of economic activity. The options and measures
described in the present chapter are recommended for consideration and, as
appropriate, implementation by Governments and other bodies in their efforts
to protect the atmosphere.
9.2. It is recognized that many of the issues discussed in this chapter are
also addressed in such international agreements as the 1985 Vienna
Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, the 1987 Montreal Protocol
on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer as amended, the 1992 United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and other international,
including regional, instruments. In the case of activities covered by such
agreements, it is understood that the recommendations contained in this
chapter do not oblige any Government to take measures which exceed the
provisions of these legal instruments. However, within the framework of
this chapter, Governments are free to carry out additional measures which
are consistent with those legal instruments.
9.3. It is also recognized that activities that may be undertaken in
pursuit of the objectives of this chapter should be coordinated with social
and economic development in an integrated manner with a view to avoiding
adverse impacts on the latter, taking into full account the legitimate
priority needs of developing countries for the achievement of sustained
economic growth and the eradication of poverty.
9.4. In this context particular reference is also made to programme area A
of chapter 2 of Agenda 21 (Promoting sustainable development through trade).
9.5. The present chapter includes the following four programme areas:
(a) Addressing the uncertainties: improving the scientific basis for
decision-making;
(b) Promoting sustainable development:
(i) Energy development, efficiency and consumption;
(ii) Transportation;
(iii) Industrial development;
(iv) Terrestrial and marine resource development and land use;
(c) Preventing stratospheric ozone depletion;
(d) Transboundary atmospheric pollution.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Addressing the uncertainties: improving the scientific
basis for decision-making
Basis for action
9.6. Concern about climate change and climate variability, air pollution
and ozone depletion has created new demands for scientific, economic and
social information to reduce the remaining uncertainties in these fields.
Better understanding and prediction of the various properties of the
atmosphere and of the affected ecosystems, as well as health impacts and
their interactions with socio-economic factors, are needed.
Objectives
9.7. The basic objective of this programme area is to improve the
understanding of processes that influence and are influenced by the Earth's
atmosphere on a global, regional and local scale, including, inter alia,
physical, chemical, geological, biological, oceanic, hydrological, economic
and social processes; to build capacity and enhance international
cooperation; and to improve understanding of the economic and social
consequences of atmospheric changes and of mitigation and response measures
addressing such changes.
Activities
9.8. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
(a) Promote research related to the natural processes affecting and
being affected by the atmosphere, as well as the critical linkages between
sustainable development and atmospheric changes, including impacts on human
health, ecosystems, economic sectors and society;
(b) Ensure a more balanced geographical coverage of the Global Climate
Observing System and its components, including the Global Atmosphere Watch,
by facilitating, inter alia, the establishment and operation of additional
systematic observation stations, and by contributing to the development,
utilization and accessibility of these databases;
(c) Promote cooperation in:
(i) The development of early detection systems concerning changes and
fluctuations in the atmosphere;
(ii) The establishment and improvement of capabilities to predict such
changes and fluctuations and to assess the resulting environmental
and socio-economic impacts;
(d) Cooperate in research to develop methodologies and identify
threshold levels of atmospheric pollutants, as well as atmospheric levels of
greenhouse gas concentrations, that would cause dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system and the environment as a whole, and the
associated rates of change that would not allow ecosystems to adapt
naturally;
(e) Promote, and cooperate in the building of scientific capacities,
the exchange of scientific data and information, and the facilitation of the
participation and training of experts and technical staff, particularly of
developing countries, in the fields of research, data assembly, collection
and assessment, and systematic observation related to the atmosphere.
B. Promoting sustainable development
1. Energy development, efficiency and consumption
Basis for action
9.9. Energy is essential to economic and social development and improved
quality of life. Much of the world's energy, however, is currently produced
and consumed in ways that could not be sustained if technology were to
remain constant and if overall quantities were to increase substantially.
The need to control atmospheric emissions of greenhouse and other gases and
substances will increasingly need to be based on efficiency in energy
production, transmission, distribution and consumption, and on growing
reliance on environmentally sound energy systems, particularly new and
renewable sources of energy. 1/ All energy sources will need to be used in
ways that respect the atmosphere, human health and the environment as a
whole.
9.10. The existing constraints to increasing the environmentally sound
energy supplies required for pursuing the path towards sustainable
development, particularly in developing countries, need to be removed.
Objectives
9.11. The basic and ultimate objective of this programme area is to reduce
adverse effects on the atmosphere from the energy sector by promoting
policies or programmes, as appropriate, to increase the contribution of
environmentally sound and cost-effective energy systems, particularly new
and renewable ones, through less polluting and more efficient energy
production, transmission, distribution and use. This objective should
reflect the need for equity, adequate energy supplies and increasing energy
consumption in developingcountries, and should take into consideration the situations of countries
that are highly dependent on income generated from the production,
processing and export, and/or consumption of fossil fuels and associated
energy-intensive products and/or the use of fossil fuels for which countries
have serious difficulties in switching to alternatives, and the situations
of countries highly vulnerable to adverse effects of climate change.
Activities
9.12. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
(a) Cooperate in identifying and developing economically viable,
environmentally sound energy sources to promote the availability of
increased energy supplies to support sustainable development efforts, in
particular in developing countries;
(b) Promote the development at the national level of appropriate
methodologies for making integrated energy, environment and economic policy
decisions for sustainable development, inter alia, through environmental
impact assessments;
(c) Promote the research, development, transfer and use of improved
energy-efficient technologies and practices, including endogenous
technologies in all relevant sectors, giving special attention to the
rehabilitation and modernization of power systems, with particular attention
to developing countries;
(d) Promote the research, development, transfer and use of
technologies and practices for environmentally sound energy systems,
including new and renewable energy systems, with particular attention to
developing countries;
(e) Promote the development of institutional, scientific, planning and
management capacities, particularly in developing countries, to develop,
produce and use increasingly efficient and less polluting forms of energy;
(f) Review current energy supply mixes to determine how the
contribution of environmentally sound energy systems as a whole,
particularly new and renewable energy systems, could be increased in an
economically efficient manner, taking into account respective countries'
unique social, physical, economic and political characteristics, and
examining and implementing, where appropriate, measures to overcome any
barriers to their development and use;
(g) Coordinate energy plans regionally and subregionally, where
applicable, and study the feasibility of efficient distribution of
environmentally sound energy from new and renewable energy sources;
(h) In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote cost-effective
policies or programmes, including administrative, social and economic
measures, in order to improve energy efficiency;
(i) Build capacity for energy planning and programme management in
energy efficiency, as well as for the development, introduction, and
promotion of new and renewable sources of energy;
(j) Promote appropriate energy efficiency and emission standards or
recommendations at the national level, 2/ aimed at the development and use
of technologies that minimize adverse impacts on the environment;
(k) Encourage education and awareness-raising programmes at the local,
national, subregional and regional levels concerning energy efficiency and
environmentally sound energy systems;
(l) Establish or enhance, as appropriate, in cooperation with the
private sector, labelling programmes for products to provide decision makers
and consumers with information on opportunities for energy efficiency.
2. Transportation
Basis for action
9.13. The transport sector has an essential and positive role to play in
economic and social development, and transportation needs will undoubtedly
increase. However, since the transport sector is also a source of
atmospheric emissions, there is need for a review of existing transport
systems and for more effective design and management of traffic and
transport systems.
Objectives
9.14. The basic objective of this programme area is to develop and promote
cost-effective policies or programmes, as appropriate, to limit, reduce or
control, as appropriate, harmful emissions into the atmosphere and other
adverse environmental effects of the transport sector, taking into account
development priorities as well as the specific local and national
circumstances and safety aspects.
Activities
9.15. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
(a) Develop and promote, as appropriate, cost-effective, more
efficient, less polluting and safer transport systems, particularly
integrated rural and urban mass transit, as well as environmentally sound
road networks, takinginto account the needs for sustainable social, economic and development
priorities, particularly in developing countries;
(b) Facilitate at the international, regional, subregional and
national levels access to and the transfer of safe, efficient, including
resource-efficient, and less polluting transport technologies, particularly
to the developing countries, including the implementation of appropriate
training programmes;
(c) Strengthen, as appropriate, their efforts at collecting, analysing
and exchanging relevant information on the relation between environment and
transport, with particular emphasis on the systematic observation of
emissions and the development of a transport database;
(d) In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote cost-effective
policies or programmes, including administrative, social and economic
measures, in order to encourage use of transportation modes that minimize
adverse impacts on the atmosphere;
(e) Develop or enhance, as appropriate, mechanisms to integrate
transport planning strategies and urban and regional settlement planning
strategies, with a view to reducing the environmental impacts of transport;
(f) Study, within the framework of the United Nations and its regional
commissions, the feasibility of convening regional conferences on transport
and the environment.
3. Industrial development
Basis for action
9.16. Industry is essential for the production of goods and services and is
a major source of employment and income, and industrial development as such
is essential for economic growth. At the same time, industry is a major
resource and materials user and consequently industrial activities result in
emissions into the atmosphere and the environment as a whole. Protection of
the atmosphere can be enhanced, inter alia, by increasing resource and
materials efficiency in industry, installing or improving pollution
abatement technologies and replacing chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other
ozone-depleting substances with appropriate substitutes, as well as by
reducing wastes and by-products.
Objectives
9.17. The basic objective of this programme area is to encourage industrial
development in ways that minimize adverse impacts on the atmosphere by,
inter alia, increasing efficiency in the production and consumption by
industry of all resources and materials, by improving pollution-abatement
technologies and by developing new environmentally sound technologies.
Activities
9.18. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
(a) In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote
cost-effective policies or programmes, including administrative, social and
economic measures, in order to minimize industrial pollution and adverse
impacts on the atmosphere;
(b) Encourage industry to increase and strengthen its capacity to
develop technologies, products and processes that are safe, less polluting
and make more efficient use of all resources and materials, including
energy;
(c) Cooperate in the development and transfer of such industrial
technologies and in the development of capacities to manage and use such
technologies, particularly with respect to developing countries;
(d) Develop, improve and apply environmental impact assessments to
foster sustainable industrial development;
(e) Promote efficient use of materials and resources, taking into
account the life cycles of products, in order to realize the economic and
environmental benefits of using resources more efficiently and producing
fewer wastes;
(f) Support the promotion of less polluting and more efficient
technologies and processes in industries, taking into account area-specific
accessible potentials for energy, particularly safe and renewable sources of
energy, with a view to limiting industrial pollution, and adverse impacts on
the atmosphere.
4. Terrestrial and marine resource development and land use
Basis for action
9.19. Land-use and resource policies will both affect and be affected by
changes in the atmosphere. Certain practices related to terrestrial and
marine resources and land use can decrease greenhouse gas sinks and increase
atmospheric emissions. The loss of biological diversity may reduce the
resilience of ecosystems to climatic variations and air pollution damage.
Atmospheric changes can have important impacts on forests, biodiversity, and
freshwater and marine ecosystems, as well as on economic activities, such as
agriculture. Policy objectives in different sectors may often diverge and
will need to be handled in an integrated manner.
Objectives
9.20. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To promote terrestrial and marine resource utilization and
appropriate land-use practices that contribute to:
(i) The reduction of atmospheric pollution and/or the limitation of
anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases;
(ii) The conservation, sustainable management and enhancement, where
appropriate, of all sinks for greenhouse gases;
(iii) The conservation and sustainable use of natural and environmental
resources;
(b) To ensure that actual and potential atmospheric changes and their
socio-economic and ecological impacts are fully taken into account in
planning and implementing policies and programmes concerning terrestrial and
marine resources utilization and land-use practices.
Activities
9.21. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
(a) In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote cost-effective
policies or programmes, including administrative, social and economic
measures, in order to encourage environmentally sound land-use practices;
(b) Implement policies and programmes that will discourage
inappropriate and polluting land-use practices and promote sustainable
utilization of terrestrial and marine resources;
(c) Consider promoting the development and use of terrestrial and
marine resources and land-use practices that will be more resilient to
atmospheric changes and fluctuations;
(d) Promote sustainable management and cooperation in the conservation
and enhancement, as appropriate, of sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse
gases, including biomass, forests and oceans, as well as other terrestrial,
coastal and marine ecosystems.
C. Preventing stratospheric ozone depletion
Basis for action
9.22. Analysis of recent scientific data has confirmed the growing concern
about the continuing depletion of the Earth's stratospheric ozone layer by
reactive chlorine and bromine from man-made CFCs, halons and related
substances. While the 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the
Ozone Layer and the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the
Ozone Layer (as amended in London in 1990) were important steps in
international action, the total chlorine loading of the atmosphere of
ozone-depleting substances has continued to rise. This can be changed
through compliance with the control measures identified within the Protocol.
Objectives
9.23. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To realize the objectives defined in the Vienna Convention and the
Montreal Protocol and its 1990 amendments, including the consideration in
those instruments of the special needs and conditions of the developing
countries and the availability to them of alternatives to substances that
deplete the ozone layer. Technologies and natural products that reduce
demand for these substances should be encouraged;
(b) To develop strategies aimed at mitigating the adverse effects of
ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface as a consequence of
depletion and modification of the stratospheric ozone layer.
Activities
9.24. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
(a) Ratify, accept or approve the Montreal Protocol and its 1990
amendments; pay their contributions towards the Vienna/Montreal trust funds
and the interim multilateral ozone fund promptly; and contribute, as
appropriate, towards ongoing efforts under the Montreal Protocol and its
implementing mechanisms, including making available substitutes for CFCs and
other ozone-depleting substances and facilitating the transfer of the
corresponding technologies to developing countries in order to enable them
to comply with the obligations of the Protocol;
(b) Support further expansion of the Global Ozone Observing System by
facilitating - through bilateral and multilateral funding - the
establishment and operation of additional systematic observation stations,
especially in the tropical belt in the southern hemisphere;
(c) Participate actively in the continuous assessment of scientific
information and the health and environmental effects, as well as of the
technological/economic implications of stratospheric ozone depletion; and
consider further actions that prove warranted and feasible on the basis of
these assessments;
(d) Based on the results of research on the effects of the additional
ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface, consider taking
appropriate remedial measures in the fields of human health, agriculture and
marine environment;
(e) Replace CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances, consistent with
the Montreal Protocol, recognizing that a replacement's suitability should
be evaluated holistically and not simply based on its contribution to
solving one atmospheric or environmental problem.
D. Transboundary atmospheric pollution
Basis for action
9.25. Transboundary air pollution has adverse health impacts on humans and
other detrimental environmental impacts, such as tree and forest loss and
the acidification of water bodies. The geographical distribution of
atmospheric pollution monitoring networks is uneven, with the developing
countries severely underrepresented. The lack of reliable emissions data
outside Europe and North America is a major constraint to measuring
transboundary air pollution. There is also insufficient information on the
environmental and health effects of air pollution in other regions.
9.26. The 1979 Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution, and
its protocols, have established a regional regime in Europe and North
America, based on a review process and cooperative programmes for systematic
observation of air pollution, assessment and information exchange. These
programmes need to be continued and enhanced, and their experience needs to
be shared with other regions of the world.
Objectives
9.27. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To develop and apply pollution control and measurement
technologies for stationary and mobile sources of air pollution and to
develop alternative environmentally sound technologies;
(b) To observe and assess systematically the sources and extent of
transboundary air pollution resulting from natural processes and
anthropogenic activities;
(c) To strengthen the capabilities, particularly of developing
countries, to measure, model and assess the fate and impacts of
transboundary air pollution, through, inter alia, exchange of information
and training of experts;
(d) To develop capabilities to assess and mitigate transboundary air
pollution resulting from industrial and nuclear accidents, natural disasters
and the deliberate and/or accidental destruction of natural resources;
(e) To encourage the establishment of new and the implementation of
existing regional agreements for limiting transboundary air pollution;
(f) To develop strategies aiming at the reduction of emissions causing
transboundary air pollution and their effects.
Activities
9.28. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, the private sector and financial
institutions, should:
(a) Establish and/or strengthen regional agreements for transboundary
air pollution control and cooperate, particularly with developing countries,
in the areas of systematic observation and assessment, modelling and the
development and exchange of emission control technologies for mobile and
stationary sources of air pollution. In this context, greater emphasis
should be put on addressing the extent, causes, health and socio-economic
impacts of ultraviolet radiation, acidification of the environment and
photo-oxidant damage to forests and other vegetation;
(b) Establish or strengthen early warning systems and response
mechanisms for transboundary air pollution resulting from industrial
accidents and natural disasters and the deliberate and/or accidental
destruction of natural resources;
(c) Facilitate training opportunities and exchange of data,
information and national and/or regional experiences;
(d) Cooperate on regional, multilateral and bilateral bases to assess
transboundary air pollution, and elaborate and implement programmes
identifying specific actions to reduce atmospheric emissions and to address
their environmental, economic, social and other effects.
Means of implementation
International and regional cooperation
9.29. Existing legal instruments have created institutional structures
which relate to the purposes of these instruments, and relevant work should
primarily continue in those contexts. Governments should continue tocooperate and enhance their cooperation at the regional and global levels,
including cooperation within the United Nations system. In this context
reference is made to the recommendations in chapter 38 of Agenda 21
(International institutional arrangements).
Capacity-building
9.30. Countries, in cooperation with the relevant United Nations bodies,
international donors and non-governmental organizations, should mobilize
technical and financial resources and facilitate technical cooperation with
developing countries to reinforce their technical, managerial, planning and
administrative capacities to promote sustainable development and the
protection of the atmosphere, in all relevant sectors.
Human resource development
9.31. Education and awareness-raising programmes concerning the promotion
of sustainable development and the protection of the atmosphere need to be
introduced and strengthened at the local, national and international levels
in all relevant sectors.
Financial and cost evaluation
9.32. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities under programme area A to be
about $640 million from the international community on grant or concessional
terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have
not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms,
including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
9.33. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of the four-part programme under
programme area B to be about $20 billion from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon
for implementation.
9.34. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities under programme area C to be
in the range of $160-590 million on grant or concessional terms. These are
indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed
by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
9.35. The Conference secretariat has included costing for technical
assistance and pilot programmes under paragraphs 9.32 and 9.33.
Notes
1/ New and renewable energy sources are solar thermal, solar
photovoltaic, wind, hydro, biomass, geothermal, ocean, animal and human
power, as referred to in the reports of the Committee on the Development and
Utilization of New and Renewable Sources of Energy, prepared specifically
for the Conference (see A/CONF.151/PC/119 and A/AC.218/1992/5).
2/ This includes standards or recommendations promoted by regional
economic integration organizations.
Chapter 10
INTEGRATED APPROACH TO THE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF
LAND RESOURCES
INTRODUCTION
10.1. Land is normally defined as a physical entity in terms of its
topography and spatial nature; a broader integrative view also includes
natural resources: the soils, minerals, water and biota that the land
comprises. These components are organized in ecosystems which provide a
variety of services essential to the maintenance of the integrity of
life-support systems and the productive capacity of the environment. Land
resources are used in ways that take advantage of all these characteristics.
Land is a finite resource, while the natural resources it supports can vary
over time and according to management conditions and uses. Expanding human
requirements and economic activities are placing ever increasing pressures
on land resources, creating competition and conflicts and resulting in
suboptimal use of both land and land resources. If, in the future, human
requirements are to be met in a sustainable manner, it is now essential to
resolve these conflicts and move towards more effective and efficient use of
land and its natural resources. Integrated physical and land-use planning
and management is an eminently practical way to achieve this. By examining
all uses of land in an integrated manner, it makes it possible to minimize
conflicts, to make the most efficient trade-offs and to link social and
economic development with environmental protection and enhancement, thus
helping to achieve the objectives of sustainable development. The essence
of the integrated approach finds expression in the coordination of the
sectoral planning and management activities concerned with the various
aspects of land use and land resources.
10.2. The present chapter consists of one programme area, the integrated
approach to the planning and management of land resources, which deals with
the reorganization and, where necessary, some strengthening of the
decision-making structure, including existing policies, planning and
management procedures and methods that can assist in putting in place an
integrated approach to land resources. It does not deal with the
operational aspects of planning and management, which are more appropriately
dealt with under the relevant sectoral programmes. Since the programme
deals with an important cross-sectoral aspect of decision-making for
sustainable development, it is closely related to a number of other
programmes that deal with that issue directly.
PROGRAMME AREA
Integrated approach to the planning and management of
land resources
Basis for action
10.3. Land resources are used for a variety of purposes which interact and
may compete with one another; therefore, it is desirable to plan and manage
all uses in an integrated manner. Integration should take place at two
levels, considering, on the one hand, all environmental, social and economic
factors (including, for example, impacts of the various economic and social
sectors on the environment and natural resources) and, on the other, all
environmental and resource components together (i.e., air, water, biota,
land, geological and natural resources). Integrated consideration
facilitates appropriate choices and trade-offs, thus maximizing sustainable
productivity and use. Opportunities to allocate land to different uses
arise in the course of major settlement or development projects or in a
sequential fashion as lands become available on the market. This in turn
provides opportunities to support traditional patterns of sustainable land
management or to assign protected status for conservation of biological
diversity or critical ecological services.
10.4. A number of techniques, frameworks and processes can be combined to
facilitate an integrated approach. They are the indispensable support for
the planning and management process, at the national and local level,
ecosystem or area levels and for the development of specific plans of
action. Many of its elements are already in place but need to be more
widely applied, further developed and strengthened. This programme area is
concerned primarily with providing a framework that will coordinate
decision-making; the content and operational functions are therefore not
included here but are dealt with in the relevant sectoral programmes of
Agenda 21.
Objectives
10.5. The broad objective is to facilitate allocation of land to the uses
that provide the greatest sustainable benefits and to promote the transition
to a sustainable and integrated management of land resources. In doing so,
environmental, social and economic issues should be taken into
consideration. Protected areas, private property rights, the rights of
indigenous people and their communities and other local communities and the
economic role of women in agriculture and rural development, among other
issues, should be taken into account. In more specific terms, the
objectives are as follows:
(a) To review and develop policies to support the best possible use of
land and the sustainable management of land resources, by not later than
1996;
(b) To improve and strengthen planning, management and evaluation
systems for land and land resources, by not later than 2000;
(c) To strengthen institutions and coordinating mechanisms for land
and land resources, by not later than 1998;
(d) To create mechanisms to facilitate the active involvement and
participation of all concerned, particularly communities and people at the
local level, in decision-making on land use and management, by not later
than 1996.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
Developing supportive policies and policy instruments
10.6. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of regional
and international organizations, should ensure that policies and policy
instruments support the best possible land use and sustainable management of
land resources. Particular attention should be given to the role of
agricultural land. To do this, they should:
(a) Develop integrated goal-setting and policy formulation at the
national, regional and local levels that takes into account environmental,
social, demographic and economic issues;
(b) Develop policies that encourage sustainable land use and
management of land resources and take the land resource base, demographic
issues and the interests of the local population into account;
(c) Review the regulatory framework, including laws, regulations and
enforcement procedures, in order to identify improvements needed to support
sustainable land use and management of land resources and restricts the
transfer of productive arable land to other uses;
(d) Apply economic instruments and develop institutional mechanisms
and incentives to encourage the best possible land use and sustainable
management of land resources;
(e) Encourage the principle of delegating policy-making to the lowest
level of public authority consistent with effective action and a locally
driven approach.
Strengthening planning and management systems
10.7. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of regional
and international organizations, should review and, if appropiate, revise
planning and management systems to facilitate an integrated approach. To do
this, they should:
(a) Adopt planning and management systems that facilitate the
integration of environmental components such as air, water, land and othernatural resources, using landscape ecological planning (LANDEP) or other
approaches that focus on, for example, an ecosystem or a watershed;
(b) Adopt strategic frameworks that allow the integration of both
developmental and environmental goals; examples of these frameworks include
sustainable livelihood systems, rural development, the World Conservation
Strategy/Caring for the Earth, primary environmental care (PEC) and others;
(c) Establish a general framework for land-use and physical planning
within which specialized and more detailed sectoral plans (e.g., for
protected areas, agriculture, forests, human settlements, rural development)
can be developed; establish intersectoral consultative bodies to streamline
project planning and implementation;
(d) Strengthen management systems for land and natural resources by
including appropriate traditional and indigenous methods; examples of these
practices include pastoralism, Hema reserves (traditional Islamic land
reserves) and terraced agriculture;
(e) Examine and, if necessary, establish innovative and flexible
approaches to programme funding;
(f) Compile detailed land capability inventories to guide sustainable
land resources allocation, management and use at the national and local
levels.
Promoting application of appropriate tools for planning and management
10.8. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of national
and international organizations, should promote the improvement, further
development and widespread application of planning and management tools that
facilitate an integrated and sustainable approach to land and resources. To
do this, they should:
(a) Adopt improved systems for the interpretation and integrated
analysis of data on land use and land resources;
(b) Systematically apply techniques and procedures for assessing the
environmental, social and economic impacts, risks, costs and benefits of
specific actions;
(c) Analyse and test methods to include land and ecosystem functions
and land resources values in national accounts.
Raising awareness
10.9. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with national
institutions and interest groups and with the support of regional and
international organizations, should launch awareness-raising campaigns to
alert and educate people on the importance of integrated land and land
resources management and the role that individuals and social groups can
playin it. This should be accompanied by provision of the means to adopt
improved practices for land use and sustainable management.
Promoting public participation
10.10. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with national
organizations and with the support of regional and international
organizations, should establish innovative procedures, programmes, projects
and services that facilitate and encourage the active participation of those
affected in the decision-making and implementation process, especially of
groups that have, hitherto, often been excluded, such as women, youth,
indigenous people and their communities and other local communities.
(b) Data and information
Strengthening information systems
10.11. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with national
institutions and the private sector and with the support of regional and
international organizations, should strengthen the information systems
necessary for making decisions and evaluating future changes on land use and
management. The needs of both men and women should be taken into account.
To do this, they should:
(a) Strengthen information, systematic observation and assessment
systems for environmental, economic and social data related to land
resources at the global, regional, national and local levels and for land
capability and land-use and management patterns;
(b) Strengthen coordination between existing sectoral data systems on
land and land resources and strengthen national capacity to gather and
assess data;
(c) Provide the appropriate technical information necessary for
informed decision-making on land use and management in an accessible form to
all sectors of the population, especially to local communities and women;
(d) Support low-cost, community-managed systems for the collection of
comparable information on the status and processes of change of land
resources, including soils, forest cover, wildlife, climate and other
elements.
(c) International and regional coordination and cooperation
Establishing regional machinery
10.12. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of regional
and international organizations, should strengthen regional cooperation and
exchange of information on land resources. To do this, they should:
(a) Study and design regional policies to support programmes for
land-use and physical planning;
(b) Promote the development of land-use and physical plans in the
countries of the region;
(c) Design information systems and promote training;
(d) Exchange, through networks and other appropriate means,
information on experiences with the process and results of integrated and
participatory planning and management of land resources at the national and
local levels.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
10.13. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $50 million from the international community on grant or concessional
terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have
not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms,
including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
Enhancing scientific understanding of the land resources system
10.14. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with the
national and international scientific community and with the support of
appropriate national and international organizations, should promote and
support research, tailored to local environments, on the land resources
system and the implications for sustainable development and management
practices. Priority should be given, as appropriate, to:
(a) Assessment of land potential capability and ecosystem functions;
(b) Ecosystemic interactions and interactions between land resources
and social, economic and environmental systems;
(c) Developing indicators of sustainability for land resources, taking
into account environmental, economic, social, demographic, cultural and
political factors.
Testing research findings through pilot projects
10.15. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with the
national and international scientific community and with the support of the
relevant international organizations, should research and test, through
pilot projects, the applicability of improved approaches to the integrated
planningand management of land resources, including technical, social and
institutional factors.
(c) Human resource development
Enhancing education and training
10.16. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with the
appropriate local authorities, non-governmental organizations and
international institutions, should promote the development of the human
resources that are required to plan and manage land and land resources
sustainably. This should be done by providing incentives for local
initiatives and by enhancing local management capacity, particularly of
women, through:
(a) Emphasizing interdisciplinary and integrative approaches in the
curricula of schools and technical, vocational and university training;
(b) Training all relevant sectors concerned to deal with land
resources in an integrated and sustainable manner;
(c) Training communities, relevant extension services, community-based
groups and non-governmental organizations on land management techniques and
approaches applied successfully elsewhere.
(d) Capacity-building
Strengthening technological capacity
10.17. Governments at the appropriate level, in cooperation with other
Governments and with the support of relevant international organizations,
should promote focused and concerted efforts for education and training and
the transfer of techniques and technologies that support the various aspects
of the sustainable planning and management process at the national,
state/provincial and local levels.
Strengthening institutions
10.18. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of
appropriate international organizations, should:
(a) Review and, where appropriate, revise the mandates of institutions
that deal with land and natural resources to include explicitly the
interdisciplinary integration of environmental, social and economic issues;
(b) Strengthen coordinating mechanisms between institutions that deal
with land-use and resources management to facilitate integration of sectoral
concerns and strategies;
(c) Strengthen local decision-making capacity and improve coordination
with higher levels.
Chapter 11
COMBATING DEFORESTATION
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Sustaining the multiple roles and functions of all types
of forests, forest lands and woodlands
Basis for action
11.1. There are major weaknesses in the policies, methods and mechanisms
adopted to support and develop the multiple ecological, economic, social and
cultural roles of trees, forests and forest lands. Many developed countries
are confronted with the effects of air pollution and fire damage on their
forests. More effective measures and approaches are often required at the
national level to improve and harmonize policy formulation, planning and
programming; legislative measures and instruments; development patterns;
participation of the general public, especially women and indigenous people;
involvement of youth; roles of the private sector, local organizations,
non-governmental organizations and cooperatives; development of technical
and multidisciplinary skills and quality of human resources; forestry
extension and public education; research capability and support;
administrative structures and mechanisms, including intersectoral
coordination, decentralization and responsibility and incentive systems; and
dissemination of information and public relations. This is especially
important to ensure a rational and holistic approach to the sustainable and
environmentally sound development of forests. The need for securing the
multiple roles of forests and forest lands through adequate and appropriate
institutional strengthening has been repeatedly emphasized in many of the
reports, decisions and recommendations of FAO, ITTO, UNEP, the World Bank,
IUCN and other organizations.
Objectives
11.2. The objectives of this programme area are as follows:
(a) To strengthen forest-related national institutions, to enhance the
scope and effectiveness of activities related to the management,
conservation and sustainable development of forests, and to effectively
ensure the sustainable utilization and production of forests' goods and
services in both the developed and the developing countries; by the year
2000, to strengthen the capacities and capabilities of national institutions
to enable them to acquire the necessary knowledge for the protection and
conservation of forests, as well as to expand their scope and,
correspondingly, enhance the effectiveness of programmes and activities
related to the management and development of forests;
(b) To strengthen and improve human, technical and professional
skills, as well as expertise and capabilities to effectively formulate and
implement policies, plans, programmes, research and projects on management,
conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests and
forest-based resources, and forest lands inclusive, as well as other areas
from which forest benefits can be derived.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
11.3 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of regional,
subregional and international organizations, should, where necessary,
enhance institutional capability to promote the multiple roles and functions
of all types of forests and vegetation inclusive of other related lands and
forest-based resources in supporting sustainable development and
environmental conservation in all sectors. This should be done, wherever
possible and necessary, by strengthening and/or modifying the existing
structures and arrangements, and by improving cooperation and coordination
of their respective roles. Some of the major activities in this regard are
as follows:
(a) Rationalizing and strengthening administrative structures and
mechanisms, including provision of adequate levels of staff and allocation
of responsibilities, decentralization of decision-making, provision of
infrastructural facilities and equipment, intersectoral coordination and an
effective system of communication;
(b) Promoting participation of the private sector, labour unions,
rural cooperatives, local communities, indigenous people, youth, women, user
groups and non-governmental organizations in forest-related activities, and
access to information and training programmes within the national context;
(c) Reviewing and, if necessary, revising measures and programmes
relevant to all types of forests and vegetation, inclusive of other related
lands and forest-based resources, and relating them to other land uses and
development policies and legislation; promoting adequate legislation and
other measures as a basis against uncontrolled conversion to other types of
land uses;
(d) Developing and implementing plans and programmes, including
definition of national and, if necessary, regional and subregional goals,
programmes and criteria for their implementation and subsequent improvement;
(e) Establishing, developing and sustaining an effective system of
forest extension and public education to ensure better awareness,
appreciation and management of forests with regard to the multiple roles and
values of trees, forests and forest lands;
(f) Establishing and/or strengthening institutions for forest
education and training, as well as forestry industries, for developing an
adequate cadre of trained and skilled staff at the professional, technical
and vocational levels, with emphasis on youth and women;
(g) Establishing and strengthening capabilities for research related
to the different aspects of forests and forest products, for example, on the
sustainable management of forests, research on biodiversity, on the effects
of air-borne pollutants, on traditional uses of forest resources by local
populations and indigenous people, and on improving market returns and other
non-market values from the management of forests.
(b) Data and information
11.4. Governments at the appropriate level, with the assistance and
cooperation of international, regional, subregional and bilateral agencies,
where relevant, should develop adequate databases and baseline information
necessary for planning and programme evaluation. Some of the more specific
activities include the following:
(a) Collecting, compiling and regularly updating and distributing
information on land classification and land use, including data on forest
cover, areas suitable for afforestation, endangered species, ecological
values, traditional/indigenous land use values, biomass and productivity,
correlating demographic, socio-economic and forest resources information at
the micro- and macro-levels, and undertaking periodic analyses of forest
programmes;
(b) Establishing linkages with other data systems and sources relevant
to supporting forest management, conservation and development, while further
developing or reinforcing existing systems such as geographic information
systems, as appropriate;
(c) Creating mechanisms to ensure public access to this information.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
11.5. Governments at the appropriate level and institutions should
cooperate in the provision of expertise and other support and the promotion
of international research efforts, in particular with a view to enhancing
transfer of technology and specialized training and ensuring access to
experiences and research results. There is need for strengthening
coordination and improving the performance of existing forest-related
international organizations in providing technical cooperation and support
to interested countries for the management, conservation and sustainable
development of forests.
Means of implementation
(a) Financial and cost evaluation
11.6. The secretariat of the Conference has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to
be about $2.5 billion, including about $860 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
11.7. The planning, research and training activities specified will form
the scientific and technological means for implementing the programme, as
well as its output. The systems, methodology and know-how generated by the
programme will help improve efficiency. Some of the specific steps involved
should include:
(a) Analysing achievements, constraints and social issues for
supporting programme formulation and implementation;
(b) Analysing research problems and research needs, research planning
and implementation of specific research projects;
(c) Assessing needs for human resources, skill development and
training;
(d) Developing, testing and applying appropriate
methodologies/approaches
in implementing forest programmes and plans.
(c) Human resource development
11.8. The specific components of forest education and training will
effectively contribute to human resource development. These include:
(a) Launching of graduate and post-graduate degree, specialization and
research programmes;
(b) Strengthening of pre-service, in-service and extension service
training programmes at the technical and vocational levels, including
training of trainers/teachers, and developing curriculum and teaching
materials/methods;
(c) Special training for staff of national forest-related
organizations in aspects such as project formulation, evaluation and
periodical evaluations.
(d) Capacity-building
11.9. This programme area is specifically concerned with capacity-building
in the forest sector and all programme activities specified contribute to
thatend. In building new and strengthened capacities, full advantage should be
taken of the existing systems and experience.
B. Enhancing the protection, sustainable management and
conservation of all forests, and the greening of
degraded areas, through forest rehabilitation,
afforestation, reforestation and other rehabilitative
means
Basis for action
11.10. Forests world wide have been and are being threatened by
uncontrolled degradation and conversion to other types of land uses,
influenced by increasing human needs; agricultural expansion; and
environmentally harmful mismanagement, including, for example, lack of
adequate forest-fire control and anti-poaching measures, unsustainable
commercial logging, overgrazing and unregulated browsing, harmful effects of
airborne pollutants, economic incentives and other measures taken by other
sectors of the economy. The impacts of loss and degradation of forests are
in the form of soil erosion; loss of biological diversity, damage to
wildlife habitats and degradation of watershed areas, deterioration of the
quality of life and reduction of the options for development.
11.11. The present situation calls for urgent and consistent action for
conserving and sustaining forest resources. The greening of suitable areas,
in all its component activities, is an effective way of increasing public
awareness and participation in protecting and managing forest resources. It
should include the consideration of land use and tenure patterns and local
needs and should spell out and clarify the specific objectives of the
different types of greening activities.
Objectives
11.12. The objectives of this programme area are as follows:
(a) To maintain existing forests through conservation and management,
and sustain and expand areas under forest and tree cover, in appropriate
areas of both developed and developing countries, through the conservation
of natural forests, protection, forest rehabilitation, regeneration,
afforestation, reforestation and tree planting, with a view to maintaining
or restoring the ecological balance and expanding the contribution of
forests to human needs and welfare;
(b) To prepare and implement, as appropriate, national forestry action
programmes and/or plans for the management, conservation and sustainable
development of forests. These programmes and/or plans should be integrated
with other land uses. In this context, country-driven national forestry
action programmes and/or plans under the Tropical Forestry Action Programme
are currently being implemented in more than 80 countries, with the support
of the international community;
(c) To ensure sustainable management and, where appropriate,
conservation of existing and future forest resources;
(d) To maintain and increase the ecological, biological, climatic,
socio-cultural and economic contributions of forest resources;
(e) To facilitate and support the effective implementation of the
non-legally binding authoritative statement of principles for a global
consensus on the management, conservation and sustainable development of all
types of forests, adopted by the United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development, and on the basis of the implementation of these principles
to consider the need for and the feasibility of all kinds of appropriate
internationally agreed arrangements to promote international cooperation on
forest management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of
forests, including afforestation, reforestation and rehabilitation.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
11.13. Governments should recognize the importance of categorizing forests,
within the framework of long-term forest conservation and management
policies, into different forest types and setting up sustainable units in
every region/watershed with a view to securing the conservation of forests.
Governments, with the participation of the private sector, non-governmental
organizations, local community groups, indigenous people, women, local
government units and the public at large, should act to maintain and expand
the existing vegetative cover wherever ecologically, socially and
economically feasible, through technical cooperation and other forms of
support. Major activities to be considered include:
(a) Ensuring the sustainable management of all forest ecosystems and
woodlands, through improved proper planning, management and timely
implementation of silvicultural operations, including inventory and relevant
research, as well as rehabilitation of degraded natural forests to restore
productivity and environmental contributions, giving particular attention to
human needs for economic and ecological services, wood-based energy,
agroforestry, non-timber forest products and services, watershed and soil
protection, wildlife management, and forest genetic resources;
(b) Establishing, expanding and managing, as appropriate to each
national context, protected area systems, which includes systems of
conservation units for their environmental, social and spiritual functions
and values, including conservation of forests in representative ecological
systems and landscapes, primary old-growth forests, conservation and
management of wildlife, nomination of World Heritage Sites under the World
Heritage Convention, as appropriate, conservation of genetic resources,
involving in situ and ex situ measures and undertaking supportive measures
to ensure sustainable utilization of biological resources and conservation
of biological diversity and the traditional forest habitats of indigenous
people, forest dwellers and local communities;
(c) Undertaking and promoting buffer and transition zone management;
(d) Carrying out revegetation in appropriate mountain areas,
highlands, bare lands, degraded farm lands, arid and semi-arid lands and
coastal areas for combating desertification and preventing erosion problems
and for other protective functions and national programmes for
rehabilitation of degraded lands, including community forestry, social
forestry, agroforestry and silvipasture, while also taking into account the
role of forests as national carbon reservoirs and sinks;
(e) Developing industrial and non-industrial planted forests in order
to support and promote national ecologically sound afforestation and
reforestation/regeneration programmes in suitable sites, including upgrading
of existing planted forests of both industrial and non-industrial and
commercial purpose to increase their contribution to human needs and to
offset pressure on primary/old growth forests. Measures should be taken to
promote and provide intermediate yields and to improve the rate of returns
on investments in planted forests, through interplanting and underplanting
valuable crops;
(f) Developing/strengthening a national and/or master plan for planted
forests as a priority, indicating, inter alia, the location, scope and
species, and specifying areas of existing planted forests requiring
rehabilitation, taking into account the economic aspect for future planted
forest development, giving emphasis to native species;
(g) Increasing the protection of forests from pollutants, fire, pests
and diseases and other human-made interferences such as forest poaching,
mining and unmitigated shifting cultivation, the uncontrolled introduction
of exotic plant and animal species, as well as developing and accelerating
research for a better understanding of problems relating to the management
and regeneration of all types of forests; strengthening and/or establishing
appropriate measures to assess and/or check inter-border movement of plants
and related materials;
(h) Stimulating development of urban forestry for the greening of
urban, peri-urban and rural human settlements for amenity, recreation and
production purposes and for protecting trees and groves;
(i) Launching or improving opportunities for particpation of all
people, including youth, women, indigenous people and local communities in
the formulation, development and implementation of forest-related programmes
and other activities, taking due account of the local needs and cultural values;
(j) Limiting and aiming to halt destructive shifting cultivation by
addressing the underlying social and ecological causes.
(b) Data and information
11.14. Management-related activities should involve collection, compilation
and analysis of data/information, including baseline surveys. Some of the
specific activities include the following:
(a) Carrying out surveys and developing and implementing land-use
plans for appropriate greening/planting/afforestation/reforestation/forest
rehabilitation;
(b) Consolidating and updating land-use and forest inventory and
management information for management and land-use planning of wood and
non-wood resources, including data on shifting cultivation and other agents
of forest destruction;
(c) Consolidating information on genetic resources and related
biotechnology, including surveys and studies, as necessary;
(d) Carrying out surveys and research on local/indigenous knowledge of
trees and forests and their uses to improve the planning and implementation
of sustainable forest management;
(e) Compiling and analysing research data on species/site interaction
of species used in planted forests and assessing the potential impact on
forests of climatic change, as well as effects of forests on climate, and
initiating in-depth studies on the carbon cycle relating to different forest
types to provide scientific advice and technical support;
(f) Establishing linkages with other data/information sources that
relate to sustainable management and use of forests and improving access to
data and information;
(g) Developing and intensifying research to improve knowledge and
understanding of problems and natural mechanisms related to the management
and rehabilitation of forests, including research on fauna and its
interrelation with forests;
(h) Consolidating information on forest conditions and
site-influencing immissions and emissions.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
11.15. The greening of appropriate areas is a task of global importance and
impact. The international and regional community should provide technical
cooperation and other means for this programme area. Specific activities of
an international nature, in support of national efforts, should include the
following:
(a) Increasing cooperative actions to reduce pollutants and
trans-boundary impacts affecting the health of trees and forests and
conservation of representative ecosystems;
(b) Coordinating regional and subregional research on carbon
sequestration, air pollution and other environmental issues;
(c) Documenting and exchanging information/experience for the benefit
of countries with similar problems and prospects;
(d) Strengthening the coordination and improving the capacity and
ability of intergovernmental organizations such as FAO, ITTO, UNEP and
UNESCO to provide technical support for the management, conservation and
sustainable development of forests, including support for the negotiation of
the International Tropical Timber Agreement of 1983, due in 1992/93.
Means of implementation
(a) Financial and cost evaluation
11.16. The secretariat of the Conference has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to
be about $10 billion, including about $3.7 billion from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
11.17. Data analysis, planning, research, transfer/development of
technology and/or training activities form an integral part of the programme
activities, providing the scientific and technological means of
implementation. National institutions should:
(a) Develop feasibility studies and operational planning related to
major forest activities;
(b) Develop and apply environmentally sound technology relevant to the
various activities listed;
(c) Increase action related to genetic improvement and application of
biotechnology for improving productivity and tolerance to environmental
stress and including, for example, tree breeding, seed technology, seed
procurement networks, germ-plasm banks, "in vitro" techniques, and in situ
and ex situ conservation.
(c) Human resource development
11.18. Essential means for effectively implementing the activities include
training and development of appropriate skills, working facilities and
conditions, public motivation and awareness. Specific activities include:
(a) Providing specialized training in planning, management,
environmental conservation, biotechnology etc.;
(b) Establishing demonstration areas to serve as models and training
facilities;
(c) Supporting local organizations, communities, non-governmental
organizations and private land owners, in particular women, youth, farmers
and indigenous people/shifting cultivators, through extension and provision
of inputs and training.
(d) Capacity-building
11.19. National Governments, the private sector, local
organizations/communities, indigenous people, labour unions and
non-governmental organizations should develop capacities, duly supported by
relevant international organizations, to implement the programme activities.
Such capacities should be developed and strengthened in harmony with the
programme activities. Capacity-building activities include policy and legal
frameworks, national institution building, human resource development,
development of research and technology, development of infrastructure,
enhancement of public awareness etc.
C. Promoting efficient utilization and assessment to recover
the full valuation of the goods and services provided by
forests, forest lands and woodlands
Basis for action
11.20. The vast potential of forests and forest lands as a major resource
for development is not yet fully realized. The improved management of
forests can increase the production of goods and services and, in
particular, the yield of wood and non-wood forest products, thus helping to
generate additional employment and income, additional value through
processing and trade of forest products, increased contribution to foreign
exchange earnings, and increased return on investment. Forest resources,
being renewable, can be sustainably managed in a manner that is compatible
with environmental conservation. The implications of the harvesting of
forest resources for the other values of the forest should be taken fully
into consideration in the development of forest policies. It is also
possible to increase the value of forests through non-damaging uses such as
eco-tourism and the managed supply of genetic materials. Concerted action
is needed in order to increase people's perception of the value of forests
and of the benefits they provide. The survival of forests and their
continued contribution to human welfare depends to a great extent on
succeeding in this endeavour.
Objectives
11.21. The objectives of this programme area are as follows:
(a) To improve recognition of the social, economic and ecological
values of trees, forests and forest lands, including the consequences of the
damage caused by the lack of forests; to promote methodologies with a view
to incorporating social, economic and ecological values of trees, forests
and forest lands into the national economic accounting systems; to ensure
their sustainable management in a way that is consistent with land use,
environmental considerations and development needs;
(b) To promote efficient, rational and sustainable utilization of all
types of forests and vegetation inclusive of other related lands and
forest-based resources, through the development of efficient forest-based
processing industries, value-adding secondary processing and trade in forest
products, based on sustainably managed forest resources and in accordance
with plans that integrate all wood and non-wood values of forests;
(c) To promote more efficient and sustainable use of forests and trees
for fuelwood and energy supplies;
(d) To promote more comprehensive use and economic contributions of
forest areas by incorporating eco-tourism into forest management and
planning.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
11.22. Governments, with the support of the private sector, scientific
institutions, indigenous people, non-governmental organizations,
cooperatives and entrepreneurs, where appropriate, should undertake the
following activities, properly coordinated at the national level, with
financial and technical cooperation from international organizations:
(a) Carrying out detailed investment studies, supply-demand
harmonization and environmental impact analysis to rationalize and improve
trees and forest utilization and to develop and establish appropriate
incentive schemes and regulatory measures, including tenurial arrangements,
to provide a favourable investment climate and promote better management;
(b) Formulating scientifically sound criteria and guidelines for the
management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of
forests;
(c) Improving environmentally sound methods and practices of forest
harvesting, which are ecologically sound and economically viable, including
planning and management, improved use of equipment, storage and
transportation to reduce and, if possible, maximize the use of waste and
improve value of both wood and non-wood forest products;
(d) Promoting the better use and development of natural forests and
woodlands, including planted forests, wherever possible, through appropriate
and environmentally sound and economically viable activities, including
silvicultural practices and management of other plant and animal species;
(e) Promoting and supporting the downstream processing of forest
products to increase retained value and other benefits;
(f) Promoting/popularizing non-wood forest products and other forms of
forest resources, apart from fuelwood (e.g., medicinal plants, dyes, fibres,
gums, resins, fodder, cultural products, rattan, bamboo) through programmes
and social forestry/participatory forest activities, including research on
their processing and uses;
(g) Developing, expanding and/or improving the effectiveness and
efficiency of forest-based processing industries, both wood and non-wood
based, involving such aspects as efficient conversion technology and
improved sustainable utilization of harvesting and process residues;
promoting underutilized species in natural forests through research,
demonstration and commercialization; promoting value-adding secondary
processing for improved employment, income and retained value; and
promoting/improving markets for, and trade in, forest products through
relevant institutions, policies and facilities;
(h) Promoting and supporting the management of wildlife, as well as
eco-tourism, including farming, and encouraging and supporting the husbandry
and cultivation of wild species, for improved rural income and employment,
ensuring economic and social benefits without harmful ecological impacts;
(i) Promoting appropriate small-scale forest-based enterprises for
supporting rural development and local entrepreneurship;
(j) Improving and promoting methodologies for a comprehensive
assessment that will capture the full value of forests, with a view to
including that value in the market-based pricing structure of wood and
non-wood based products;
(k) Harmonizing sustainable development of forests with national
development needs and trade policies that are compatible with the
ecologically sound use of forest resources, using, for example, the ITTO
Guidelines for Sustainable Management of Tropical Forests;
(l) Developing, adopting and strengthening national programmes for
accounting the economic and non-economic value of forests.
(b) Data and information
11.23. The objectives and management-related activities presuppose data and
information analysis, feasibility studies, market surveys and review of
technological information. Some of the relevant activities include:
(a) Undertaking analysis of supply and demand for forest products and
services, to ensure efficiency in their utilization, wherever necessary;
(b) Carrying out investment analysis and feasibility studies,
including environmental impact assessment, for establishing forest-based
processing enterprises;
(c) Conducting research on the properties of currently underutilized
species for their promotion and commercialization;
(d) Supporting market surveys of forest products for trade promotion
and intelligence;
(e) Facilitating the provision of adequate technological information
as a measure to promote better utilization of forest resources.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
11.24. Cooperation and assistance of international organizations and the
international community in technology transfer, specialization and promotion
of fair terms of trade, without resorting to unilateral restrictions and/or
bans on forest products contrary to GATT and other multilateral trade
agreements, the application of appropriate market mechanisms and incentives
will help in addressing global environmental concerns. Strengthening the
coordination and performance of existing international organizations, in
particular FAO, UNIDO, UNESCO, UNEP, ITC/UNCTAD/GATT, ITTO and ILO, for
providing technical assistance and guidance in this programme area is
another specific activity.
Means of implementation
(a) Financial and cost evaluation
11.25. The secretariat of the Conference has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to
be about $18 billion, including about $880 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
11.26. The programme activities presuppose major research efforts and
studies, as well as improvement of technology. This should be coordinated
by national Governments, in collaboration with and supported by relevant
international organizations and institutions. Some of the specific
components include:
(a) Research on properties of wood and non-wood products and their
uses, to promote improved utilization;
(b) Development and application of environmentally sound and
less-polluting technology for forest utilization;
(c) Models and techniques of outlook analysis and development
planning;
(d) Scientific investigations on the development and utilization of
non-timber forest products;
(e) Appropriate methodologies to comprehensively assess the value of
forests.
(c) Human resource development
11.27. The success and effectiveness of the programme area depends on the
availability of skilled personnel. Specialized training is an important
factor in this regard. New emphasis should be given to the incorporation of
women. Human resource development for programme implementation, in
quantitative and qualitative terms, should include:
(a) Developing required specialized skills to implement the programme,
including establishing special training facilities at all levels;
(b) Introducing/strengthening refresher training courses, including
fellowships and study tours, to update skills and technological know-how and
improve productivity;
(c) Strengthening capability for research, planning, economic
analysis, periodical evaluations and evaluation, relevant to improved
utilization of forest resources;
(d) Promoting efficiency and capability of private and cooperative
sectors through provision of facilities and incentives.
(d) Capacity-building
11.28. Capacity-building, including strengthening of existing capacity, is
implicit in the programme activities. Improving administration, policy and
plans, national institutions, human resources, research and scientific
capabilities, technology development, and periodical evaluations and
evaluation are important components of capacity-building.
D. Establishing and/or strengthening capacities for the
planning, assessment and systematic observations
of forests and related programmes, projects and
activities, including commercial trade and processes
Basis for action
11.29. Assessment and systematic observations are essential components of
long-term planning, for evaluating effects, quantitatively and
qualitatively, and for rectifying inadequacies. This mechanism, however, is
one of the often neglected aspects of forest resources, management,
conservation and development. In many cases, even the basic information
related to the area and type of forests, existing potential and volume of
harvest is lacking. In many developing countries, there is a lack of
structures and mechanisms to carry out these functions. There is an urgent
need to rectify this situation for a better understanding of the role and
importance of forests and to realistically plan for their effective
conservation, management, regeneration, and sustainable development.
Objectives
11.30. The objectives of this programme area are as follows:
(a) To strengthen or establish systems for the assessment and
systematic observations of forests and forest lands with a view to assessing
the impacts of programmes, projects and activities on the quality and extent
of forest resources, land available for afforestation, and land tenure, and
to integrate the systems in a continuing process of research and in-depth
analysis, while ensuring necessary modifications and improvements for
planning and decision-making. Specific emphasis should be given to the
participation of rural people in these processes;
(b) To provide economists, planners, decision makers and local
communities with sound and adequate updated information on forests and
forest land resources.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
11.31. Governments and institutions, in collaboration, where necessary, with
appropriate international agencies and organizations, universities and
non-governmental organizations, should undertake assessments and systematic
observations of forests and related programmes and processes with a view to
their continuous improvement. This should be linked to related activities
of research and management and, wherever possible, be built upon existing
systems. Major activities to be considered are:
(a) Assessing and carrying out systematic observations of the
quantitative and qualitative situation and changes of forest cover and
forestresources endowments, including land classification, land use and updates of
its status, at the appropriate national level, and linking this activity, as
appropriate, with planning as a basis for policy and programme formulation;
(b) Establishing national assessment and systematic observation
systems and evaluation of programmes and processes, including establishment
of definitions, standards, norms and intercalibration methods, and the
capability for initiating corrective actions as well as improving the
formulation and implementation of programmes and projects;
(c) Making estimates of impacts of activities affecting forestry
developments and conservation proposals, in terms of key variables such as
developmental goals, benefits and costs, contributions of forests to other
sectors, community welfare, environmental conditions and biological
diversity and their impacts at the local, regional and global levels, where
appropriate, to assess the changing technological and financial needs of
countries;
(d) Developing national systems of forest resource assessment and
valuation, including necessary research and data analysis, which account
for, where possible, the full range of wood and non-wood forest products and
services, and incorporating results in plans and strategies and, where
feasible, in national systems of accounts and planning;
(e) Establishing necessary intersectoral and programme linkages,
including improved access to information, in order to support a holistic
approach to planning and programming.
(b) Data and information
11.32. Reliable data and information are vital to this programme area.
National Governments, in collaboration, where necessary, with relevant
international organizations, should, as appropriate, undertake to improve
data and information continuously and to ensure its exchange. Major
activities to be considered are as follows:
(a) Collecting, consolidating and exchanging existing information and
establishing baseline information on aspects relevant to this programme
area;
(b) Harmonizing the methodologies for programmes involving data and
information activities to ensure accuracy and consistency;
(c) Undertaking special surveys on, for example, land capability and
suitability for afforestation action;
(d) Enhancing research support and improving access to and exchange of
research results.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
11.33. The international community should extend to the Governments
concerned necessary technical and financial support for implementing this
programme area, including consideration of the following activities:
(a) Establishing conceptual framework and formulating acceptable
criteria, norms and definitions for systematic observations and assessment
of forest resources;
(b) Establishing and strengthening national institutional coordination
mechanisms for forest assessment and systematic observation activities;
(c) Strengthening existing regional and global networks for the
exchange of relevant information;
(d) Strengthening the capacity and ability and improving the
performance of existing international organizations, such as the
Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), FAO,
ITTO, UNEP, UNESCO and UNIDO, to provide technical support and guidance in
this programme area.
Means of implementation
(a) Financial and cost evaluation
11.34. The secretariat of the Conference has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to
be about $750 million, including about $230 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
11.35. Accelerating development consists of implementing the
management-related and data/information activities cited above. Activities
related to global environmental issues are those that will contribute to
global information for assessing/evaluating/addressing environmental issues
on a worldwide basis. Strengthening the capacity of international
institutions consists of enhancing the technical staff and the executing
capacity of several international organizations in order to meet the
requirements of countries.
(b) Scientific and technological means
11.36. Assessment and systematic observation activities involve major
research efforts, statistical modelling and technological innovation. These
have been internalized into the management-related activities. The
activities in turn will improve the technological and scientific content of
assessment and periodical evaluations. Some of the specific scientific and
technological components included under these activities are:
(a) Developing technical, ecological and economic methods and models
related to periodical evaluations and evaluation;
(b) Developing data systems, data processing and statistical
modelling;
(c) Remote sensing and ground surveys;
(d) Developing geographic information systems;
(e) Assessing and improving technology.
11.37. These are to be linked and harmonized with similar activities and
components in the other programme areas.
(c) Human resource development
11.38. The programme activities foresee the need and include provision for
human resource development in terms of specialization (e.g., the use of
remote-sensing, mapping and statistical modelling), training, technology
transfer, fellowships and field demonstrations.
(d) Capacity-building
11.39. National Governments, in collaboration with appropriate
international organizations and institutions, should develop the necessary
capacity for implementing this programme area. This should be harmonized
with capacity-building for other programme areas. Capacity-building should
cover such aspects as policies, public administration, national-level
institutions, human resource and skill development, research capability,
technology development, information systems, programme evaluation,
intersectoral coordination and international cooperation.
(e) Funding of international and regional cooperation
11.40. The secretariat of the Conference has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to
be about $750 million, including about $530 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
Chapter 12
MANAGING FRAGILE ECOSYSTEMS: COMBATING DESERTIFICATION
AND DROUGHT
INTRODUCTION
12.1. Fragile ecosystems are important ecosystems, with unique features and
resources. Fragile ecosystems include deserts, semi-arid lands, mountains,
wetlands, small islands and certain coastal areas. Most of these ecosystems
are regional in scope, as they transcend national boundaries. This chapter
addresses land resource issues in deserts, as well as arid, semi-arid and
dry sub-humid areas. Sustainable mountain development is addressed in
chapter 13; small islands and coastal areas are discussed in chapter 17.
12.2. Desertification is land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry
sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic
variations and human activities. Desertification affects about one sixth of
the world's population, 70 per cent of all drylands, amounting to
3.6 billion hectares, and one quarter of the total land area of the world.
The most obvious impact of desertification, in addition to widespread
poverty, is the degradation of 3.3 billion hectares of the total area of
rangeland, constituting 73 per cent of the rangeland with a low potential
for human and animal carrying capacity; decline in soil fertility and soil
structure on about 47 per cent of the dryland areas constituting marginal
rainfed cropland; and the degradation of irrigated cropland, amounting to
30 per cent of the dryland areas with a high population density and
agricultural potential.
12.3. The priority in combating desertification should be the
implementation of preventive measures for lands that are not yet degraded,
or which are only slightly degraded. However, the severely degraded areas
should not be neglected. In combating desertification and drought, the
participation of local communities, rural organizations, national
Governments, non-governmental organizations and international and regional
organizations is essential.
12.4. The following programme areas are included in this chapter:
(a) Strengthening the knowledge base and developing information and
monitoring systems for regions prone to desertification and drought,
including the economic and social aspects of these ecosystems;
(b) Combating land degradation through, inter alia, intensified soil
conservation, afforestation and reforestation activities;
(c) Developing and strengthening integrated development programmes for
the eradication of poverty and promotion of alternative livelihood systems
in areas prone to desertification;
(d) Developing comprehensive anti-desertification programmes and
integrating them into national development plans and national environmental
planning;
(e) Developing comprehensive drought preparedness and drought-relief
schemes, including self-help arrangements, for drought-prone areas and
designing programmes to cope with environmental refugees;
(f) Encouraging and promoting popular participation and environmental
education, focusing on desertification control and management of the effects
of drought.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Strengthening the knowledge base and developing information
and monitoring systems for regions prone to desertification
and drought, including the economic and social aspects of
these ecosystems
Basis for action
12.5. The global assessments of the status and rate of desertification
conducted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1977, 1984
and 1991 have revealed insufficient basic knowledge of desertification
processes. Adequate world-wide systematic observation systems are helpful
for the development and implementation of effective anti-desertification
programmes. The capacity of existing international, regional and national
institutions, particularly in developing countries, to generate and exchange
relevant information is limited. An integrated and coordinated information
and systematic observation system based on appropriate technology and
embracing global, regional, national and local levels is essential for
understanding the dynamics of desertification and drought processes. It is
also important for developing adequate measures to deal with desertification
and drought and improving socio-economic conditions.
Objectives
12.6. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To promote the establishment and/or strengthening of national
environmental information coordination centres that will act as focal points
within Governments for sectoral ministries and provide the necessary
standardization and back-up services; to ensure also that national
environmental information systems on desertification and drought are linked
together through a network at subregional, regional and interregional
levels;
(b) To strengthen regional and global systematic observation networks
linked to the development of national systems for the observation of land
degradation and desertification caused both by climate fluctuations and by
human impact, and to identify priority areas for action;
(c) To establish a permanent system at both national and international
levels for monitoring desertification and land degradation with the aim of
improving living conditions in the affected areas.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
12.7. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Establish and/or strengthen environmental information systems at
the national level;
(b) Strengthen national, state/provincial and local assessment and
ensure cooperation/networking between existing environmental information and
monitoring systems, such as Earthwatch and the Sahara and Sahel Observatory;
(c) Strengthen the capacity of national institutions to analyse
environmental data so that ecological change can be monitored and
environmental information obtained on a continuing basis at the national
level.
(b) Data and information
12.8. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Review and study the means for measuring the ecological, economic
and social consequences of desertification and land degradation and
introduce the results of these studies internationally into desertification
and land degradation assessment practices;
(b) Review and study the interactions between the socio-economic
impacts of climate, drought and desertification and utilize the results of
these studies to secure concrete action.
12.9. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Support the integrated data collection and research work of
programmes related to desertification and drought problems;
(b) Support national, regional and global programmes for integrated
data collection and research networks carrying out assessment of soil and
land degradation;
(c) Strengthen national and regional meteorological and hydrological
networks and monitoring systems to ensure adequate collection of basic
information and communication among national, regional and international
centres.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
12.10. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Strengthen regional programmes and international cooperation, such
as the Permanent Inter-State Committee on Drought Control in the Sahel
(CILSS), the Intergovernmental Authority for Drought and Development
(IGADD), the Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC),
the Arab Maghreb Union and other regional organizations, as well as such
organizations as the Sahara and Sahel Observatory;
(b) Establish and/or develop a comprehensive desertification, land
degradation and human condition database component that incorporates both
physical and socio-economic parameters. This should be based on existing
and, where necessary, additional facilities, such as those of Earthwatch and
other information systems of international, regional and national
institutions strengthened for this purpose;
(c) Determine benchmarks and define indicators of progress that
facilitate the work of local and regional organizations in tracking progress
in the fight for anti-desertification. Particular attention should be paid
to indicators of local participation.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
12.11. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $350 million, including about $175 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
12.12. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations working on the issue of
desertification and drought, should:
(a) Undertake and update existing inventories of natural resources,
such as energy, water, soil, minerals, plant and animal access to food, as
well as other resources, such as housing, employment, health, education and
demographic distribution in time and space;
(b) Develop integrated information systems for environmental
monitoring, accounting and impact assessment;
(c) International bodies should cooperate with national Governments to
facilitate the acquisition and development of appropriate technology for
monitoring and combating drought and desertification.
(c) Human resource development
12.13. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations working on the issue of
desertification and drought, should develop the technical and professional
skills of people engaged in monitoring and assessing the issue of
desertification and drought.
(d) Capacity-building
12.14. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations working on the issue of
desertification and drought, should:
(a) Strengthen national and local institutions by providing adequate
staff equipment and finance for assessing desertification;
(b) Promote the involvement of the local population, particularly
women and youth, in the collection and utilization of environmental
information through education and awareness-building.
B. Combating land degradation through, inter alia,
intensified soil conservation, afforestation
and reforestation activities
Basis for action
12.15. Desertification affects about 3.6 billion hectares, which is about
70 per cent of the total area of the world's drylands or nearly one quarter
of the global land area. In combating desertification on rangeland, rainfed
cropland and irrigated land, preventative measures should be launched in
areas which are not yet affected or are only slightly affected by
desertification; corrective measures should be implemented to sustain the
productivity of moderately desertified land; and rehabilitative measures
should be taken to recover severely or very severely desertified drylands.
12.16. An increasing vegetation cover would promote and stabilize the
hydrological balance in the dryland areas and maintain land quality and land
productivity. Prevention of not yet degraded land and application of
corrective measures and rehabilitation of moderate and severely degraded
drylands, including areas affected by sand dune movements, through the
introduction of environmentally sound, socially acceptable, fair and
economically feasible land-use systems. This will enhance the land carrying
capacity and maintenance of biotic resources in fragile ecosystems.
Objectives
12.17. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) As regards areas not yet affected or only slightly affected by
desertification, to ensure appropriate management of existing natural
formations (including forests) for the conservation of biodiversity,
watershed protection, sustainability of their production and agricultural
development, and other purposes, with the full participation of indigenous
people;
(b) To rehabilitate moderately to severely desertified drylands for
productive utilization and sustain their productivity for
agropastoral/agroforestry development through, inter alia, soil and water
conservation;
(c) To increase the vegetation cover and support management of biotic
resources in regions affected or prone to desertification and drought,
notably through such activities as afforestation/reforestation,
agroforestry, community forestry and vegetation retention schemes;
(d) To improve management of forest resources, including woodfuel, and
to reduce woodfuel consumption through more efficient utilization,
conservation and the enhancement, development and use of other sources of
energy, including alternative sources of energy.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
12.18. Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Implement urgent direct preventive measures in drylands that are
vulnerable but not yet affected, or only slightly desertified drylands, by
introducing (i) improved land-use policies and practices for more
sustainable land productivity; (ii) appropriate, environmentally sound and
economically feasible agricultural and pastoral technologies; and (iii)
improved management of soil and water resources;
(b) Carry out accelerated afforestation and reforestation programmes,
using drought-resistant, fast-growing species, in particular native ones,
including legumes and other species, combined with community-based
agroforestry schemes. In this regard, creation of large-scale reforestation
and afforestation schemes, particularly through the establishment of green
belts, should be considered, bearing in mind the multiple benefits of such
measures;
(c) Implement urgent direct corrective measures in moderately to
severely desertified drylands, in addition to the measures listed in
paragraph 19 (a) above, with a view to restoring and sustaining their
productivity;
(d) Promote improved land/water/crop-management systems, making it
possible to combat salinization in existing irrigated croplands; and to
stabilize rainfed croplands and introduce improved soil/crop-management
systems into land-use practice;
(e) Promote participatory management of natural resources, including
rangeland, to meet both the needs of rural populations and conservation
purposes, based on innovative or adapted indigenous technologies;
(f) Promote in situ protection and conservation of special ecological
areas through legislation and other means for the purpose of combating
desertification while ensuring the protection of biodiversity;
(g) Promote and encourage investment in forestry development in
drylands through various incentives, including legislative measures;
(h) Promote the development and use of sources of energy which will
lessen pressure on ligneous resources, including alternative sources of
energy and improved stoves.
(b) Data and information
12.19. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Develop land-use models based on local practices for the
improvement of such practices, with a focus on preventing land degradation.
The models should give a better understanding of the variety of natural and
human-induced factors that may contribute to desertification. Models should
incorporate the interaction of both new and traditional practices to prevent
land degradation and reflect the resilience of the whole ecological and
social system;
(b) Develop, test and introduce, with due regard to environmental
security considerations, drought resistant, fast-growing and productive
plant species appropriate to the environment of the regions concerned.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
12.20. The appropriate United Nations agencies, international and regional
organizations, non-governmental organizations and bilateral agencies should:
(a) Coordinate their roles in combating land degradation and promoting
reforestation, agroforestry and land-management systems in affected
countries;
(b) Support regional and subregional activities in technology
development and dissemination, training and programme implementation to
arrest dryland degradation.
12.21. The national Governments concerned, the appropriate United Nations
agencies and bilateral agencies should strengthen the coordinating role indryland degradation of subregional intergovernmental organizations set up to
cover these activities, such as CILSS, IGADD, SADCC and the Arab Maghreb
Union.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
12.22. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $6 billion, including about $3 billion from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
12.23. Governments at the appropriate level and local communities, with the
support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Integrate indigenous knowledge related to forests, forest lands,
rangeland and natural vegetation into research activities on desertification
and drought;
(b) Promote integrated research programmes on the protection,
restoration and conservation of water and land resources and land-use
management based on traditional approaches, where feasible.
(c) Human resource development
12.24. Governments at the appropriate level and local communities, with the
support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Establish mechanisms to ensure that land users, particularly
women, are the main actors in implementing improved land use, including
agroforestry systems, in combating land degradation;
(b) Promote efficient extension-service facilities in areas prone to
desertification and drought, particularly for training farmers and
pastoralists in the improved management of land and water resources in drylands.
(d) Capacity-building
12.25. Governments at the appropriate level and local communities, with the
support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Develop and adopt, through appropriate national legislation, and
introduce institutionally, new and environmentally sound
development-oriented land-use policies;
(b) Support community-based people's organizations, especially farmers
and pastoralists.
C. Developing and strengthening integrated development
programmes for the eradication of poverty and
promotion of alternative livelihood systems in
areas prone to desertification
Basis for action
12.26. In areas prone to desertification and drought, current livelihood
and resource-use systems are not able to maintain living standards. In most
of the arid and semi-arid areas, the traditional livelihood systems based on
agropastoral systems are often inadequate and unsustainable, particularly in
view of the effects of drought and increasing demographic pressure. Poverty
is a major factor in accelerating the rate of degradation and
desertification. Action is therefore needed to rehabilitate and improve the
agropastoral systems for sustainable management of rangelands, as well as
alternative livelihood systems.
Objectives
12.27. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To create the capacity of village communities and pastoral groups
to take charge of their development and the management of their land
resources on a socially equitable and ecologically sound basis;
(b) To improve production systems in order to achieve greater
productivity within approved programmes for conservation of national
resources and in the framework of an integrated approach to rural
development;
(c) To provide opportunities for alternative livelihoods as a basis
for reducing pressure on land resources while at the same time providing
additional sources of income, particularly for rural populations, thereby
improving their standard of living.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
12.28. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Adopt policies at the national level regarding a decentralized
approach to land-resource management, delegating responsibility to rural
organizations;
(b) Create or strengthen rural organizations in charge of village and
pastoral land management;
(c) Establish and develop local, national and intersectoral mechanisms
to handle environmental and developmental consequences of land tenure
expressed in terms of land use and land ownership. Particular attention
should be given to protecting the property rights of women and pastoral and
nomadic groups living in rural areas;
(d) Create or strengthen village associations focused on economic
activities of common pastoral interest (market gardening, transformation of
agricultural products, livestock, herding, etc.);
(e) Promote rural credit and mobilization of rural savings through the
establishment of rural banking systems;
(f) Develop infrastructure, as well as local production and marketing
capacity, by involving the local people to promote alternative livelihood
systems and alleviate poverty;
(g) Establish a revolving fund for credit to rural entrepreneurs and
local groups to facilitate the establishment of cottage industries/business
ventures and credit for input to agropastoral activities.
(b) Data and information
12.29. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Conduct socio-economic baseline studies in order to have a good
understanding of the situation in the programme area regarding,
particularly, resource and land tenure issues, traditional land-management
practices and characteristics of production systems;
(b) Conduct inventory of natural resources (soil, water and
vegetation) and their state of degradation, based primarily on the knowledge
of the local population (e.g., rapid rural appraisal);
(c) Disseminate information on technical packages adapted to the
social, economic and ecological conditions of each;
(d) Promote exchange and sharing of information concerning the
development of alternative livelihoods with other agro-ecological regions.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
12.30. Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Promote cooperation and exchange of information among the arid and
semi-arid land research institutions concerning techniques and technologies
to improve land and labour productivity, as well as viable production
systems;
(b) Coordinate and harmonize the implementation of programmes and
projects funded by the international organization communities and
non-governmental organizations that are directed towards the alleviation of
poverty and promotion of an alternative livelihood system.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
12.31. The Conference secretariat has estimated the costs for this
programme area in chapter 3 (Combating poverty) and chapter 14 (Promoting
sustainable agriculture and rural development).
(b) Scientific and technological means
12.32. Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Undertake applied research in land use with the support of local
research institutions;
(b) Facilitate regular national, regional and interregional
communication on and exchange of information and experience between
extension officers and researchers;
(c) Support and encourage the introduction and use of technologies for
the generation of alternative sources of incomes.
(c) Human resource development
12.33. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Train members of rural organizations in management skills and
train agropastoralists in such special techniques as soil and water
conservation, water harvesting, agroforestry and small-scale irrigation;
(b) Train extension agents and officers in the participatory approach
to integrated land management.
(d) Capacity-building
12.34. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should establish and
maintain mechanisms to ensure the integration into sectoral and national
development plans and programmes of strategies for poverty alleviation among
the inhabitants of lands prone to desertification.
D. Developing comprehensive anti-desertification programmes
and integrating them into national development plans and
national environmental planning
Basis for action
12.35. In a number of developing countries affected by desertification, the
natural resource base is the main resource upon which the development
process must rely. The social systems interacting with land resources make
the problem much more complex, requiring an integrated approach to the
planning and management of land resources. Action plans to combat
desertification and drought should include management aspects of the
environment and development, thus conforming with the approach of
integrating national development plans and national environmental action
plans.
Objectives
12.36. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To strengthen national institutional capabilities to develop
appropriate anti-desertification programmes and to integrate them into
national development planning;
(b) To develop and integrate strategic planning frameworks for the
development, protection and management of natural resources in dryland areas
into national development plans, including national plans to combat
desertification, and environmental action plans in countries most prone to
desertification;
(c) To initiate a long-term process for implementing and monitoring
strategies related to natural resources management;
(d) To strengthen regional and international cooperation for combating
desertification through, inter alia, the adoption of legal and other
instruments.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
12.37. Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Establish or strengthen, national and local anti-desertification
authorities within government and local executive bodies, as well as local
committees/associations of land users, in all rural communities affected,
with a view to organizing working cooperation between all actors concerned,
from the grass-roots level (farmers and pastoralists) to the higher levels
of government;
(b) Develop national plans of action to combat desertification and as
appropriate, make them integral parts of national development plans and
national environmental action plans;
(c) Implement policies directed towards improving land use, managing
common lands appropriately, providing incentives to small farmers and
pastoralists, involving women and encouraging private investment in the
development of drylands;
(d) Ensure coordination among ministries and institutions working on
anti-desertification programmes at national and local levels.
(b) Data and information
12.38. Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should promote
information exchange and cooperation with respect to national planning and
programming among affected countries, inter alia, through networking.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination
12.39. The relevant international organizations, multilateral financial
institutions, non-governmental organizations and bilateral agencies should
strengthen their cooperation in assisting with the preparation of
desertification control programmes and their integration into national
planning strategies, with the establishment of national coordinating and
systematic observation mechanisms and with the regional and global
networking of these plans and mechanisms.
12.40. The General Assembly, at its forty-seventh session, should be
requested to establish, under the aegis of the General Assembly, an
intergovernmental negotiating committee for the elaboration of an
international convention to combat desertification in in those countries
experiencing serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa,
with a view to finalizing such a convention by June 1994.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
12.41. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $180 million, including about $90 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
12.42. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Develop and introduce appropriate improved sustainable
agricultural and pastoral technologies that are socially and environmentally
acceptable and economically feasible;
(b) Undertake applied study on the integration of environmental and
developmental activities into national development plans.
(c) Human resource development
12.43. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should undertake
nationwide major anti-desertification awareness/training campaigns within
countries affected through existing national mass media facilities,
educational networks and newly created or strengthened extension services.
This should ensure people's access to knowledge of desertification and
drought and to national plans of action to combat desertification.
(d) Capacity-building
12.44. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the
relevant international and regional organizations, should establish and
maintain mechanisms to ensure coordination of sectoral ministries and
institutions, including local-level institutions and appropriate
non-governmental organizations, in integrating anti-desertification
programmes into national development plans and national environmental action
plans.
E. Developing comprehensive drought preparedness and
drought-relief schemes, including self-help
arrangements, for drought-prone areas and
designing programmes to cope with environmental
refugees
Basis for action
12.45. Drought, in differing degrees of frequency and severity, is a
recurring phenomenon throughout much of the developing world, especially
Africa. Apart from the human toll - an estimated 3 million people died in
the mid-1980s because of drought in sub-Saharan Africa - the economic costs
of drought-related disasters are also high in terms of lost production,
misused inputs and diversion of development resources.
12.46. Early-warning systems to forecast drought will make possible the
implementation of drought-preparedness schemes. Integrated packages at the
farm and watershed level, such as alternative cropping strategies, soil and
water conservation and promotion of water harvesting techniques, could
enhancethe capacity of land to cope with drought and provide basic necessities,
thereby minimizing the number of environmental refugees and the need for
emergency drought relief. At the same time, contingency arrangements for
relief are needed for periods of acute scarcity.
Objectives
12.47. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To develop national strategies for drought preparedness in both
the short and long term, aimed at reducing the vulnerability of production
systems to drought;
(b) To strengthen the flow of early-warning information to decision
makers and land users to enable nations to implement strategies for drought
intervention;
(c) To develop and integrate drought-relief schemes and means of
coping with environmental refugees into national and regional development
planning.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
12.48. In drought-prone areas, Governments at the appropriate level, with
the support of the relevant international and regional organizations,
should:
(a) Design strategies to deal with national food deficiencies in
periods of production shortfall. These strategies should deal with issues
of storage and stocks, imports, port facilities, food storage, transport and
distribution;
(b) Improve national and regional capacity for agrometeorology and
contingency crop planning. Agrometeorology links the frequency, content and
regional coverage of weather forecasts with the requirements of crop
planning and ag