| United Nations | A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. I) |
General Assembly
Distr. GENERAL
12 August 1992
ORIGINAL: ENGLISH
REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON
ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT*
(Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992)
* The present document is a preliminary version of the report of the
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development and is being issued
in five volumes. The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development and
section I (Social and economic dimensions) of Agenda 21 are in volume I;
section II (Conservation and management of resources for development) of
Agenda 21 is in volume II; and sections III (Strengthening the role of major
groups) and IV (Means of implementation) of Agenda 21 and the non-legally
binding authoritative statement of principles for a global consensus on the
management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests
are in volume III. The proceedings of the Conference and opening and
closing statements are in volume IV. Statements made during the Summit
Segment are in volume V.
92-38352 3325-26c (E) 080992
/...
CONTENTS
Page
I. RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE CONFERENCE .......................... 6
1. Adoption of texts on environment and development ........... 7
Annexes
I. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development ......... 8
II. Agenda 21 a/ ........................................... 14
III. Non-legally binding authoritative statement of principles
for a global consensus on the management, conservation
and sustainable development of all types of forests b/
2. Expression of thanks to the people and Government of Brazil b/
3. Credentials of representatives to the Conference b/
II. ATTENDANCE AND ORGANIZATION OF WORK c/
A. Date and place of the Conference
B. Pre-Conference consultations
C. Attendance
D. Opening of the Conference
E. Election of the President
F. Messages from heads of State
G. Adoption of the rules of procedure
a/ The present volume contains the preamble and section I (Social and
economic dimensions); for section II (Conservation and management of
resources for development), see A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. II); for section III
(Strengthening the role of major groups) and section IV (Means of
implementation), see A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. III).
b/ See A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. III).
c/ See A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. IV).
CONTENTS (continued)
H. Adoption of the agenda
I. Election of officers other than the President
J. Organization of work, including the establishment of the
Main Committee of the Conference
K. Appointment of members of the Credentials Committee
III. GENERAL DEBATE c/
IV. REPORT OF THE MAIN COMMITTEE AND ACTION TAKEN BY THE CONFERENCE c/
A. Report of the Main Committee
B. Action taken by the Conference
V. REPORT OF THE CREDENTIALS COMMITTEE c/
VI. SUMMIT SEGMENT OF THE CONFERENCE c/
VII. ADOPTION OF THE REPORT OF THE CONFERENCE c/
Annexes
I. LIST OF DOCUMENTS c/
II. OPENING STATEMENTS c/
III. CLOSING STATEMENTS c/
IV. STATEMENTS MADE BY HEADS OF STATE OR GOVERNMENT AT THE SUMMIT
SEGMENT OF THE CONFERENCE d/
d/ See A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. V).
ABBREVIATIONS
APELL Awareness and Preparedness for Industrial Accidents at Local
Level
CFC chlorofluorocarbon
CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research
CILSS Permanent Inter-State Committee on Drought Control in the
Sahel
EEZ exclusive economic zone
ECA Economic Commission for Africa
ECE Economic Commission for Europe
ECLAC Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
ELCI Environmental Liaison Centre International
EMINWA environmentally sound management of inland water
ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
ESCWA Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GAW Global Atmosphere Watch (WMO)
GEF Global Environment Facility
GEMS Global Environmental Monitoring System (UNEP)
GEMS/WATER Global Water Quality Monitoring Programme
GESAMP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine
Pollution
GIPME Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine Environment
(UNESCO)
GIS Geographical Information System
GLOBE Global Legislators Organisation for a Balanced Environment
GOS Global Observing System (WMO/WWW)
GRID Global Resource Information Database
GSP generalized system of preferences
HIV human immunodeficiency virus
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
IAP-WASAD International Action Programme on Water and Sustainable
Agricultural Development
IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer
IBSRAM International Board of Soil Resources and Management
ICCA International Council of Chemical Associations
ICES International Council for the Exploration of the Sea
ICPIC International Cleaner Production Information Clearing House
ICSC International Civil Service Commission
ICSU International Council of Scientific Unions
IEEA integrated environmental and economic accounting
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
IGADD Intergovernmental Authority for Drought and Development
IGBP International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (ICSU)
IGBP/START International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme/Global Change
System for Analysis, Research and Training
ILO International Labour Organisation
IMF International Monetary Fund
IMO International Maritime Organization
INFOTERRA International Environment Information System (UNEP)
IOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IPCS International Programme on Chemical Safety
IPM integrated pest management
IRPTC International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals
ITC International Tin Council
ITTO International Tropical Timber Organization
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources
MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from
Ships
OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
PGRFA plant genetic resources for agriculture
PIC prior informed consent procedure
SADCC Southern African Development Co-ordination Conference
SARD Sustainable agriculture and rural development
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNDRO Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund
UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund
UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization
UNU United Nations University
WCP World Climate Programme (WMO/UNEP/ICSU/UNESCO)
WFC World Food Council
WHO Whold Health Organization
WMO World Meteorological Organization
WWF World Wild Fund for Nature (also called World Wildlife Fund)
WWW World Weather Watch (WMO)
Chapter 1
RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE CONFERENCE
At its 19th plenary meeting, on 14 June 1992, the Conference adopted the
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, Agenda 21 and the
non-legally binding authoritative statement of principles for a global
consensus on the management, conservation and sustainable development of all
types of forests (resolution 1). It also adopted a resolution expressing
thanks to the people and Government of Brazil (resolution 2) and a
resolution concerning the credentials of representatives to the Conference
(resolution 3).
RESOLUTION 1
Adoption of texts on environment and development
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development,
Having met at Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992,
1. Notes that the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity were opened for signature
at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development and were
signed at Rio de Janeiro by 154 States and one regional economic integration
organization and 156 States and one regional economic integration
organization respectively;
2. Adopts the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development,
Agenda 21 and the Non-legally Binding Authoritative Statement of Principles
for a Global Consensus on the Management, Conservation and Sustainable
Development of All Types of Forests, which are annexed to the present
resolution;
3. Recommends to the General Assembly of the United Nations at its
forty-seventh session that it endorse the texts referred to in paragraph 2
above, as adopted.
Annex I
RIO DECLARATION ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development,
Having met at Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992,
Reaffirming the Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment, adopted at Stockholm on 16 June 1972, a/ and seeking to
build upon it,
With the goal of establishing a new and equitable global partnership
through the creation of new levels of cooperation among States, key sectors
of societies and people,
Working towards international agreements which respect the interests of
all and protect the integrity of the global environmental and developmental
system,
Recognizing the integral and interdependent nature of the Earth, our
home,
Proclaims that:
Principle 1
Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development.
They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.
Principle 2
States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and
the principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their
own resources pursuant to their own environmental and developmental
policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their
jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other
States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.
Principle 3
The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet
developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations.
a/ Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment,
Stockholm, 5-16 June 1972 (United Nations publication, Sales No.
E.73.II.A.14 and corrigendum), chap. I. Principle 4
In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection
shall constitute an integral part of the development process and cannot be
considered in isolation from it.
Principle 5
All States and all people shall cooperate in the essential task of
eradicating poverty as an indispensable requirement for sustainable
development, in order to decrease the disparities in standards of living and
better meet the needs of the majority of the people of the world.
Principle 6
The special situation and needs of developing countries, particularly
the least developed and those most environmentally vulnerable, shall be
given special priority. International actions in the field of environment
and development should also address the interests and needs of all
countries.
Principle 7
States shall cooperate in a spirit of global partnership to conserve,
protect and restore the health and integrity of the Earth's ecosystem. In
view of the different contributions to global environmental degradation,
States have common but differentiated responsibilities. The developed
countries acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the international
pursuit of sustainable development in view of the pressures their societies
place on the global environment and of the technologies and financial
resources they command.
Principle 8
To achieve sustainable development and a higher quality of life for all
people, States should reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of
production and consumption and promote appropriate demographic policies.
Principle 9
States should cooperate to strengthen endogenous capacity-building for
sustainable development by improving scientific understanding through
exchanges of scientific and technological knowledge, and by enhancing the
development, adaptation, diffusion and transfer of technologies, including
new and innovative technologies.
Principle 10
Environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all
concerned citizens, at the relevant level. At the national level, each
individual shall have appropriate access to information concerning the
environment that is held by public authorities, including information on
hazardous materials and activities in their communities, and the opportunity
to participate in decision-making processes. States shall facilitate and
encourage public awareness and participation by making information widely
available. Effective access to judicial and administrative proceedings,
including redress and remedy, shall be provided.
Principle 11
States shall enact effective environmental legislation. Environmental
standards, management objectives and priorities should reflect the
environmental and developmental context to which they apply. Standards
applied by some countries may be inappropriate and of unwarranted economic
and social cost to other countries, in particular developing countries.
Principle 12
States should cooperate to promote a supportive and open international
economic system that would lead to economic growth and sustainable
development in all countries, to better address the problems of
environmental degradation. Trade policy measures for environmental purposes
should not constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination
or a disguised restriction on international trade. Unilateral actions to
deal with environmental challenges outside the jurisdiction of the importing
country should be avoided. Environmental measures addressing transboundary
or global environmental problems should, as far as possible, be based on an
international consensus.
Principle 13
States shall develop national law regarding liability and compensation
for the victims of pollution and other environmental damage. States shall
also cooperate in an expeditious and more determined manner to develop
further international law regarding liability and compensation for adverse
effects of environmental damage caused by activities within their
jurisdiction or control to areas beyond their jurisdiction.
Principle 14
States should effectively cooperate to discourage or prevent the
relocation and transfer to other States of any activities and substances
that cause severe environmental degradation or are found to be harmful to
human health.
Principle 15
In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall
be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there
are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific
certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective
measures to prevent environmental degradation.
Principle 16
National authorities should endeavour to promote the internalization of
environmental costs and the use of economic instruments, taking into account
the approach that the polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of
pollution, with due regard to the public interest and without distorting
international trade and investment.
Principle 17
Environmental impact assessment, as a national instrument, shall be
undertaken for proposed activities that are likely to have a significant
adverse impact on the environment and are subject to a decision of a
competent national authority.
Principle 18
States shall immediately notify other States of any natural disasters
or other emergencies that are likely to produce sudden harmful effects on
the environment of those States. Every effort shall be made by the
international community to help States so afflicted.
Principle 19
States shall provide prior and timely notification and relevant
information to potentially affected States on activities that may have a
significant adverse transboundary environmental effect and shall consult
with those States at an early stage and in good faith.
Principle 20
Women have a vital role in environmental management and development.
Their full participation is therefore essential to achieve sustainable
development.
Principle 21
The creativity, ideals and courage of the youth of the world should be
mobilized to forge a global partnership in order to achieve sustainable
development and ensure a better future for all.
Principle 22
Indigenous people and their communities and other local communities
have a vital role in environmental management and development because of
their knowledge and traditional practices. States should recognize and duly
support their identity, culture and interests and enable their effective
participation in the achievement of sustainable development.
Principle 23
The environment and natural resources of people under oppression,
domination and occupation shall be protected.
Principle 24
Warfare is inherently destructive of sustainable development. States
shall therefore respect international law providing protection for the
environment in times of armed conflict and cooperate in its further
development, as necessary.
Principle 25
Peace, development and environmental protection are interdependent and
indivisible.
Principle 26
States shall resolve all their environmental disputes peacefully and by
appropriate means in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations.
Principle 27
States and people shall cooperate in good faith and in a spirit of
partnership in the fulfilment of the principles embodied in this Declaration
and in the further development of international law in the field of
sustainable development.
Annex II
AGENDA 21
CONTENTS*
Chapter Paragraphs
Page
1. Preamble .............................................. 1.1 - 1.615
SECTION I. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DIMENSIONS
2. International cooperation to accelerate sustainable
development in developing countries and related
domestic policies ..................................... 2.1 - 2.4317
3. Combating poverty ..................................... 3.1 - 3.1231
4. Changing consumption patterns ......................... 4.1 - 4.2737
5. Demographic dynamics and sustainability ............... 5.1 - 5.6643
6. Protecting and promoting human health conditions ...... 6.1 - 6.4654
7. Promoting sustainable human settlement development .... 7.1 - 7.8073
8. Integrating environment and development in
decision-making ....................................... 8.1 - 8.5499
* For section II (Conservation and management of resources for
development), see A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. II); for section III (Strengthening
the role of major groups) and section IV (Means of implementation), see
A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. III).
Chapter 1
PREAMBLE*
1.1. Humanity stands at a defining moment in history. We are confronted
with a perpetuation of disparities between and within nations, a worsening
of poverty, hunger, ill health and illiteracy, and the continuing
deterioration of the ecosystems on which we depend for our well-being.
However, integration of environment and development concerns and greater
attention to them will lead to the fulfilment of basic needs, improved
living standards for all, better protected and managed ecosystems and a
safer, more prosperous future. No nation can achieve this on its own; but
together we can - in a global partnership for sustainable development.
1.2. This global partnership must build on the premises of General Assembly
resolution 44/228 of 22 December 1989, which was adopted when the nations of
the world called for the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development, and on the acceptance of the need to take a balanced and
integrated approach to environnment and development questions.
1.3. Agenda 21 addresses the pressing problems of today and also aims at
preparing the world for the challenges of the next century. It reflects a
global consensus and political commitment at the highest level on
development and environment cooperation. Its successful implementation is
first and foremost the responsibility of Governments. National strategies,
plans, policies and processes are crucial in achieving this. International
cooperation should support and supplement such national efforts. In this
context, the United Nations system has a key role to play. Other
international, regional and subregional organizations are also called upon
to contribute to this effort. The broadest public participation and the
active involvement of the non-governmental organizations and other groups
should also be encouraged.
1.4. The developmental and environmental objectives of Agenda 21 will
require a substantial flow of new and additional financial resources to
developing countries, in order to cover the incremental costs for the
actions they have to undertake to deal with global environmental problems
and to accelerate sustainable development. Financial resources are also
required for strengthening the capacity of international institutions for
the implementation of Agenda 21. An indicative order-of-magnitude
assessment of costs is included in each of the programme areas. This
assessment will need
* When the term "Governments" is used, it will be deemed to include
the European Economic Community within its areas of competence. Throughout
Agenda 21 the term "environmentally sound" means "environmentally safe and
sound", in particular when applied to the terms "energy sources", "energy
supplies", "energy systems" and "technology" or "technologies".
to be examined and refined by the relevant implementing agencies and
organizations.
1.5. In the implementation of the relevant programme areas identified in
Agenda 21, special attention should be given to the particular circumstances
facing the economies in transition. It must also be recognized that these
countries are facing unprecedented challenges in transforming their
economies, in some cases in the midst of considerable social and political
tension.
1.6. The programme areas that constitute Agenda 21 are described in terms
of the basis for action, objectives, activities and means of implementation.
Agenda 21 is a dynamic programme. It will be carried out by the various
actors according to the different situations, capacities and priorities of
countries and regions in full respect of all the principles contained in the
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. It could evolve over time
in the light of changing needs and circumstances. This process marks the
beginning of a new global partnership for sustainable development.
SECTION I. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DIMENSIONS
Chapter 2
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION TO ACCELERATE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AND RELATED DOMESTIC POLICIES
INTRODUCTION
2.1. In order to meet the challenges of environment and development, States
have decided to establish a new global partnership. This partnership
commits all States to engage in a continuous and constructive dialogue,
inspired by the need to achieve a more efficient and equitable world
economy, keeping in view the increasing interdependence of the community of
nations and that sustainable development should become a priority item on
the agenda of the international community. It is recognized that, for the
success of this new partnership, it is important to overcome confrontation
and to foster a climate of genuine cooperation and solidarity. It is
equally important to strengthen national and international policies and
multinational cooperation to adapt to the new realities.
2.2. Economic policies of individual countries and international economic
relations both have great relevance to sustainable development. The
reactivation and acceleration of development requires both a dynamic and a
supportive international economic environment and determined policies at the
national level. It will be frustrated in the absence of either of these
requirements. A supportive external economic environment is crucial. The
development process will not gather momentum if the global economy lacks
dynamism and stability and is beset with uncertainties. Neither will it
gather momentum if the developing countries are weighted down by external
indebtedness, if development finance is inadequate, if barriers restrict
access to markets and if commodity prices and the terms of trade of
developing countries remain depressed. The record of the 1980s was
essentially negative on each of these counts and needs to be reversed. The
policies and measures needed to create an international environment that is
strongly supportive of national development efforts are thus vital.
International cooperation in this area should be designed to complement and
support - not to diminish or subsume - sound domestic economic policies, in
both developed and developing countries, if global progress towards
sustainable development is to be achieved.
2.3. The international economy should provide a supportive international
climate for achieving environment and development goals by:
(a) Promoting sustainable development through trade liberalization;
(b) Making trade and environment mutually supportive;
(c) Providing adequate financial resources to developing countries and
dealing with international debt;
(d) Encouraging macroeconomic policies conducive to environment and
development.
2.4. Governments recognize that there is a new global effort to relate the
elements of the international economic system and mankind's need for a safe
and stable natural environment. Therefore, it is the intent of Governments
that consensus-building at the intersection of the environmental and trade
and development areas will be ongoing in existing international forums, as
well as in the domestic policy of each country.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Promoting sustainable development through trade
Basis for action
2.5. An open, equitable, secure, non-discriminatory and predictable
multilateral trading system that is consistent with the goals of sustainable
development and leads to the optimal distribution of global production in
accordance with comparative advantage is of benefit to all trading partners.
Moreover, improved market access for developing countries' exports in
conjunction with sound macroeconomic and environmental policies would have a
positive environmental impact and therefore make an important contribution
towards sustainable development.
2.6. Experience has shown that sustainable development requires a
commitment to sound economic policies and management, an effective and
predictable public administration, the integration of environmental concerns
into decision-making and progress towards democratic government, in the
light of country-specific conditions, which allows for full participation of
all parties concerned. These attributes are essential for the fulfilment of
the policy directions and objectives listed below.
2.7. The commodity sector dominates the economies of many developing
countries in terms of production, employment and export earnings. An
important feature of the world commodity economy in the 1980s was the
prevalence of very low and declining real prices for most commodities in
international markets and a resulting substantial contraction in commodity
export earnings for many producing countries. The ability of those
countries to mobilize, through international trade, the resources needed to
finance investments required for sustainable development may be impaired by
this development and by tariff and non-tariff impediments, including tariff
escalation, limiting their access to export markets. The removal of
existing distortions in international trade is essential. In particular,
the achievement of this objective requires that there be substantial and
progressive reduction in the support and protection of agriculture -
coveringinternal regimes, market access and export subsidies - as well as of
industry and other sectors, in order to avoid inflicting large losses on the
more efficient producers, especially in developing countries. Thus, in
agriculture, industry and other sectors, there is scope for initiatives
aimed at trade liberalization and at policies to make production more
responsive to environment and development needs. Trade liberalization
should therefore be pursued on a global basis across economic sectors so as
to contribute to sustainable development.
2.8. The international trading environment has been affected by a number of
developments that have created new challenges and opportunities and have
made multilateral economic cooperation of even greater importance. World
trade has continued to grow faster than world output in recent years.
However, the expansion of world trade has been unevenly spread, and only a
limited number of developing countries have been capable of achieving
appreciable growth in their exports. Protectionist pressures and unilateral
policy actions continue to endanger the functioning of an open multilateral
trading system, affecting particularly the export interests of developing
countries. Economic integration processes have intensified in recent years
and should impart dynamism to global trade and enhance the trade and
development possibilities for developing countries. In recent years, a
growing number of these countries have adopted courageous policy reforms
involving ambitious autonomous trade liberalization, while far-reaching
reforms and profound restructuring processes are taking place in Central and
Eastern European countries, paving the way for their integration into the
world economy and the international trading system. Increased attention is
being devoted to enhancing the role of enterprises and promoting competitive
markets through adoption of competitive policies. The GSP has proved to be
a useful trade policy instrument, although its objectives will have to be
fulfilled, and trade facilitation strategies relating to electronic data
interchange (EDI) have been effective in improving the trading efficiency of
the public and private sectors. The interactions between environment
policies and trade issues are manifold and have not yet been fully assessed.
An early, balanced, comprehensive and successful outcome of the Uruguay
Round of multilateral trade negotiations would bring about further
liberalization and expansion of world trade, enhance the trade and
development possibilities of developing countries and provide greater
security and predictability to the international trading system.
Objectives
2.9. In the years ahead, and taking into account the results of the Uruguay
Round of multilateral trade negotiations, Governments should continue to
strive to meet the following objectives:
(a) To promote an open, non-discriminatory and equitable multilateral
trading system that will enable all countries - in particular, the
developing countries - to improve their economic structures and improve the
standard of living of their populations through sustained economic
development;
(b) To improve access to markets for exports of developing countries;
(c) To improve the functioning of commodity markets and achieve sound,
compatible and consistent commodity policies at national and international
levels with a view to optimizing the contribution of the commodity sector to
sustainable development, taking into account environmental considerations;
(d) To promote and support policies, domestic and international, that
make economic growth and environmental protection mutually supportive.
Activities
(a) International and regional cooperation and coordination
Promoting an international trading system that takes account of the
needs of developing countries
2.10. Accordingly, the international community should:
(a) Halt and reverse protectionism in order to bring about further
liberalization and expansion of world trade, to the benefit of all
countries, in particular the developing countries;
(b) Provide for an equitable, secure, non-discriminatory and
predictable international trading system;
(c) Facilitate, in a timely way, the integration of all countries into
the world economy and the international trading system;
(d) Ensure that environment and trade policies are mutually
supportive, with a view to achieving sustainable development;
(e) Strengthen the international trade policies system through an
early, balanced, comprehensive and successful outcome of the Uruguay Round
of multilateral trade negotiations.
2.11. The international community should aim at finding ways and means of
achieving a better functioning and enhanced transparency of commodity
markets, greater diversification of the commodity sector in developing
economies within a macroeconomic framework that takes into consideration a
country's economic structure, resource endowments and market opportunities,
and better management of natural resources that takes into account the
necessities of sustainable development.
2.12. Therefore, all countries should implement previous commitments to
halt and reverse protectionism and further expand market access,
particularly in areas of interest to developing countries. This improvement
of market access will be facilitated by appropriate structural adjustment in
developed countries. Developing countries should continue the trade-policy
reforms and structural adjustment they have undertaken. It is thus urgent
to achieve animprovement in market access conditions for commodities, notably through the
progressive removal of barriers that restrict imports, particularly from
developing countries, of commodity products in primary and processed forms,
as well as the substantial and progressive reduction of types of support
that induce uncompetitive production, such as production and export
subsidies.
(b) Management related activities
Developing domestic policies that maximize the benefits of trade
liberalization for sustainable development
2.13. For developing countries to benefit from the liberalization of
trading systems, they should implement the following policies, as
appropriate:
(a) Create a domestic environment supportive of an optimal balance
between production for the domestic and export markets and remove biases
against exports and discourage inefficient import-substitution;
(b) Promote the policy framework and the infrastructure required to
improve the efficiency of export and import trade as well as the functioning
of domestic markets.
2.14. The following policies should be adopted by developing countries with
respect to commodities consistent with market efficiency:
(a) Expand processing, distribution and improve marketing practices
and the competitiveness of the commodity sector;
(b) Diversify in order to reduce dependence on commodity exports;
(c) Reflect efficient and sustainable use of factors of production in
the formation of commodity prices, including the reflection of
environmental, social and resources costs.
(c) Data and information
Encouraging data collection and research
2.15. GATT, UNCTAD and other relevant institutions should continue to
collect appropriate trade data and information. The Secretary-General of
the United Nations is requested to strengthen the Trade Control Measures
Information System managed by UNCTAD.
Improving international cooperation in commodity trade and the
diversification of the sector
2.16. With regard to commodity trade, Governments should, directly or
through appropriate international organizations, where appropriate:
(a) Seek optimal functioning of commodity markets, inter alia, through
improved market transparency involving exchanges of views and information on
investment plans, prospects and markets for individual commodities.
Substantive negotiations between producers and consumers should be pursued
with a view to achieving viable and more efficient international agreements
that take into account market trends, or arrangements, as well as study
groups. In this regard, particular attention should be paid to the
agreements on cocoa, coffee, sugar and tropical timber. The importance of
international commodity agreements and arrangements is underlined.
Occupational health and safety matters, technology transfer and services
associated with the production, marketing and promotion of commodities, as
well as environmental considerations, should be taken into account;
(b) Continue to apply compensation mechanisms for shortfalls in
commodity export earnings of developing countries in order to encourage
diversification efforts;
(c) Provide assistance to developing countries upon request in the
design and implementation of commodity policies and the gathering and
utilization of information on commodity markets;
(d) Support the efforts of developing countries to promote the policy
framework and infrastructure required to improve the efficiency of export
and import trade;
(e) Support the diversification initiatives of the developing
countries at the national, regional and international levels.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
2.17. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities in this programme area to be
about $8.8 billion from the international community on grant or concessional
terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have
not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms,
including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Capacity-building
2.18. The above-mentioned technical cooperation activities aim at
strengthening national capabilities for design and implementation of
commodity policy, use and management of national resources and the gathering
and utilization of information on commodity markets.
B. Making trade and environment mutually supportive
Basis for action
2.19. Environment and trade policies should be mutually supportive. An
open, multilateral trading system makes possible a more efficient allocation
and use of resources and thereby contributes to an increase in production
and incomes and to lessening demands on the environment. It thus provides
additional resources needed for economic growth and development and improved
environmental protection. A sound environment, on the other hand, provides
the ecological and other resources needed to sustain growth and underpin a
continuing expansion of trade. An open, multilateral trading system,
supported by the adoption of sound environmental policies, would have a
positive impact on the environment and contribute to sustainable
development.
2.20. International cooperation in the environmental field is growing, and
in a number of cases trade provisions in multilateral environment agreements
have played a role in tackling global environmental challenges. Trade
measures have thus been used in certain specific instances, where considered
necessary, to enhance the effectiveness of environmental regulations for the
protection of the environment. Such regulations should address the root
causes of environmental degradation so as not to result in unjustified
restrictions on trade. The challenge is to ensure that trade and
environment policies are consistent and reinforce the process of sustainable
development. However, account should be taken of the fact that
environmental standards valid for developed countries may have unwarranted
social and economic costs in developing countries.
Objectives
2.21. Governments should strive to meet the following objectives, through
relevant multilateral forums, including GATT, UNCTAD and other international
organizations:
(a) To make international trade and environment policies mutually
supportive in favour of sustainable development;
(b) To clarify the role of GATT, UNCTAD and other international
organizations in dealing with trade and environment-related issues,
including, where relevant, conciliation procedure and dispute settlement;
(c) To encourage international productivity and competitiveness and
encourage a constructive role on the part of industry in dealing with
environment and development issues.
Activities
Developing an environment/trade and development agenda
2.22. Governments should encourage GATT, UNCTAD and other relevant
international and regional economic institutions to examine, in accordance
with their respective mandates and competences, the following propositions
and principles:
(a) Elaborate adequate studies for the better understanding of the
relationship between trade and environment for the promotion of sustainable
development;
(b) Promote a dialogue between trade, development and environment
communities;
(c) In those cases when trade measures related to environment are
used, ensure transparency and compatibility with international obligations;
(d) Deal with the root causes of environment and development problems
in a manner that avoids the adoption of environmental measures resulting in
unjustified restrictions on trade;
(e) Seek to avoid the use of trade restrictions or distortions as a
means to offset differences in cost arising from differences in
environmental standards and regulations, since their application could lead
to trade distortions and increase protectionist tendencies;
(f) Ensure that environment-related regulations or standards,
including those related to health and safety standards, do not constitute a
means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination or a disguised
restriction on trade;
(g) Ensure that special factors affecting environment and trade
policies in the developing countries are borne in mind in the application of
environmental standards, as well as in the use of any trade measures. It is
worth noting that standards that are valid in the most advanced countries
may be inappropriate and of unwarranted social cost for the developing
countries;
(h) Encourage participation of developing countries in multilateral
agreements through such mechanisms as special transitional rules;
(i) Avoid unilateral actions to deal with environmental challenges
outside the jurisdiction of the importing country. Environmental measures
addressing transborder or global environmental problems should, as far as
possible, be based on an international consensus. Domestic measures
targeted to achieve certain environmental objectives may need trade measures
to render them effective. Should trade policy measures be found necessary
for the enforcement of environmental policies, certain principles and rules
should apply. These could include, inter alia, the principle of
non-discrimination; the principle that the trade measure chosen should be
the leasttrade-restrictive necessary to achieve the objectives; an obligation to
ensure transparency in the use of trade measures related to the environment
and to provide adequate notification of national regulations; and the need
to give consideration to the special conditions and developmental
requirements of developing countries as they move towards internationally
agreed environmental objectives;
(j) Develop more precision, where necessary, and clarify the
relationship between GATT provisions and some of the multilateral measures
adopted in the environment area;
(k) Ensure public input in the formation, negotiation and
implementation of trade policies as a means of fostering increased
transparency in the light of country-specific conditions;
(l) Ensure that environmental policies provide the appropriate legal
and institutional framework to respond to new needs for the protection of
the environment that may result from changes in production and trade
specialization.
C. Providing adequate financial resources to developing
countries
Basis for action
2.23. Investment is critical to the ability of developing countries to
achieve needed economic growth to improve the welfare of their populations
and to meet their basic needs in a sustainable manner, all without
deteriorating or depleting the resource base that underpins development.
Sustainable development requires increased investment, for which domestic
and external financial resources are needed. Foreign private investment and
the return of flight capital, which depend on a healthy investment climate,
are an important source of financial resources. Many developing countries
have experienced a decade-long situation of negative net transfer of
financial resources, during which their financial receipts were exceeded by
payments they had to make, in particular for debt-servicing. As a result,
domestically mobilized resources had to be transferred abroad instead of
being invested locally in order to promote sustainable economic development.
2.24. For many developing countries, the reactivation of development will
not take place without an early and durable solution to the problems of
external indebtedness, taking into account the fact that, for many
developing countries, external debt burdens are a significant problem. The
burden of debt-service payments on those countries has imposed severe
constraints on their ability to accelerate growth and eradicate poverty and
has led to a contraction in imports, investment and consumption. External
indebtedness has emerged as a main factor in the economic stalemate in the
developing countries. Continued vigorous implementation of the evolving
international debt strategy is aimed at restoring debtor countries' external
financialviability, and the resumption of their growth and development would assist
in achieving sustainable growth and development. In this context,
additional financial resources in favour of developing countries and the
efficient utilization of such resources are essential.
Objectives
2.25. The specific requirements for the implementation of the sectoral and
cross-sectoral programmes included in Agenda 21 are dealt with in the
relevant programme areas and in chapter 33 (Financial resources and
mechanisms).
Activities
(a) Meeting international targets of official development assistance
funding
2.26. As discussed in chapter 33, new and additional resources should be
provided to support Agenda 21 programmes.
(b) Addressing the debt issue
2.27. In regard to the external debt incurred with commercial banks, the
progress being made under the strengthened debt strategy is recognized and a
more rapid implementation of this strategy is encouraged. Some countries
have already benefited from the combination of sound adjustment policies and
commercial bank debt reduction or equivalent measures. The international
community encourages:
(a) Other countries with heavy debts to banks to negotiate similar
commercial bank debt reduction with their creditors;
(b) The parties to such a negotiation to take due account of both the
medium-term debt reduction and new money requirements of the debtor country;
(c) Multilateral institutions actively engaged in the strengthened
international debt strategy to continue to support debt-reduction packages
related to commercial bank debt with a view to ensuring that the magnitude
of such financing is consonant with the evolving debt strategy;
(d) Creditor banks to participate in debt and debt-service reduction;
(e) Strengthened policies to attract direct investment, avoid
unsustainable levels of debt and foster the return of flight capital.
2.28. With regard to debt owed to official bilateral creditors, the recent
measures taken by the Paris Club with regard to more generous terms of
relief to the poorest most indebted countries are welcomed. Ongoing efforts
to implement these "Trinidad terms" measures in a manner commensurate with
the payments capacity of those countries and in a way that gives additional
support to their economic reform efforts are welcomed. The substantial
bilateral debt reduction undertaken by some creditor countries is alsowelcomed, and others which are in a position to do so are encouraged to take
similar action.
2.29. The actions of low-income countries with substantial debt burdens
which continue, at great cost, to service their debt and safeguard their
creditworthiness are commended. Particular attention should be paid to
their resource needs. Other debt-distressed developing countries which are
making great efforts to continue to service their debt and meet their
external financial obligations also deserve due attention.
2.30. In connection with multilateral debt, it is urged that serious
attention be given to continuing to work towards growth-oriented solutions
to the problem of developing countries with serious debt-servicing problems,
including those whose debt is mainly to official creditors or to
multilateral financial institutions. Particularly in the case of low-income
countries in the process of economic reform, the support of the multilateral
financial institutions in the form of new disbursements and the use of their
concessional funds is welcomed. The use of support groups should be
continued in providing resources to clear arrears of countries embarking
upon vigorous economic reform programmes supported by IMF and the World
Bank. Measures by the multilateral financial institutions such as the
refinancing of interest on non-concessional loans with IDA reflows - "fifth
dimension" - are noted with appreciation.
Means of implementation
Financing and cost evaluation*
D. Encouraging economic policies conducive to sustainable
development
Basis for action
2.31. The unfavourable external environment facing developing countries
makes domestic resource mobilization and efficient allocation and
utilization of domestically mobilized resources all the more important for
the promotion of sustainable development. In a number of countries,
policies are necessary to correct misdirected public spending, large budget
deficits and other macroeconomic imbalances, restrictive policies and
distortions in the areas of exchange rates, investment and finance, and
obstacles to entrepreneurship. In developed countries, continuing policy
reform and adjustment, including appropriate savings rates, would help
generate resources to support the transition to sustainable development both
domestically and in developing countries.
* See chap. 33 (Financial resources and mechanisms).
2.32. Good management that fosters the association of effective, efficient,
honest, equitable and accountable public administration with individual
rights and opportunities is an essential element for sustainable, broadly
based development and sound economic performance at all development levels.
All countries should increase their efforts to eradicate mismanagement of
public and private affairs, including corruption, taking into account the
factors responsible for, and agents involved in, this phenomenon.
2.33. Many indebted developing countries are undergoing structural
adjustment programmes relating to debt rescheduling or new loans. While
such programmes are necessary for improving the balance in fiscal budgets
and balance-of-payments accounts, in some cases they have resulted in
adverse social and environmental effects, such as cuts in allocations for
health care, education and environmental protection. It is important to
ensure that structural adjustment programmes do not have negative impacts on
the environment and social development so that such programmes can be more
in line with the objectives of sustainable development.
Objectives
2.34. It is necessary to establish, in the light of the country-specific
conditions, economic policy reforms that promote the efficient planning and
utilization of resources for sustainable development through sound economic
and social policies, foster entrepreneurship and the incorporation of social
and environmental costs in resource pricing, and remove sources of
distortion in the area of trade and investment.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
Promoting sound economic policies
2.35. The industrialized countries and other countries in a position to do
so should strengthen their efforts:
(a) To encourage a stable and predictable international economic
environment, particularly with regard to monetary stability, real rates of
interest and fluctuations in key exchange rates;
(b) To stimulate savings and reduce fiscal deficits;
(c) To ensure that the processes of policy coordination take into
account the interests and concerns of the developing countries, including
the need to promote positive action to support the efforts of the least
developed countries to halt their marginalization in the world economy;
(d) To undertake appropriate national macroeconomic and structural
policies aimed at promoting non-inflationary growth, narrowing their major
external imbalances and increasing the adjustment capacity of their
economies.
2.36. Developing countries should consider strengthening their efforts to
implement sound economic policies:
(a) That maintain the monetary and fiscal discipline required to
promote price stability and external balance;
(b) That result in realistic exchange rates;
(c) That raise domestic savings and investment, as well as improve
returns to investment.
2.37. More specifically, all countries should develop policies that improve
efficiency in the allocation of resources and take full advantage of the
opportunities offered by the changing global economic environment. In
particular, wherever appropriate, and taking into account national
strategies and objectives, countries should:
(a) Remove the barriers to progress caused by bureaucratic
inefficiencies, administrative strains, unnecessary controls and the neglect
of market conditions;
(b) Promote transparency in administration and decision-making;
(c) Encourage the private sector and foster entrepreneurship by
improving institutional facilities for enterprise creation and market entry.
The essential objective would be to simplify or remove the restrictions,
regulations and formalities that make it more complicated, costly and
time-consuming to set up and operate enterprises in many developing
countries;
(d) Promote and support the investment and infrastructure required for
sustainable economic growth and diversification on an environmentally sound
and sustainable basis;
(e) Provide scope for appropriate economic instruments, including
market mechanisms, in harmony with the objectives of sustainable development
and fulfilment of basic needs;
(f) Promote the operation of effective tax systems and financial
sectors;
(g) Provide opportunities for small-scale enterprises, both farm and
non-farm, and for the indigenous population and local communities to
contribute fully to the attainment of sustainable development;
(h) Remove biases against exports and in favour of inefficient import
substitution and establish policies that allow them to benefit fully from
the flows of foreign investment, within the framework of national, social,
economic and developmental goals;
(i) Promote the creation of a domestic economic environment supportive
of an optimal balance between production for the domestic and export
markets.
(b) International and regional cooperation and coordination
2.38. Governments of developed countries and those of other countries in a
position to do so should, directly or through appropriate international and
regional organizations and international lending institutions, enhance their
efforts to provide developing countries with increased technical assistance
for the following:
(a) Capacity-building in the nation's design and implementation of
economic policies, upon request;
(b) Design and operation of efficient tax systems, accounting systems
and financial sectors;
(c) Promotion of entrepreneurship.
2.39. International financial and development institutions should further
review their policies and programmes in the light of the objective of
sustainable development.
2.40. Stronger economic cooperation among developing countries has long
been accepted as an important component of efforts to promote economic
growth and technological capabilities and to accelerate development in the
developing world. Therefore, the efforts of the developing countries to
promote economic cooperation among themselves should be enhanced and
continue to be supported by the international community.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
2.41. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities in this programme area to be
about $50 million from the international community on grant or concessional
terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have
not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms,
including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Capacity-building
2.42. The above-mentioned policy changes in developing countries involve
substantial national efforts for capacity-building in the areas of public
administration, central banking, tax administration, savings institutions
and financial markets.
2.43. Particular efforts in the implementation of the four programme areas
identified in this chapter are warranted in view of the especially acute
environmental and developmental problems of the least developed countries.
Chapter 3
COMBATING POVERTY
PROGRAMME AREA
Enabling the poor to achieve sustainable livelihoods
Basis for action
3.1. Poverty is a complex multidimensional problem with origins in both the
national and international domains. No uniform solution can be found for
global application. Rather, country-specific programmes to tackle poverty
and international efforts supporting national efforts, as well as the
parallel process of creating a supportive international environment, are
crucial for a solution to this problem. The eradication of poverty and
hunger, greater equity in income distribution and human resource development
remain major challenges everywhere. The struggle against poverty is the
shared responsibility of all countries.
3.2. While managing resources sustainably, an environmental policy that
focuses mainly on the conservation and protection of resources must take due
account of those who depend on the resources for their livelihoods.
Otherwise it could have an adverse impact both on poverty and on chances for
long-term success in resource and environmental conservation. Equally, a
development policy that focuses mainly on increasing the production of goods
without addressing the sustainability of the resources on which production
is based will sooner or later run into declining productivity, which could
also have an adverse impact on poverty. A specific anti-poverty strategy is
therefore one of the basic conditions for ensuring sustainable development.
An effective strategy for tackling the problems of poverty, development and
environment simultaneously should begin by focusing on resources, production
and people and should cover demographic issues, enhanced health care and
education, the rights of women, the role of youth and of indigenous people
and local communities and a democratic participation process in association
with improved governance.
3.3. Integral to such action is, together with international support, the
promotion of economic growth in developing countries that is both sustained
and sustainable and direct action in eradicating poverty by strengthening
employment and income-generating programmes.
Objectives
3.4. The long-term objective of enabling all people to achieve sustainable
livelihoods should provide an integrating factor that allows policies to
address issues of development, sustainable resource management and poverty
eradication simultaneously. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To provide all persons urgently with the opportunity to earn a
sustainable livelihood;
(b) To implement policies and strategies that promote adequate levels
of funding and focus on integrated human development policies, including
income generation, increased local control of resources, local
institution-strengthening and capacity-building and greater involvement of
non-governmental organizations and local levels of government as delivery
mechanisms;
(c) To develop for all poverty-stricken areas integrated strategies
and programmes of sound and sustainable management of the environment,
resource mobilization, poverty eradication and alleviation, employment and
income generation;
(d) To create a focus in national development plans and budgets on
investment in human capital, with special policies and programmes directed
at rural areas, the urban poor, women and children.
Activities
3.5. Activities that will contribute to the integrated promotion of
sustainable livelihoods and environmental protection cover a variety of
sectoral interventions involving a range of actors, from local to global,
and are essential at every level, especially the community and local levels.
Enabling actions will be necessary at the national and international levels,
taking full account of regional and subregional conditions to support a
locally driven and country-specific approach. In general design, the
programmes should:
(a) Focus on the empowerment of local and community groups through the
principle of delegating authority, accountability and resources to the most
appropriate level to ensure that the programme will be geographically and
ecologically specific;
(b) Contain immediate measures to enable those groups to alleviate
poverty and to develop sustainability;
(c) Contain a long-term strategy aimed at establishing the best
possible conditions for sustainable local, regional and national development
that would eliminate poverty and reduce the inequalities between various
population groups. It should assist the most disadvantaged groups - in
particular, women, children and youth within those groups - and refugees.
The groups will include poor smallholders, pastoralists, artisans, fishing
communities, landless people, indigenous communities, migrants and the urban
informal sector.
3.6. The focus here is on specific cross-cutting measures - in particular,
in the areas of basic education, primary/maternal health care, and the
advancement of women.
(a) Empowering communities
3.7. Sustainable development must be achieved at every level of society.
Peoples' organizations, women's groups and non-governmental organizations
are important sources of innovation and action at the local level and have a
strong interest and proven ability to promote sustainable livelihoods.
Governments, in cooperation with appropriate international and
non-governmental organizations, should support a community-driven approach
to sustainability, which would include, inter alia:
(a) Empowering women through full participation in decision-making;
(b) Respecting the cultural integrity and the rights of indigenous
people and their communities;
(c) Promoting or establishing grass-roots mechanisms to allow for the
sharing of experience and knowledge between communities;
(d) Giving communities a large measure of participation in the
sustainable management and protection of the local natural resources in
order to enhance their productive capacity;
(e) Establishing a network of community-based learning centres for
capacity-building and sustainable development.
(b) Management-related activities
3.8. Governments, with the assistance of and in cooperation with
appropriate international, non-governmental and local community
organizations, should establish measures that will directly or indirectly:
(a) Generate remunerative employment and productive occupational
opportunities compatible with country-specific factor endowments, on a scale
sufficient to take care of prospective increases in the labour force and to
cover backlogs;
(b) With international support, where necessary, develop adequate
infrastructure, marketing systems, technology systems, credit systems and
the like and the human resources needed to support the above actions and to
achieve a widening of options for resource-poor people. High priority
should be given to basic education and professional training;
(c) Provide substantial increases in economically efficient resource
productivity and measures to ensure that the local population benefits in
adequate measure from resource use;
(d) Empower community organizations and people to enable them to
achieve sustainable livelihoods;
(e) Set up an effective primary health care and maternal health care
system accessible to all;
(f) Consider strengthening/developing legal frameworks for land
management, access to land resources and land ownership - in particular, for
women - and for the protection of tenants;
(g) Rehabilitate degraded resources, to the extent practicable, and
introduce policy measures to promote sustainable use of resources for basic
human needs;
(h) Establish new community-based mechanisms and strengthen existing
mechanisms to enable communities to gain sustained access to resources
needed by the poor to overcome their poverty;
(i) Implement mechanisms for popular participation - particularly by
poor people, especially women - in local community groups, to promote
sustainable development;
(j) Implement, as a matter of urgency, in accordance with
country-specific conditions and legal systems, measures to ensure that women
and men have the same right to decide freely and responsibly on the number
and spacing of their children and have access to the information, education
and means, as appropriate, to enable them to exercise this right in keeping
with their freedom, dignity and personally held values, taking into account
ethical and cultural considerations. Governments should take active steps
to implement programmes to establish and strengthen preventive and curative
health facilities, which include women-centred, women-managed, safe and
effective reproductive health care and affordable, accessible services, as
appropriate, for the responsible planning of family size, in keeping with
freedom, dignity and personally held values, taking into account ethical and
cultural considerations. Programmes should focus on providing comprehensive
health care, including pre-natal care, education and information on health
and responsible parenthood and should provide the opportunity for all women
to breast-feed fully, at least during the first four months post-partum.
Programmes should fully support women's productive and reproductive roles
and well-being, with special attention to the need for providing equal and
improved health care for all children and the need to reduce the risk of
maternal and child mortality and sickness;
(k) Adopt integrated policies aiming at sustainability in the
management of urban centres;
(l) Undertake activities aimed at the promotion of food security and,
where appropriate, food self-sufficiency within the context of sustainable
agriculture;
(m) Support research on and integration of traditional methods of
production that have been shown to be environmentally sustainable;
(n) Actively seek to recognize and integrate informal-sector
activities into the economy by removing regulations and hindrances that
discriminate against activities in those sectors;
(o) Consider making available lines of credit and other facilities for
the informal sector and improved access to land for the landless poor so
that they can acquire the means of production and reliable access to natural
resources. In many instances special considerations for women are required.
Strict feasibility appraisals are needed for borrowers to avoid debt crises;
(p) Provide the poor with access to fresh water and sanitation;
(q) Provide the poor with access to primary education.
(c) Data, information and evaluation
3.9. Governments should improve the collection of information on target
groups and target areas in order to facilitate the design of focused
programmes and activities, consistent with the target-group needs and
aspirations. Evaluation of such programmes should be gender-specific, since
women are a particularly disadvantaged group.
(d) International and regional cooperation and coordination
3.10. The United Nations system, through its relevant organs, organizations
and bodies, in cooperation with Member States and with appropriate
international and non-governmental organizations, should make poverty
alleviation a major priority and should:
(a) Assist Governments, when requested, in the formulation and
implementation of national action programmes on poverty alleviation and
sustainable development. Action-oriented activities of relevance to the
above objectives, such as poverty eradication, projects and programmes
supplemented where relevant by food aid, and support and special emphasis on
employment and income generation, should be given particular attention in
this regard;
(b) Promote technical cooperation among developing countries for
poverty eradication activities;
(c) Strengthen existing structures in the United Nations system for
coordination of action relating to poverty eradication, including the
establishment of a focal point for information exchange and the formulation
and implementation of replicable pilot projects to combat poverty;
(d) In the follow-up of the implementation of Agenda 21, give high
priority to the review of the progress made in eradicating poverty;
(e) Examine the international economic framework, including resource
flows and structural adjustment programmes, to ensure that social and
environmental concerns are addressed, and in this connection, conduct a
review of the policies of international organizations, bodies and agencies,
including financial institutions, to ensure the continued provision of basic
services to the poor and needy;
(f) Promote international cooperation to address the root causes of
poverty. The development process will not gather momentum if developing
countries are weighted down by external indebtedness, if development finance
is inadequate, if barriers restrict access to markets and if commodity
prices and the terms of trade in developing countries remain depressed.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
3.11. The secretariat of the Conference has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to
be about $30 billion, including about $15 billion from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
This estimate overlaps estimates in other parts of Agenda 21. Actual costs
and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend
upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide
upon for implementation.
(b) Capacity-building
3.12. National capacity-building for implementation of the above activities
is crucial and should be given high priority. It is particularly important
to focus capacity-building at the local community level in order to support
a community-driven approach to sustainability and to establish and
strengthen mechanisms to allow sharing of experience and knowledge between
community groups at national and international levels. Requirements for
such activities are considerable and are related to the various relevant
sectors of Agenda 21 calling for requisite international, financial and
technological support.
Chapter 4
CHANGING CONSUMPTION PATTERNS
4.1. This chapter contains the following programme areas:
(a) Focusing on unsustainable patterns of production and consumption;
(b) Developing national policies and strategies to encourage changes in
unsustainable consumption patterns.
4.2. Since the issue of changing consumption patterns is very broad, it is
addressed in several parts of Agenda 21, notably those dealing with energy,
transportation and wastes, and in the chapters on economic instruments and the
transfer of technology. The present chapter should also be read in conjunction
with chapter 5 (Demographic dynamics and sustainability).
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Focusing on unsustainable patterns
of production and consumption
Basis for action
4.3. Poverty and environmental degradation are closely interrelated. While
poverty results in certain kinds of environmental stress, the major cause of
the continued deterioration of the global environment is the unsustainable
pattern of consumption and production, particularly in industrialized
countries, which is a matter of grave concern, aggravating poverty and
imbalances.
4.4. Measures to be undertaken at the international level for the protection
and enhancement of the environment must take fully into account the current
imbalances in the global patterns of consumption and production.
4.5. Special attention should be paid to the demand for natural resources
generated by unsustainable consumption and to the efficient use of those
resources consistent with the goal of minimizing depletion and reducing
pollution. Although consumption patterns are very high in certain parts of the
world, the basic consumer needs of a large section of humanity are not being
met. This results in excessive demands and unsustainable lifestyles among the
richer segments, which place immense stress on the environment. The poorer
segments, meanwhile, are unable to meet food, health care, shelter and
educational needs. Changing consumption patterns will require a multipronged
strategy focusing on demand, meeting the basic needs of the poor, and reducing
wastage and the use of finite resources in the production process.
4.6. Growing recognition of the importance of addressing consumption has also
not yet been matched by an understanding of its implications. Some economists
are questioning traditional concepts of economic growth and underlining the
importance of pursuing economic objectives that take account of the full value
of natural resource capital. More needs to be known about the role of
consumption in relation to economic growth and population dynamics in order to
formulate coherent international and national policies.
Objectives
4.7. Action is needed to meet the following broad objectives:
(a) To promote patterns of consumption and production that reduce
environmental stress and will meet the basic needs of humanity;
(b) To develop a better understanding of the role of consumption and how
to bring about more sustainable consumption patterns.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
Adopting an international approach to achieving sustainable consumption
patterns
4.8. In principle, countries should be guided by the following basic
objectives in their efforts to address consumption and lifestyles in the
context of environment and development:
(a) All countries should strive to promote sustainable consumption
patterns;
(b) Developed countries should take the lead in achieving sustainable
consumption patterns;
(c) Developing countries should seek to achieve sustainable consumption
patterns in their development process, guaranteeing the provision of basic
needs for the poor, while avoiding those unsustainable patterns, particularly
in industrialized countries, generally recognized as unduly hazardous to the
environment, inefficient and wasteful, in their development processes. This
requires enhanced technological and other assistance from industrialized
countries.
4.9. In the follow-up of the implementation of Agenda 21 the review of
progress made in achieving sustainable consumption patterns should be given
high priority.
(b) Data and information
Undertaking research on consumption
4.10. In order to support this broad strategy, Governments, and/or private
research and policy institutes, with the assistance of regional and
international economic and environmental organizations, should make a concerted
effort to:
(a) Expand or promote databases on production and consumption and develop
methodologies for analysing them;
(b) Assess the relationship between production and consumption,
environment, technological adaptation and innovation, economic growth and
development, and demographic factors;
(c) Examine the impact of ongoing changes in the structure of modern
industrial economies away from material-intensive economic growth;
(d) Consider how economies can grow and prosper while reducing the use of
energy and materials and the production of harmful materials;
(e) Identify balanced patterns of consumption worldwide which the Earth
can support in the long term.
Developing new concepts of sustainable economic growth and prosperity
4.11. Consideration should also be given to the present concepts of economic
growth and the need for new concepts of wealth and prosperity which allow
higher standards of living through changed lifestyles and are less dependent on
the Earth's finite resources and more in harmony with the Earth's carrying
capacity. This should be reflected in the evolution of new systems of national
accounts and other indicators of sustainable development.
(c) International cooperation and coordination
4.12. While international review processes exist for examining economic,
development and demographic factors, more attention needs to be paid to issues
related to consumption and production patterns and sustainable lifestyles and
environment.
4.13. In the follow-up of the implementation of Agenda 21, reviewing the role
and impact of unsustainable production and consumption patterns and lifestyles
and their relation to sustainable development should be given high priority.
Financing and cost evaluation
4.14. The Conference secretariat has estimated that implementation of this
programme is not likely to require significant new financial resources.
B. Developing national policies and strategies to encourage
changes in unsustainable consumption patterns
Basis for action
4.15. Achieving the goals of environmental quality and sustainable development
will require efficiency in production and changes in consumption patterns in
order to emphasize optimization of resource use and minimization of waste. In
many instances, this will require reorientation of existing production and
consumption patterns that have developed in industrial societies and are in
turn emulated in much of the world.
4.16. Progress can be made by strengthening positive trends and directions
that are emerging, as part of a process aimed at achieving significant changes
in the consumption patterns of industries, Governments, households and
individuals.
Objectives
4.17. In the years ahead, Governments, working with appropriate organizations,
should strive to meet the following broad objectives:
(a) To promote efficiency in production processes and reduce wasteful
consumption in the process of economic growth, taking into account the
development needs of developing countries;
(b) To develop a domestic policy framework that will encourage a shift to
more sustainable patterns of production and consumption;
(c) To reinforce both values that encourage sustainable production and
consumption patterns and policies that encourage the transfer of
environmentally sound technologies to developing countries.
Activities
(a) Encouraging greater efficiency in the use of energy and resources
4.18. Reducing the amount of energy and materials used per unit in the
production of goods and services can contribute both to the alleviation of
environmental stress and to greater economic and industrial productivity and
competitiveness. Governments, in cooperation with industry, should therefore
intensify efforts to use energy and resources in an economically efficient and
environmentally sound manner by:
(a) Encouraging the dissemination of existing environmentally sound
technologies;
(b) Promoting research and development in environmentally sound
technologies;
(c) Assisting developing countries to use these technologies efficiently
and to develop technologies suited to their particular circumstances;
(d) Encouraging the environmentally sound use of new and renewable
sources of energy;
(e) Encouraging the environmentally sound and sustainable use of
renewable natural resources.
(b) Minimizing the generation of wastes
4.19. At the same time, society needs to develop effective ways of dealing
with the problem of disposing of mounting levels of waste products and
materials. Governments, together with industry, households and the public,
should make a concerted effort to reduce the generation of wastes and waste
products by:
(a) Encouraging recycling in industrial processes and at the consumed
level;
(b) Reducing wasteful packaging of products;
(c) Encouraging the introduction of more environmentally sound products.
(c) Assisting individuals and households to make environmentally sound
purchasing decisions
4.20. The recent emergence in many countries of a more environmentally
conscious consumer public, combined with increased interest on the part of some
industries in providing environmentally sound consumer products, is a
significant development that should be encouraged. Governments and
international organizations, together with the private sector, should develop
criteria and methodologies for the assessment of environmental impacts and
resource requirements throughout the full life cycle of products and processes.
Results of those assessments should be transformed into clear indicators in
order to inform consumers and decision makers.
4.21. Governments, in cooperation with industry and other relevant groups,
should encourage expansion of environmental labelling and other environmentally
related product information programmes designed to assist consumers to make
informed choices.
4.22. They should also encourage the emergence of an informed consumer public
and assist individuals and households to make environmentally informed choices
by:
(a) Providing information on the consequences of consumption choices and
behaviour so as to encourage demand for environmentally sound products and use
of products;
(b) Making consumers aware of the health and environmental impact of
products, through such means as consumer legislation and environmental
labelling;
(c) Encouraging specific consumer-oriented programmes, such as recycling
and deposit/refund systems.
(d) Exercising leadership through government purchasing
4.23. Governments themselves also play a role in consumption, particularly in
countries where the public sector plays a large role in the economy and can
have a considerable influence on both corporate decisions and public
perceptions. They should therefore review the purchasing policies of their
agencies and departments so that they may improve, where possible, the
environmental content of government procurement policies, without prejudice to
international trade principles.
(e) Moving towards environmentally sound pricing
4.24. Without the stimulus of prices and market signals that make clear to
producers and consumers the environmental costs of the consumption of energy,
materials and natural resources and the generation of wastes, significant
changes in consumption and production patterns seem unlikely to occur in the
near future.
4.25. Some progress has begun in the use of appropriate economic instruments
to influence consumer behaviour. These instruments include environmental
charges and taxes, deposit/refund systems, etc. This process should be
encouraged in the light of country-specific conditions.
(f) Reinforcing values that support sustainable consumption
4.26. Governments and private-sector organizations should promote more
positive attitudes towards sustainable consumption through education, public
awareness programmes and other means, such as positive advertising of products
and services that utilize environmentally sound technologies or encourage
sustainable production and consumption patterns. In the review of the
implementation of Agenda 21, an assessment of the progress achieved in
developing these national policies and strategies should be given due
consideration.
Means of implementation
4.27. This programme is concerned primarily with changes in unsustainable
patterns of consumption and production and values that encourage sustainable
consumption patterns and lifestyles. It requires the combined efforts of
Governments, consumers and producers. Particular attention should be paid to
the significant role played by women and households as consumers and the
potential impacts of their combined purchasing power on the economy.
Chapter 5
DEMOGRAPHIC DYNAMICS AND SUSTAINABILITY
5.1. This chapter contains the following programme areas:
(a) Developing and disseminating knowledge concerning the links between
demographic trends and factors and sustainable development;
(b) Formulating integrated national policies for environment and
development, taking into account demographic trends and factors;
(c) Implementing integrated, environment and development programmes at
the local level, taking into account demographic trends and factors.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Developing and disseminating knowledge concerning
the links between demographic trends and factors
and sustainable development
Basis for action
5.2. Demographic trends and factors and sustainable development have a
synergistic relationship.
5.3. The growth of world population and production combined with unsustainable
consumption patterns places increasingly severe stress on the life-supporting
capacities of our planet. These interactive processes affect the use of land,
water, air, energy and other resources. Rapidly growing cities, unless
well-managed, face major environmental problems. The increase in both the
number and size of cities calls for greater attention to issues of local
government and municipal management. The human dimensions are key elements to
consider in this intricate set of relationships and they should be adequately
taken into consideration in comprehensive policies for sustainable development.
Such policies should address the linkages of demographic trends and factors,
resource use, appropriate technology dissemination, and development.
Population policy should also recognize the role played by human beings in
environmental and development concerns. There is a need to increase awareness
of this issue among decision makers at all levels and to provide both better
information on which to base national and international policies and a
framework against which to interpret this information.
5.4. There is a need to develop strategies to mitigate both the adverse impact
on the environment of human activities and the adverse impact of environmental
change on human populations. The world's population is expected to exceed
8 billion by the year 2020. Sixty per cent of the world's population already
live in coastal areas, while 65 per cent of cities withpopulations above 2.5 million are located along the world coasts; several of
them are already at or below the present sea level.
Objectives
5.5. The following objectives should be achieved as soon as practicable:
(a) To incorporate demographic trends and factors in the global analysis
of environment and development issues;
(b) To develop a better understanding of the relationships among
demographic dynamics, technology, cultural behaviour, natural resources and
life support systems;
(c) To assess human vulnerability in ecologically sensitive areas and
centres of population to determine the priorities for action at all levels,
taking full account of community defined needs.
Activities
Research on the interaction between demographic trends and factors and
sustainable development
5.6. Relevant international, regional and national institutions should
consider undertaking the following activities:
(a) Identifying the interactions between demographic processes, natural
resources and life support systems, bearing in mind regional and subregional
variations deriving from, inter alia, different levels of development;
(b) Integrating demographic trends and factors into the ongoing study of
environmental change, using the expertise of international, regional and
national research networks and of local communities, first, to study the human
dimensions of environmental change and, second, to identify vulnerable areas;
(c) Identifying priority areas for action and developing strategies and
programmes to mitigate the adverse impact of environmental change on human
populations, and vice versa.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
5.7. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$10 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Strengthening research programmes that integrate population, environment
and development
5.8. In order to integrate demographic analysis into a broader social science
perspective on environment and development, interdisciplinary research should
be increased. International institutions and networks of experts should
enhance their scientific capacity, taking full account of community experience
and knowledge, and should disseminate the experience gained in
multidisciplinary approaches and in linking theory to action.
5.9. Better modelling capabilities should be developed, identifying the range
of possible outcomes of current human activities, especially the interrelated
impact of demographic trends and factors, per capita resource use and wealth
distribution, as well as the major migration flows that may be expected with
increasing climatic events and cumulative environmental change that may destroy
people's local livelihoods.
(c) Developing information and public awareness
5.10. Socio-demographic information should be developed in a suitable format
for interfacing with physical, biological and socio-economic data. Compatible
spatial and temporal scales, cross-country and time-series information, as well
as global behavioural indicators should be developed, learning from local
communities' perceptions and attitudes.
5.11. Awareness should be increased at all levels concerning the need to
optimize the sustainable use of resources through efficient resource
management, taking into account the development needs of the populations of
developing countries.
5.12. Awareness should be increased of the fundamental linkages between
improving the status of women and demographic dynamics, particularly through
women's access to education, primary and reproductive health care programmes,
economic independence and their effective, equitable participation in all
levels of decision-making.
5.13. Results of research concerned with sustainable development issues should
be disseminated through technical reports, scientific journals, the media,
workshops, forums or other means so that the information can be used by
decision makers at all levels and increase public awareness.
(d) Developing and/or enhancing institutional capacity and collaboration
5.14. Collaboration and exchange of information should be increased between
research institutions and international, regional and national agencies and all
other sectors (including the private sector, local communities,
non-governmental organizations and scientific institutions) from both the
industrialized and developing countries, as appropriate.
5.15. Efforts should be intensified to enhance the capacities of national and
local governments, the private sector and non-governmental organizations in
developing countries to meet the growing needs for improved management of
rapidly growing urban areas.
B. Formulating integrated national policies for
environment and development, taking into
account demographic trends and factors
Basis for action
5.16. Existing plans for sustainable development have generally recognized
demographic trends and factors as elements that have a critical influence on
consumption patterns, production, lifestyles and long-term sustainability. But
in future, more attention will have to be given to these issues in general
policy formulation and the design of development plans. To do this, all
countries will have to improve their own capacities to assess the environment
and development implications of their demographic trends and factors. They
will also need to formulate and implement policies and action programmes where
appropriate. Policies should be designed to address the consequences of
population growth built into population momentum, while at the same time
incorporating measures to bring about demographic transition. They should
combine environmental concerns and population issues within a holistic view of
development whose primary goals include the alleviation of poverty; secure
livelihoods; good health; quality of life; improvement of the status and income
of women and their access to schooling and professional training, as well as
fulfilment of their personal aspirations; and empowerment of individuals and
communities. Recognizing that large increases in the size and number of cities
will occur in developing countries under any likely population scenario,
greater attention should be given to preparing for the needs, in particular of
women and children, for improved municipal management and local government.
Objective
5.17. Full integration of population concerns into national planning, policy
and decision-making processes should continue. Population policies and
programmes should be considered, with full recognition of women's rights.
Activities
5.18. Governments and other relevant actors could, inter alia, undertake the
following activities, with appropriate assistance from aid agencies, and report
on their status of implementation to the International Conference on Population
and Development to be held in 1994, especially to its committee on population
and environment.
(a) Assessing the implications of national demographic trends and factors
5.19. The relationships between demographic trends and factors and
environmental change and between environmental degradation and the components
of demographic change should be analysed.
5.20. Research should be conducted on how environmental factors interact with
socio-economic factors as a cause of migration.
5.21. Vulnerable population groups (such as rural landless workers, ethnic
minorities, refugees, migrants, displaced people, women heads of household)
whose changes in demographic structure may have specific impacts on sustainable
development should be identified.
5.22. An assessment should be made of the implications of the age structure of
the population on resource demand and dependency burdens, ranging from
educational expenses for the young to health care and support for the elderly,
and on household income generation.
5.23. An assessment should also be made of national population carrying
capacity in the context of satisfaction of human needs and sustainable
development, and special attention should be given to critical resources, such
as water and land, and environmental factors, such as ecosystem health and
biodiversity.
5.24. The impact of national demographic trends and factors on the traditional
livelihoods of indigenous groups and local communities, including changes in
traditional land use because of internal population pressures, should be
studied.
(b) Building and strengthening a national information base
5.25. National databases on demographic trends and factors and environment
should be built and/or strengthened, disaggregating data by ecological region
(ecosystem approach), and population/environment profiles should be established
by region.
5.26. Methodologies and instruments should be developed to identify areas
where sustainability is, or may be, threatened by the environmental effects of
demographic trends and factors, incorporating both current and projected
demographic data linked to natural environmental processes.
5.27. Case-studies of local level responses by different groups to demographic
dynamics should be developed, particularly in areas subject to environmental
stress and in deteriorating urban centres.
5.28. Population data should be disaggregated by, inter alia, sex and age in
order to take into account the implications of the gender division of labour
for the use and management of natural resources.
(c) Incorporating demographic features into policies and plans
5.29. In formulating human settlements policies, account should be taken of
resource needs, waste production and ecosystem health.
5.30. The direct and induced effects of demographic changes on environment and
development programmes should, where appropriate, be integrated, and the impact
on demographic features assessed.
5.31. National population policy goals and programmes that are consistent with
national environment and development plans for sustainability and in keeping
with the freedom, dignity and personally held values of individuals should be
established and implemented.
5.32. Appropriate socio-economic policies for the young and the elderly, both
in terms of family and state support systems, should be developed.
5.33. Policies and programmes should be developed for handling the various
types of migrations that result from or induce environmental disruptions, with
special attention to women and vulnerable groups.
5.34. Demographic concerns, including concerns for environmental migrants and
displaced people, should be incorporated in the programmes for sustainable
development of relevant international and regional institutions.
5.35. National reviews should be conducted and the integration of population
policies in national development and environment strategies should be monitored
nationally.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
5.36. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$90 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Raising awareness of demographic and sustainable development interactions
5.37. Understanding of the interactions between demographic trends and factors
and sustainable development should be increased in all sectors of society.
Stress should be placed on local and national action. Demographic and
sustainable development education should be coordinated and integrated in both
the formal and non-formal education sectors. Particular attention should be
given to population literacy programmes, notably for women. Special emphasis
should be placed on the linkage between these programmes, primary environmental
care and the provision of primary health care and services.
(c) Strengthening institutions
5.38. The capacity of national, regional and local structures to deal with
issues relating to demographic trends and factors and sustainable development
should be enhanced. This would involve strengthening the relevant bodies
responsible for population issues to enable them to elaborate policies
consistent with the national prospects for sustainable development.
Cooperation among government, national research institutions, non-governmental
organizations and local communities in assessing problems and evaluating
policies should also be enhanced.
5.39. The capacity of the relevant United Nations organs, organizations and
bodies, international and regional intergovernmental bodies, non-governmental
organizations and local communities should, as appropriate, be enhanced to help
countries develop sustainable development policies on request and, as
appropriate, provide assistance to environmental migrants and displaced people.
5.40. Inter-agency support for national sustainable development policies and
programmes should be improved through better coordination of population and
environment activities.
(d) Promoting human resource development
5.41. The international and regional scientific institutions should assist
Governments, upon request, to include concerns regarding the
population/environment interactions at the global, ecosystem and micro-levels
in the training of demographers and population and environment specialists.
Training should include research on linkages and ways to design integrated
strategies.
C. Implementing integrated environment and development
programmes at the local level, taking into account
demographic trends and factors
Basis for action
5.42. Population programmes are more effective when implemented together with
appropriate cross-sectoral policies. To attain sustainability at the local
level, a new framework is needed that integrates demographic trends and factors
with such factors as ecosystem health, technology and human settlements, and
with socio-economic structures and access to resources. Population programmes
should be consistent with socio-economic and environmental planning.
Integrated sustainable development programmes should closely correlate action
on demographic trends and factors with resource management activities and
development goals that meet the needs of the people concerned.
Objective
5.43. Population programmes should be implemented along with natural resource
management and development programmes at the local level that will ensure
sustainable use of natural resources, improve the quality of life of the people
and enhance environmental quality.
Activities
5.44. Governments and local communities, including community-based women's
organizations and national non-governmental organizations, consistent with
national plans, objectives, strategies and priorities, could, inter alia,
undertake the activities set out below with the assistance and cooperation of
international organizations, as appropriate. Governments could share their
experience in the implementation of Agenda 21 at the International Conference
on Population and Development, to be held in 1994, especially its committee on
population and environment.
(a) Developing a framework for action
5.45. An effective consultative process should be established and implemented
with concerned groups of society where the formulation and decision-making of
all components of the programmes are based on a nationwide consultative process
drawing on community meetings, regional workshops and national seminars, as
appropriate. This process should ensure that views of women and men on needs,
perspective and constraints are equally well reflected in the design of
programmes, and that solutions are rooted in specific experience. The poor and
underprivileged should be priority groups in this process.
5.46. Nationally determined policies for integrated and multifaceted
programmes, with special attention to women, to the poorest people living in
critical areas and to other vulnerable groups should be implemented, ensuring
the involvement of groups with a special potential to act as agents for change
and sustainable development. Special emphasis should be placed on those
programmes that achieve multiple objectives, encouraging sustainable economic
development, and mitigating adverse impacts of demographic trends and factors,
and avoiding long-term environmental damage. Food security, access to secure
tenure, basic shelter, and essential infrastructure, education, family welfare,
women's reproductive health, family credit schemes, reforestation programmes,
primary environmental care, women's employment should, as appropriate, be
included among other factors.
5.47. An analytical framework should be developed to identify complementary
elements of sustainable development policies as well as the national mechanisms
to monitor and evaluate their effects on population dynamics.
5.48. Special attention should be given to the critical role of women in
population/environment programmes and in achieving sustainable development.
Projects should take advantage of opportunities to link social, economic and
environmental gains for women and their families. Empowerment of women isessential and should be assured through education, training and policies to
accord and improve women's right and access to assets, human and civil rights,
labour-saving measures, job opportunities and participation in decision-making.
Population/environment programmes must enable women to mobilize themselves to
alleviate their burden and improve their capacity to participate in and benefit
from socio-economic development. Specific measures should be undertaken to
close the gap between female and male illiteracy rates.
(b) Supporting programmes that promote changes in demographic trends and
factors towards sustainability
5.49. Reproductive health programmes and services, should, as appropriate, be
developed and enhanced to reduce maternal and infant mortality from all causes
and enable women and men to fulfil their personal aspirations in terms of
family size, in a way in keeping with their freedom and dignity and personally
held values.
5.50. Governments should take active steps to implement, as a matter of
urgency, in accordance with country-specific conditions and legal systems,
measures to ensure that women and men have the same right to decide freely and
responsibly on the number and spacing of their children, to have access to the
information, education and means, as appropriate, to enable them to exercise
this right in keeping with their freedom, dignity and personally held values
taking into account ethical and cultural considerations.
5.51. Governments should take active steps to implement programmes to
establish and strengthen preventive and curative health facilities that include
women-centred, women-managed, safe and effective reproductive health care and
affordable, accessible services, as appropriate, for the responsible planning
of family size, in keeping with freedom, dignity and personally held values and
taking into account ethical and cultural considerations. Programmes should
focus on providing comprehensive health care, including pre-natal care,
education and information on health and responsible parenthood and should
provide the opportunity for all women to breast-feed fully, at least during the
first four months post-partum. Programmes should fully support women's
productive and reproductive roles and well being, with special attention to the
need for providing equal and improved health care for all children and the need
to reduce the risk of maternal and child mortality and sickness.
5.52. Consistent with national priorities, culturally based information and
education programmes that transmit reproductive health messages to men and
women that are easily understood should be developed.
(c) Creating appropriate institutional conditions
5.53. Constituencies and institutional conditions to facilitate the
implementation of demographic activities should, as appropriate, be fostered.
This requires support and commitment from political, indigenous, religious andtraditional authorities, the private sector and the national scientific
community. In developing these appropriate institutional conditions, countries
should closely involve established national machinery for women.
5.54. Population assistance should be coordinated with bilateral and
multilateral donors to ensure that population needs and requirements of all
developing countries are addressed, fully respecting the overall coordinating
responsibility and the choice and strategies of the recipient countries.
5.55. Coordination should be improved at local and international levels.
Working practices should be enhanced in order to make optimum use of resources,
draw on collective experience and improve the implementation of programmes.
UNFPA and other relevant agencies should strengthen the coordination of
international cooperation activities with recipient and donor countries in
order to ensure that adequate funding is available to respond to growing needs.
5.56. Proposals should be developed for local, national and international
population/environment programmes in line with specific needs for achieving
sustainability. Where appropriate, institutional changes must be implemented
so that old-age security does not entirely depend on input from family members.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
5.57. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$7 billion, including about $3.5 billion from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Research
5.58. Research should be undertaken with a view to developing specific action
programmes; it will be necessary to establish priorities between proposed areas
of research.
5.59. Socio-demographic research should be conducted on how populations
respond to a changing environment.
5.60. Understanding of socio-cultural and political factors that can
positively influence acceptance of appropriate population policy instruments
should be improved.
5.61. Surveys of changes in needs for appropriate services relating to
responsible planning of family size, reflecting variations among different
socio-economic groups and variations in different geographical regions should
be undertaken.
(c) Human resource development and capacity-building
5.62. The areas of human resource development and capacity-building, with
particular attention to the education and training of women, are areas of
critical importance and are a very high priority in the implementation of
population programmes.
5.63. Workshops to help programme and projects managers to link population
programmes to other development and environmental goals should be conducted.
5.64. Educational materials, including guides/workbooks for planners and
decision makers and other actors of population/environment/development
programmes, should be developed.
5.65. Cooperation should be developed between Governments, scientific
institutions and non-governmental organizations within the region, and similar
institutions outside the region. Cooperation with local organizations should
be fostered in ordered to raise awareness, engage in demonstration projects and
report on the experience gained.
5.66. The recommendations contained in this chapter should in no way prejudice
discussions at the International Conference on Population and Development in
1994, which will be the appropriate forum for dealing with population and
development issues, taking into account the recommendations of the
International Conference on Population, held in Mexico City in 1984, 1/ and the
Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women, 2/ adopted by the
World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements of the United Decade
for Women: Equality, Development and Peace, held in Nairobi in 1985.
Notes
1/ Report of the International Conference on Population, Mexico City,
6-14 August 1984 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.84.XIII.8), chap. I.
2/ Report of the World Conference to Review and Appraise the
Achievements of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development and
Peace, Nairobi, 15-26 July 1985 (United Nations publication, Sales
No. E.84.IV.10), chap. I, sect. A.
Chapter 6
PROTECTING AND PROMOTING HUMAN HEALTH
INTRODUCTION
6.1. Health and development are intimately interconnected. Both insufficient
development leading to poverty and inappropriate development resulting in
overconsumption, coupled with an expanding world population, can result in
severe environmental health problems in both developing and developed nations.
Action items under Agenda 21 must address the primary health needs of the
world's population, since they are integral to the achievement of the goals of
sustainable development and primary environmental care. The linkage of health,
environmental and socio-economic improvements requires intersectoral efforts.
Such efforts, involving education, housing, public works and community groups,
including businesses, schools and universities and religious, civic and
cultural organizations, are aimed at enabling people in their communities to
ensure sustainable development. Particularly relevant is the inclusion of
prevention programmes rather than relying solely on remediation and treatment.
Countries ought to develop plans for priority actions, drawing on the programme
areas in this chapter, which are based on cooperative planning by the various
levels of government, non-governmental organizations and local communities. An
appropriate international organization, such as WHO, should coordinate these
activities.
6.2. The following programme areas are contained in this chapter:
(a) Meeting primary health care needs, particularly in rural areas;
(b) Control of communicable diseases;
(c) Protecting vulnerable groups;
(d) Meeting the urban health challenge;
(e) Reducing health risks from environmental pollution and hazards.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Meeting primary health care needs, particularly in rural areas
Basis for action
6.3. Health ultimately depends on the ability to manage successfully the
interaction between the physical, spiritual, biological and economic/social
environment. Sound development is not possible without a healthy population;
yet most developmental activities affect the environment to some degree, which
in turn causes or exacerbates many health problems. Conversely, it is thevery lack of development that adversely affects the health condition of many
people, which can be alleviated only through development. The health sector
cannot meet basic needs and objectives on its own; it is dependent on social,
economic and spiritual development, while directly contributing to such
development. It is also dependent on a healthy environment, including the
provision of a safe water supply and sanitation and the promotion of a safe
food supply and proper nutrition. Particular attention should be directed
towards food safety, with priority placed on the elimination of food
contamination; comprehensive and sustainable water policies to ensure safe
drinking water and sanitation to preclude both microbial and chemical
contamination; and promotion of health education, immunization and provision of
essential drugs. Education and appropriate services regarding responsible
planning of family size, with respect for cultural, religious and social
aspects, in keeping with freedom, dignity and personally held values and taking
into account ethical and cultural considerations, also contribute to these
intersectoral activities.
Objectives
6.4. Within the overall strategy to achieve health for all by the year 2000,
the objectives are to meet the basic health needs of rural peri-urban and urban
populations; to provide the necessary specialized environmental health
services; and to coordinate the involvement of citizens, the health sector, the
health-related sectors and relevant non-health sectors (business, social,
educational and religious institutions) in solutions to health problems. As a
matter of priority, health service coverage should be achieved for population
groups in greatest need, particularly those living in rural areas.
Activities
6.5. National Governments and local authorities, with the support of relevant
non-governmental organizations and international organizations, in the light of
countries' specific conditions and needs, should strengthen their health sector
programmes, with special attention to rural needs, to:
(a) Build basic health infrastructures, monitoring and planning systems:
(i) Develop and strengthen primary health care systems that are
practical, community-based, scientifically sound, socially acceptable
and appropriate to their needs and that meet basic health needs for
clean water, safe food and sanitation;
(ii) Support the use and strengthening of mechanisms that improve
coordination between health and related sectors at all appropriate
levels of government, and in communities and relevant organizations;
(iii) Develop and implement rational and affordable approaches to the
establishment and maintenance of health facilities;
(iv) Ensure and, where appropriate, increase provision of social services
support;
(v) Develop strategies, including reliable health indicators, to monitor
the progress and evaluate the effectiveness of health programmes;
(vi) Explore ways to finance the health system based on the assessment of
the resources needed and identify the various financing alternatives;
(vii) Promote health education in schools, information exchange, technical
support and training;
(viii) Support initiatives for self-management of services by vulnerable
groups;
(ix) Integrate traditional knowledge and experience into national health
systems, as appropriate;
(x) Promote the provisions for necessary logistics for outreach
activities, particularly in rural areas;
(xi) Promote and strengthen community-based rehabilitation activities for
the rural handicapped.
(b) Support research and methodology development:
(i) Establish mechanisms for sustained community involvement in
environmental health activities, including optimization of the
appropriate use of community financial and human resources;
(ii) Conduct environmental health research, including behaviour research
and research on ways to increase coverage and ensure greater
utilization of services by peripheral, underserved and vulnerable
populations, as appropriate to good prevention services and health
care;
(iii) Conduct research into traditional knowledge of prevention and
curative health practices.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
6.6. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$40 billion, including about $5 billion from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
6.7. New approaches to planning and managing health care systems and
facilities should be tested, and research on ways of integrating appropriate
technologies into health infrastructures supported. The development of
scientifically sound health technology should enhance adaptability to local
needs and maintainability by community resources, including the maintenance and
repair of equipment used in health care. Programmes to facilitate the transfer
and sharing of information and expertise should be developed, including
communication methods and educational materials.
(c) Human resource development
6.8. Intersectoral approaches to the reform of health personnel development
should be strengthened to ensure its relevance to the "Health for All"
strategies. Efforts to enhance managerial skills at the district level should
be supported, with the aim of ensuring the systematic development and efficient
operation of the basic health system. Intensive, short, practical training
programmes with emphasis on skills in effective communication, community
organization and facilitation of behaviour change should be developed in order
to prepare the local personnel of all sectors involved in social development
for carrying out their respective roles. In cooperation with the education
sector, special health education programmes should be developed focusing on the
role of women in the health-care system.
(d) Capacity-building
6.9. Governments should consider adopting enabling and facilitating strategies
to promote the participation of communities in meeting their own needs, in
addition to providing direct support to the provision of health-care services.
A major focus should be the preparation of community-based health and
health-related workers to assume an active role in community health education,
with emphasis on team work, social mobilization and the support of other
development workers. National programmes should cover district health systems
in urban, peri-urban and rural areas, the delivery of health programmes at the
district level, and the development and support of referral services.
B. Control of communicable diseases
Basis for action
6.10. Advances in the development of vaccines and chemotherapeutic agents have
brought many communicable diseases under control. However, there remain many
important communicable diseases for which environmental control measures are
indispensable, especially in the field of water supply and sanitation. Such
diseases include cholera, diarrhoeal diseases, leishmaniasis, malaria and
schistosomiasis. In all such instances, the environmental measures, either as
an integral part of primary health care or undertaken outside the healthsector, form an indispensable component of overall disease control strategies,
together with health and hygiene education, and in some cases, are the only
component.
6.11. With HIV infection levels estimated to increase to 30-40 million by the
year 2000, the socio-economic impact of the pandemic is expected to be
devastating for all countries, and increasingly for women and children. While
direct health costs will be substantial, they will be dwarfed by the indirect
costs of the pandemic - mainly costs associated with the loss of income and
decreased productivity of the workforce. The pandemic will inhibit growth of
the service and industrial sectors and significantly increase the costs of
human capacity-building and retraining. The agricultural sector is
particularly affected where production is labour-intensive.
Objectives
6.12. A number of goals have been formulated through extensive consultations
in various international forums attended by virtually all Governments, relevant
United Nations organizations (including WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA, UNESCO, UNDP and
the World Bank) and a number of non-governmental organizations. Goals
(including but not limited to those listed below) are recommended for
implementation by all countries where they are applicable, with appropriate
adaptation to the specific situation of each country in terms of phasing,
standards, priorities and availability of resources, with respect for cultural,
religious and social aspects, in keeping with freedom, dignity and personally
held values and taking into account ethical considerations. Additional goals
that are particularly relevant to a country's specific situation should be
added in the country's national plan of action (Plan of Action for Implementing
the World Declaration on the Survival, Protection and Development of Children
i