| United Nations | E/CN.17/IPF/1996/17 |
Economic and Social Council
Distr. GENERAL
9 August 1996
ORIGINAL: ENGLISH
COMMISSION ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Ad Hoc Intergovernmental Panel
on Forests
Third session
9-20 September 1996
IMPLEMENTATION OF FOREST-RELATED DECISIONS OF THE UNITED NATIONS
CONFERENCE ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT AT THE NATIONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL LEVELS, INCLUDING AN EXAMINATION OF SECTORAL AND
CROSS-SECTORAL LINKAGES
Programme element I.4: Fragile ecosystems affected by
desertification, and the impact of airborne pollution
on forests
Report of the Secretary-General
SUMMARY
General
The present document reports on progress made in the implementation of
decisions of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
related to programme element 4 of category I (Implementation of United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development decisions related to forests at the
national and international levels, including an examination of sectoral and
cross-sectoral linkages) of the work programme of the Ad Hoc Intergovernmental
Panel on Forests. It is presented in two parts. Part one deals with progress
related to afforestation, reforestation and the restoration of forest systems,
where appropriate, particularly in countries with fragile ecosystems and those
affected by desertification and/or drought, particularly in Africa. Part two
presents progress related to the impact of airborne pollution on forests, in
particular those in Central and Eastern Europe.
Part one. Fragile ecosystems affected by desertification
The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those
Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, particularly in
Africa is expected to enter into force shortly, as it has already been
ratified by over 30 countries. In resolution 5/1 on urgent measures for
Africa, the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee for the Elaboration of the
Convention urged affected country parties, developed country parties and
regional and international organizations to take immediate measures towards
the implementation of the Convention in Africa in particular by initiating and
supporting the formulation of national action programmes (see A/49/84/Add.2,
annex, appendix III). Such action has started or is being prepared in many
African countries and in countries in other regions. This involves a number
of initiatives that are relevant to programme element I.4 of the Panel's work
programme as it relates to drylands. A number of recent events have supported
the request of the Panel to seek the strongest possible coordination in the
implementation of the Convention and action related to chapter 11 of Agenda 21
in drylands. Many initiatives have also examined the approaches to the
elaboration of national action programmes; these initiatives have addressed
the need for sustainable management of natural resources, including forests,
in drylands, as well as the need for participatory approaches and
decentralization.
The Expert Meeting on the Rehabilitation of Degraded Forest Ecosystems,
convened at Lisbon from 24 to 28 June 1996 under the sponsorship of Portugal,
Cape Verde and Senegal, was the culmination of the many initiatives taken in
the period under review. This meeting was placed at the highest political
level by the sponsoring countries; it resulted in a number of important
recommendations and proposals for action, taking into full consideration many
of the ideas developed by previous processes. These recommendations merit
thorough review and incorporation in present and future activities in the
rehabilitation of degraded forest ecosystems in drylands.
Part two. Impact of airborne pollution on forests
Monitoring of forest health has been carried out in Europe and North
America since the 1980s, following concern over the defoliation and
discolouration of foliage. This has been linked to increased deposition of
airborne pollutants. Radioactive material fallout associated with episodic
events may also be of some consequence. Ten-year results of such monitoring
in Europe have revealed an overall reduction in forest health, although there
are some grounds for optimism in that the predicted widespread forest death
did not occur and the levels of some emissions have recently fallen.
The importance of the critical loads approach under the Convention on
Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution in identifying forest sites likely to
be at risk from airborne pollutants is stressed. The intensive monitoring of
forest health through networks of permanent plots should be continued and
expanded outside Europe and North America. The evaluation of data from
suchplots
will improve knowledge of the relationships between airborne pollution
and forest condition, but financial and political conditions for this work
needs to be ensured by participating countries. Research is needed not only
at the national but also at the regional level into the stabilization of
forest ecosystems.
Emission reduction must continue to be considered of high importance,
and
political efforts to reach and implement further international binding
agreements under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
should be intensified.
CONTENTS
Paragraphs Page
INTRODUCTION .......................................... 1 - 7 5
PART ONE. FRAGILE ECOSYSTEMS AFFECTED BY DESERTIFICATION 8 - 34 6
INTRODUCTION ............................................ 8 - 10 6
I. OUTCOME OF THE DISCUSSIONS AT THE PANEL'S SECOND
SESSION .......................................... 11 - 13 6
II. CURRENT STATUS OF ISSUES RAISED AT THE PANEL'S SECOND
SESSION .......................................... 14 - 19 7
III. ASSESSMENT OF RECENT DEVELOPMENTS ................ 20 - 22 9
IV. FUTURE CHALLENGES ................................ 23 - 27 10
V. PROPOSALS FOR ACTION ............................. 28 - 34 11
PART TWO. IMPACT OF AIRBORNE POLLUTION ON FORESTS ..... 35 - 70 13
INTRODUCTION ........................................... 35 - 39 13
I. OUTCOME OF THE DISCUSSIONS AT THE PANEL'S SECOND
SESSION .......................................... 40 - 44 13
II. CURRENT STATUS OF ISSUES RAISED AT THE PANEL'S SECOND
SESSION .......................................... 45 - 47 14
III. ASSESSMENT OF RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND REASONS FOR
OPTIMISM ......................................... 48 - 54 15
IV. ASSESSMENT OF OBSTACLES TO BE OVERCOME AND CHALLENGES
FORESEEN ......................................... 55 - 60 16
V. PROPOSALS FOR ACTION ............................. 61 - 70 17
INTRODUCTION
1. The present report describes progress made in the implementation of
decisions of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
related to programme element 4 of category I (Implementation of United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development decisions related to
forests at the national and international levels, including an examination
of sectoral and cross-sectoral linkages), of the work programme of the Ad
Hoc Intergovernmental Panel on Forests. It is presented in two parts.
Part one deals with progress related to afforestation, reforestation and
the restoration of forest systems, where appropriate, particularly in
countries with fragile ecosystems and those affected by desertification
and/or drought, particularly in Africa. Part two presents progress related
to the impact of airborne pollution on forests, in particular those in
Central and Eastern Europe.
2. The work under this programme element (I.4) is guided by chapter 11 of
Agenda 21, the Non-legally Binding Authoritative Statement of Principles
for a Global Consensus on the Management, Conservation and Sustainable
Development of All Types of Forests (Forest Principles) and the decisions
taken at the third session of the Commission on Sustainable Development and
further elaborated at the first and second sessions of the Ad Hoc
Intergovernmental Panel on Forests.
3. The Commission on Sustainable Development, at its third session,
defined programme element I.4 as follows: "Monitor actions to support
afforestation, reforestation and the restoration of forest systems, where
appropriate, particularly in countries with fragile ecosystems and affected
by desertification and/or drought, particularly in Africa. Within this
context, also consider specific actions in countries whose forests are
affected by pollution, particularly those with economies in transition in
Central and Eastern Europe". 1/
4. Subsequently the Panel, at its first session, emphasized the need for
"a report on the experience with afforestation and the restoration of
forest systems, where appropriate, particularly in countries with fragile
ecosystems and those affected by desertification and/or drought,
particularly in Africa, including links to the implementation of the United
Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries
Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, particularly in
Africa. A synthesis of the impact of air-borne pollution on forests - in
particular, those in Central and Eastern Europe - and an assessment of
ongoing activities and proposals for possible future action would also be
included. The report should include an assessment of the expansion of all
types of forest cover due to reforestation and afforestation" (see
E/CN.17/IPF/1995/3, para. 18). Also at its first session, the Panel
decided to schedule programme element I.4 for substantive discussion at its
second session (Geneva, 11-22 March 1996), and to request the Secretary-
General to prepare a progress report for its third session.
5. The outcome of the substantive discussion related to programme element
I.4 at the second session of the Panel is contained in the Panel's report
(E/CN.17/1996/24). The present report follows the guidance given by the
Panel at that session. It also takes into consideration paragraph 13 of
the Statement on Biological Diversity and Forests from the Convention on
Biological Diversity to the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests
(UNEP/CBD/COP/2/19).
6. The present report was prepared by the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO), as lead agency for programme
element I.4, in consultation with the secretariat of the Ad Hoc
Intergovernmental Panel on Forests in the Division for Sustainable
Development of the Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable
Development of the United Nations Secretariat. Inputs and comments on part
one were received from the International Cooperative Programme on the
Assessment and Monitoring of Air Pollution Effects on Forests (ICP Forests)
(coordinated by Germany), the United Nations Environment Programme and the
Forestry Commission of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland.
7. Part one of the report benefited greatly from the Expert Meeting on
the Rehabilitation of Degraded Forest Ecosystems (Lisbon, 24-28 June 1996),
sponsored by Portugal, Cape Verde and Senegal. The meeting was attended by
124 experts from 58 countries in Europe, North and South America, Asia, the
Near East and North Africa, and Africa south of the Sahara, the European
Union and international organizations.
PART ONE. FRAGILE ECOSYSTEMS AFFECTED BY DESERTIFICATION
INTRODUCTION
8. Drylands around the world are inhabited by nearly 850 million people,
mostly in rural communities. The health and vigour of forests, wooded
lands and trees in these areas strongly affect the lives of the people, who
often depend upon them to meet subsistence needs.
9. The Forest Principles, chapters 11 and 12 of Agenda 21 and the
Convention to Combat Desertification together provide a substantive
framework which could support, guide and monitor national and international
efforts to assess, manage and conserve fragile dryland ecosystems,
including forests, wooded lands and trees, natural or planted, of dry
areas.
10. The ratification and implementation of the Convention to Combat
Desertification with its principles of popular participation;
decentralization; mix of local, national and international contributions as
regards investments and management; and partnership arrangements will
greatly contribute to the integrated development and conservation of
dryland forest ecosystems.
I. OUTCOME OF THE DISCUSSIONS AT THE PANEL'S SECOND SESSION
11. The substantive discussion of programme element I.4 at the Panel's
second session benefited to a large degree from the broader dialogue under
the Convention to Combat Desertification.
12. The report of the Panel on its second session included the following
observations:
(a) Desertification and drought affect all regions of the world and
can create problems of global dimensions;
(b) In the consideration of programme element I.4, ongoing efforts
under existing international conventions, in particular the Convention to
Combat Desertification, should be taken into account;
(c) In the management, conservation and sustainable development of
forests, wooded lands and trees in drylands, important local social,
economic and environmental dimensions should be taken into account;
(d) The capabilities of local communities to be adequately involved
in the decision-making processes for, and in the implementation of, the
management, conservation and sustainable development of their resources
need to be supported and strengthened. These should include training in
the inventory and use of local knowledge; development of supporting
legislation and establishment of tenure; and establishment of partnerships
to support local development;
(e) Afforestation activities should be closely linked to the
management and conservation of remaining natural forests and tree
formations.
13. Although the Panel considered afforestation and forest restoration
activities as only part of the solution for sustainable management of dry
forest ecosystems, they remain important options when degradation is
extreme but not beyond recovery, and when allocating more land to forest
cover and productive forests is of strategic importance.
II. CURRENT STATUS OF ISSUES RAISED AT THE PANEL'S SECOND SESSION
14. The multitude of different frameworks promoted both bilaterally and
multilaterally have created confusion and incoherent activities in
recipient countries in the past. The Convention to Combat Desertification
could provide a mechanism for facilitating the harmonization of planning
frameworks, especially for extensive dry zones, that are more consistent
with needs at the country level. The Convention also emphasizes natural
resources conservation and the management and sustainable development of
forest resources, consistent with chapter 11 of Agenda 21.
15. The role and usefulness of plantations were discussed at the Panel's
second session, both in general and for dry zones. There seems to be a
growing acceptance of the potential complementarity and conceptual
continuum of operations involving forest conservation and management,
afforestation, reforestation and sustainable use.
16. There are examples at the national level confirming the strategic
value of afforestation and reforestation in restoring productivity and
conserving the forest reserve base. However, increasing attention needs to
be paid to a balanced mix of ecological, social and economic dimensions in
the design and implementation of these kinds of operations. In areas where
plantations are designed to achieve multiple purposes, especially for
fulfilling subsistence needs of local populations, methodologies have to
become more efficient and designed to reinforce the process of expanding
forest cover.
17. Several initiatives at the regional level have taken place or are
planned for the near future in connection with improving the readiness to
implement the Convention to Combat Desertification. These initiatives are
also relevant to programme element I.4 of the Panel's programme of work and
include:
(a) Praia (Cape Verde) meeting (12-15 May 1996). This meeting was
supported by FAO and attended by 15 countries. It centred on the interface
between planning frameworks and local area development. Issues such as
decentralization, participation and the formulation of national action
programmes were also discussed;
(b) Second Latin American Conference on the International Convention
to Combat Desertification (Mexico, 17-19 June 1996). Information on the
results of the Conference is not yet available;
(c) Nairobi Meeting to Support the Implementation of the
International Convention on Desertification in Africa (20-21 June 1996).
Information on the results of the Meeting is not yet available;
(d) Tunisia Workshop on Measures and Mechanisms for the
Implementation of the Convention to Combat Desertification at the African
Level (Cairouan, 25-27 March 1996). This workshop discussed arrangements
and strategies for the coordination and harmonization of subregional action
programmes to combat desertification in Africa;
(e) United Nations System-wide Special Initiative on Africa. This
initiative, which was launched on 15 March 1996, will address a number of
issues of critical importance to Africa, such as better use of natural
resources, including dry forest formations, especially their role in
contributing to food security;
(f) Study on afforestation experience in the Nordic countries. This
study provides a historical perspective on plantations for land
rehabilitation and rural development, and illustrates the importance of
political commitment combined with a popular movement and action by
landowners and grass-roots organizations. The recent experience of Iceland
demonstrates that when this combination exists, it is possible to carry out
successful reforestation programmes even under very adverse natural
conditions.
18. International cooperation can contribute substantively to increasing
the exchange of experiences on cost-effective approaches to conservation
and sustainable development of dryland forest ecosystems, as well as on
tree species that can provide multiple benefits in wide geographical areas.
19. A number of activities at the international level have been initiated
or are planned in order to increase the effective exchange of experiences
or ideas in this area; they include:
(a) The Neem Network. This is an international technical cooperation
network focusing on the role of multipurpose tree species in dryland
development. It comprises around 20 countries. It held a meeting in
Washington D.C., United States of America, in mid-March 1996, to review
activities related to the multiple use of the Prosopis species and to
encourage further cooperative action;
(b) Meeting of the Asia and Pacific Region on the Parkia species, to
be held in Thailand. The Meeting could suggest the creation of a Parkia
Network to examine further improvement and better sharing of knowledge of
this species, which is of critical importance for food production in dry,
sub-humid and humid tropical areas;
(c) Eleventh World Forestry Congress. The Congress is to be held in
Antalya, Turkey in October 1997. Afforestation and reforestation, as well
as management of dryland forests will receive special attention. The idea
of organizing a satellite meeting on the role of forestry in combating
desertification (Saltillo II) is being proposed by FAO in preparation for
the Congress;
(d) Studies on the management of dry forest formations. The Centre
for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) has made extensive studies of
the Miombo woodlands and is also assessing the situation in Latin America.
FAO has just completed the first draft of a report on the current state of
knowledge in dryland forest management;
(e) The International Convention to Combat
Desertification/International Fund for Agricultural Development (ICCD/IFAD)
Forum on Local Area Development (Rome, 5-7 June 1996). This Forum
discussed in depth the content and articulation between national action
programmes and regional and local area development plans, as well as their
design and implementation;
(f) Expert Meeting on the Rehabilitation of Degraded Forest
Ecosystems (Lisbon, 24-28 June 1996), sponsored by Portugal, Cape Verde and
Senegal. This Meeting, which was held in cooperation with FAO and with
financial support from the European Union, had a high technical and
political profile. It was attended by 124 experts from 58 countries. The
results of the Meeting were entrusted to the President of Portugal who
chaired the closing ceremony and delivered a supportive address.
III. ASSESSMENT OF RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
20. Forests, wooded lands and trees will play an important, if not
crucial, role in mitigating the effects of desertification and drought.
Combined and better integrated efforts to implement chapter 11 of Agenda 21
and the Convention to Combat Desertification could greatly enhance the
efficiency of any activities involving the restoration of degraded lands
through afforestation and reforestation.
21. There is increasing awareness of the critical subsistence,
environmental and socio-economic functions of dryland forest ecosystems.
These dimensions will demand new kinds of partnership arrangements
involving local populations and other interested parties. An e-mail
Conference on Conflict Management in Natural Resource Use (February-April
1996), sponsored by the FAO Forests, Trees and People (FTP) programme, and
well "attended" by countries from dry regions, showed the enormous
challenges to sustainable management of natural resources in the face of
competing demands.
22. Addressing the challenges of conserving, managing and sustainably
using forest ecosystems of dry areas and of increasing their forest cover
will require continued political will at all levels. There is some reason
for optimism in this regard, as demonstrated by the many regional and
international initiatives held in support of the Convention to Combat
Desertification and programme element I.4 of the Panel's work programme.
It is to be hoped that these initiatives will be reflected by political
will and action at the national level.
IV. FUTURE CHALLENGES
23. Provided the heightened international political attention to the
plight of the fragile ecosystems of drylands translates into political
commitment and action at the national level, concrete, local action has the
potential to become effective and transformative. The use of trees can be
key to this transformation. Forests can not only contribute to solving the
problem of desertification and the effects of drought, but also meet
subsistence needs of local populations and, in the long run, even provide
income and employment.
24. There are, however, numerous challenges to overcome to reach this
goal. These challenges can be more easily addressed if support is
mobilized for the formulation of comprehensive national, provincial and
local action programmes to combat desertification and the effects of
drought, which pay due consideration to the role of woody vegetation and
plant-based restorative measures.
25. The cross-sectoral nature of the problems faced by these areas have
meant that traditional ways for programme and project identification,
formulation and implementation at the national, regional and international
levels have become cumbersome and time-consuming. The challenge of
addressing acute problems with effective actions quickly exists at all
levels.
26. The use of plantations, afforestation and reforestation as restorative
measures is especially relevant for fragile ecosystems affected by
desertification and drought. However, these measures are being implemented
too slowly to keep up with the rate of the processes leading to
degradation. A major challenge in this context is the development of
effective policy guidance and effective methods and technologies for
implementation.
27. Scientific knowledge of the dynamics of dry forest management,
afforestation, reforestation and the role and usefulness of plantation will
be increasingly needed not only for effective implementation at the field
level but also for policy formulation at all levels. Effective channels
for feeding this knowledge to potential users need to be explored. One
option that should be examined is the Committee on Science and Technology
of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention to Combat
Desertification.
V. PROPOSALS FOR ACTION
28. This section consolidates the main conclusions and recommendations
emanating from the discussion on programme element I.4 at the second
session of the Panel, as well as those of part one of the present report.
It also takes into account the issues identified as of high priority at the
Expert Meeting on the Rehabilitation of Degraded Forest Ecosystems (Lisbon,
24-28 June 1996).
National dryland programmes and policies
29. The Panel may wish to consider the formulation, by the year 2001, of
explicit national forest policies which address dryland concerns, including
forest resource conservation, management and sustainable development, that
encompass the paradigms of local peoples' involvement, sound management of
ecosystems and socio-economic dimensions.
Capacity-building
30. The Panel may wish to consider:
(a) Strengthening of institutional capacity in order to:
(i) Involve civil society and non-governmental organizations in the
planning, design and implementation processes;
(ii) Empower local communities;
(iii) Facilitate the establishment of partnerships in the management
and conservation of natural resources;
(iv) Facilitate access to financial resources at the national and
local levels;
(b) Strengthening national capacity-building efforts in order to:
(i) Educate local populations in sustainable management of fragile
ecosystems, especially the poor and women, as well as youth, to
whom these resources will be entrusted in the future;
(ii) Develop and improve technical and university curricula to include
themes on desertification and management of natural resources in
drylands.
Land tenure
31. The Panel may wish to consider the urgent initiation of land tenure
reforms to promote higher security of investments and interventions.
Periodic assessment
32. The Panel may wish to consider setting up mechanisms and strengthening
national capacities for periodic assessments of the state of natural
resources in support of:
(a) Assessment of the state of trees, woodlands and forest and the
processes affecting them;
(b) The design and implementation of prevention, rehabilitation and
development strategies;
(c) Setting specific targets and time-frames for reaching objectives.
Preventive and restorative measures
33. The Panel may wish to consider:
(a) Timely and preventive measures to manage non-degraded natural and
man-made forest stands, as well as all types of plant cover on a
sustainable basis;
(b) Restoration measures using:
(i) The potential of both native and/or exotic species;
(ii) Appropriate techniques accepted by local populations;
(iii) Impact assessment of all potential activities;
(c) The formulation of guidelines for sound conservation and
environmental management of large-scale plantations in order to:
(i) Optimize positive and minimize negative effects of afforestation
and reforestation activities;
(ii) Evolve rules or a code of conduct for the establishment of
plantations;
(iii) Provide a gauge against which impacts of plantations can be
studied.
Coordination
34. The Panel may wish to:
(a) Pursue efforts under way to coordinate planning frameworks
concerning fragile ecosystems affected by drought and desertification, in
the light of the integrated nature of the Convention to Combat
Desertification;
(b) Encourage regional and subregional efforts where they already
exist - for example the Permanent Inter-State Committee on Drought Control
in the Sahel (CILSS), the Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and
Development (IGADD) and the Southern African Development Community (SADC) -
and their development where they do not, in order to ensure coordination
and action-oriented follow-up.
PART TWO. IMPACT OF AIRBORNE POLLUTION ON FORESTS
INTRODUCTION
35. During the 1970s, defoliation and discolouration of trees was reported
from certain forest sites in Central Europe. In the early 1980s the same
symptoms, though generally less pronounced, were identified in many other
parts of Europe. The damage observed coincided with increasing deposition
of such airborne pollutants as sulphur dioxide and the oxides of nitrogen
as well as ozone, even in rural areas. Long-range transport of airborne
pollutants from highly industrialized areas to remote rural areas had
already been recognized following the acidification of lakes and rivers in
parts of Scandinavia.
36. Concern over forest health was also expressed in North America in the
1970s, although in the United States of America and Canada the regional
diversity in the combinations of causal factors was acknowledged from the
outset.
37. The independent group of experts under an initiative of Peru and
Switzerland have noted the significance of radioactive airborne pollutants,
associated with episodic events for the health of forest ecosystems.
38. The need for multilateral efforts at the political and scientific
levels to protect the forests of Europe led, in 1985, to the establishment
of the International Cooperative Programme on the Assessment and Monitoring
of Air Pollution Effects on Forests (ICP Forests) established under the
auspices of the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution within
the framework of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (ECE).
It cooperates closely with the European Commission. At present 34 European
countries, the United States and Canada participate in this Programme.
39. After 10 years of assessment and monitoring of forest condition,
knowledge of the spatial and temporal distribution of forest damage has
grown considerably, and public awareness of air pollution as a threat to
the environment and notably to forests has increased, providing an impetus
for new national and international environmental policies and expanded
research into forest damage.
I. OUTCOME OF THE DISCUSSIONS AT THE PANEL'S SECOND SESSION
40. The Panel, after reviewing the report of the Secretary-General
(E/CN.17/IPF/1996/3) on programme element I.4, as it relates to the impact
of airborne pollution on forests, noted that the problem was not restricted
to Europe but occurred in many other parts of the world. While continued
monitoring of the impact of air pollution on forest health was needed and
should continue in the European Union and ECE and should be extended to
other areas as required, the Panel nevertheless stressed the need for a
preventive approach to combating air pollution. It was noted that
solutions to the problem lay outside the forest, and the need for transfer
of technology as well as consideration of production and consumption
patterns was stressed.
41. The Panel noted that national strategies might include prevention of
damaging air pollution and reduction of transboundary pollution. The Panel
emphasized that countries should be encouraged to cooperate in activities
related to the impact of airborne pollution on forest health and in
disseminating and providing access to information and data to the general
public, managers and policy makers. Furthermore, research and field data
collection should be continued, with particular reference to the study of
forest ecosystems, whose sustainability was threatened by pollutant
depositions.
42. The Panel considered that an evaluation should be made of forest
decline and pollutant-related declines worldwide, and of actions taken to
address them, as well as a synthesis of the impact of airborne pollutants
on forests in Central and Eastern Europe in particular, and an examination
of ongoing activities and proposals for future actions.
43. The Panel noted that forest planning and management should recognize
the potential impact on forest health from nutrients and pollutants from
the atmosphere, acting in combination with other processes such as natural
weathering and leaching.
44. The Panel stressed the importance of the Convention on Long-Range
Transboundary Air Pollution. The widespread and general adoption of the
critical loads approach in the context of the Convention was welcomed.
This approach may be considered by those countries whose forests are, or
may be, affected by air pollution and which are not at present parties to
the Convention.
II. CURRENT STATUS OF ISSUES RAISED AT THE PANEL'S
SECOND SESSION
45. ICP Forests was mandated to monitor air pollution effects on forests
and to contribute to a better understanding of cause-effect relationships.
In pursuing these objectives it has gained knowledge of the spatial and
temporal variations in forest condition and of its relationship to stress
factors at the national, regional and international levels. The actions
taken so far were coordinated closely with the European Union programme for
the protection of forests against atmospheric pollution (EC Regulation No.
3528/86)
46. Two monitoring levels have so far been established to reach the above-
mentioned objectives:
(a) Extensive periodic assessments on a large-scale grid (16x16 km),
covering 34 European countries, of the condition of approximately 102,000
trees, by annually assessing defoliation and discolouration of
needles/leaves. In addition, on all the 4,800 sample points, a forest soil
condition survey is being executed, to gain basic information on the
chemical soil status and on soil properties which determine its sensitivity
to air pollution. On one third of these sample points foliar analyses are
conducted. The results of the assessments, to be published in 1997, will
give area-related mean values;
(b) Intensive and continuous monitoring activities are carried out on
approximately 170 permanent observation plots in 28 European countries,
which include crown condition assessments, soil and foliar analyses,
increment studies, soil solution analyses, deposition and meteorological
measurements and ground vegetation assessments. The results of these
activities will be presented as site-specific case studies. Comparisons of
results between plots will have to be done with great care due to the great
variability of site conditions .
47. In addition to these two monitoring levels ICP Forests is also
investigating special topics, such as the effects of heavy metal deposition
on forest ecosystems.
III. ASSESSMENT OF RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND REASONS FOR OPTIMISM
48. Ten years of large-scale crown condition assessments have revealed an
overall deterioration of forest health in Europe. For the period 1988-
1995, there has been a relative increase in the number of damaged trees
among the 12 more important forest tree species. Today roughly one in four
sample trees is classified as damaged - that is, it is not dead but its
vitality is weakened and it has lost at least 25 per cent of its
needles/leaves compared with healthy trees in the same region. Although
this deterioration seems moderate on a European scale, the damage is severe
in certain regions such as Central and Eastern Europe. In these areas
100,000 to 200,000 hectares of forests have died within the past 20 years -
that is, about 0.1 per cent of the forests in Europe as a whole (Russia
excluded). Efforts to replant these areas are ongoing.
49. The areas of the highest forest damage in Central and Eastern Europe
correspond fairly well with the areas of the highest sulphur emission
concentrations in Europe. The atmospheric concentrations and the
depositions of several air pollutants in those areas are thought to exceed
the critical levels and loads for forest ecosystems. Pollutant emissions
and depositions have been changing historically, both qualitatively and
quantitatively. European sulphur emissions have risen from less than 5
million tonnes of sulphur dioxide in 1880 to a peak of nearly 60 million
tonnes in 1975, with the geographical pattern of emissions, and thus of
depositions, also changing substantially. Emissions had declined to about
48 million tonnes a year by 1990 and were continuing to fall.
50. Trends are not so clear for nitrogen compounds, but emissions have
also increased substantially with industrialization and the increase in
motor vehicle emissions. Recent surveys have shown roughly stable
emissions of nitrogen oxides from European countries between 1980 and 1993,
and a moderate decrease in ammonia emissions between 1980 and 1993.
51. Ozone shows considerable regional variation, being dependent on both
climatic conditions and the emission of precursors, but on a regional basis
they must be considered as potentially damaging to trees. All these
pollutants, and others, notably heavy metals, have the potential to
influence plant growth directly through their effect on climate (the
"greenhouse gases") or via soil-mediated effects such as contamination,
acidification, accelerated weathering or the leaching of nutrients.
52. Forest damage can be explained as a complex interaction of many
natural influencing factors, such as insects, fungi, or extreme weather
conditions. Biotic agents with temporal and regional variations lead to
fluctuations in the health status of trees but the important role of air
pollution in this context is supported by results of more symptom-specific
studies of injury arising from air pollution. More than half the European
countries involved in the ICP Forests work consider air pollution as a
predisposing, accompanying and locally triggering factor for forest damage.
53. There are, however, reasons for optimism. The widespread and
catastrophic "forest death" which was feared in Europe has not occurred.
The effects of pollutant depositions are subtle and, at least in the short
term, may have little impact, unlike extremes such as windthrow, severe
drought or outbreaks of pests. Furthermore, the shift from often
inefficient State-controlled industries and the growth in the economies of
Eastern Europe in recent years has both reduced the sources of pollution
and increased the likelihood of a further reduction in emissions.
54. Another optimistic development is the acceptance of concepts of forest
health and vitality as one criterion of the four main international sets of
criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management (Helsinki and
Montreal Processes, Tarapoto Proposals and Proposals for Dry-zone Africa).
Two of these sets have included indicators of airborne pollution as
quantitative measures of the criteria (Helsinki and Montreal Processes).
IV. ASSESSMENT OF THE OBSTACLES TO BE OVERCOME AND
CHALLENGES FORESEEN
55. Since air pollution is the predisposing, accompanying and locally
triggering factor for forest damage then the reduction of airborne
pollutants is one of the main keys to protecting forests.
56. At the international level, it is important to implement the existing
internationally binding instruments, notably those under the Convention on
Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution. Since its entry into force in
1983, the Convention has been extended by specific protocols such as the
Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions or their Transboundary
Fluxes (1985, revised in 1994) and the Protocols concerning the Control of
Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides (1988) and of Volatile Organic Compounds
(1991).
57. The development of effect-based abatement strategies, taking into
account the critical level and load concept as an essential tool at the
regional level, has been a substantial step forward. In the coming years,
the highest priority will be given to the development of the second
Protocol on the Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides. While sulphur
emissions have been reduced in nearly all European countries, nitrogen
emissions have increased significantly in many. Controlling the sources of
nitrogen has therefore become even more important.
58. As in Europe, so in other parts of the world: a good knowledge of the
location of sensitive areas and of the threshold deposition values above
which damage occurs (the critical load) would allow measures to be taken
before problems attain serious proportions. Evidence from South and East
Asia indicates the need for early action, since critical loads are probably
already being exceeded in parts of China, India and Japan. The sensitivity
maps which are being produced for developing countries need to be evaluated
by local scientists, while verification is needed through international
assessment and monitoring schemes.
59. Many European countries have committed themselves to these
international efforts to reduce their emissions by even higher percentages
than internationally agreed. The States members of the European Union, for
example, will reduce their sulphur dioxide emissions by the year 2000 by 65
per cent compared with 1980. This effect-oriented approach will continue
to require information on the recent status and trends in forest condition,
so that the monitoring activities of ICP Forests and the European Union
will remain highly important.
60. In addition to these clean-air measures most European countries are
promoting forestry measures (for example, soil liming and reafforestation
with tree species adapted to the site) designed to increase the resistance
of their forests to harmful influences. Interdisciplinary forestry
research will continue to be supported as an indispensable condition for
further clarifying cause-effect relationships of forest damage.
V. PROPOSALS FOR ACTION
61. The Panel may wish to consider the proposals for action set out below:
Emission reduction
62. The clean air measures that have already been carried out at the
national and international levels are expected to lead to a further
decrease in pollutant emissions and to an improvement of forest health. On
the whole, however, deposition measurements show that at present there are
still too many examples of pollutants being deposited into forest
ecosystems exceeding the critical levels and loads. Emission reduction
must continue to be of high priority in the future.
63. In order to reduce emissions, political efforts to reach further
international binding protocols, for example, under the Convention on Long-
Range Transboundary Air Pollution, should be maintained. The importance of
the critical loads approach in the context of that Convention is stressed,
as is its relevance to all countries where forests are or may be affected
by airborne pollution.
64. The measures taken to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide and other
climate-relevant gases under the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change should continue, as they will contribute to reducing the air
pollutants adversely affecting forests.
Periodic assessment of the impact of airborne pollutants
65. The seriousness of the threat from air pollution and responsibility
for the environment require the continuation of monitoring within the
programmes of ICP Forests and the European Union in order to be informed of
the status and trends in forest condition. Annual assessments on a large-
scale grid are of high priority. Special efforts will have to be made in
the coming years to intensify ongoing activities for the intensive
monitoring of selected forest plots. Careful evaluation and interpretation
of the data collected so far will be needed in order to improve the
knowledge of cause/effect relationships between air pollution and other
important factors influencing forest condition and the health of forest
ecosystems. Where appropriate and necessary, such monitoring may be
extended outside the European Union and North America.
66. The financial and political conditions for this important work must be
ensured by the participating countries. Suitable arrangements should be
made for the transfer of relevant technologies for forest health monitoring
and for liaison and cooperation.
67. Information on status and trends in forest condition has been
identified as one of the criteria of sustainable forest management (see
E/CN.17/IPF/1996/21). The programmes of ICP Forests and the European Union
may be used to assess the quantitative indicators related to this criterion
and a similar approach may be adopted in other areas.
68. The Panel may wish to recommend the approach taken by ICP Forests for
application in other regions of the world where air pollution has been
identified as a factor affecting forest health.
Research
69. Forest ecosystem research and the promotion of accompanying forestry
measures to stabilize forest ecosystems should continue at the national
level as well as at the regional and global levels.
Rehabilitation of affected areas
70. Continued emphasis is necessary in the rehabilitation of certain
forest areas in Central and Eastern Europe, where the main damage areas are
concentrated. In certain cases specific interventions, such as soil
liming, to buffer acid depositions, could be a useful tool to reduce the
negative impacts of air pollution.
Notes
1/ Official Records of the Economic and Social Council, 1995,
Supplement No. 12 (E/1995/32), chap. I, sect. D, annex I, sect. III.
-----
This document has been posted online by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA). Reproduction and dissemination of the document - in electronic and/or printed format - is encouraged, provided acknowledgement is made of the role of the United Nations in making it available.
Date last posted: 7 December 1999 12:45:30
Comments and suggestions: DESA/DSD