Increased equity for girls and women is one of the major goals of both the Bali Declaration on Population and Sustainable Development, adopted by the Fourth Asian and Pacific Population Conference in Bali, Indonesia in August 1992, and the Programme of Action, adopted by the International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) at Cairo in September 1994.

The need for increased equity for females is a result of discrimination against them, which often starts at the earliest stages of life, i.e. with the practice of pre-natal sex selection. However, in societies such as Thailand, which has no so-called "son preference", other equity and equality issues need to be considered in order to achieve the full participation and partnership of both women and men, "including shared responsibilities for the care and nurturing of children and maintenance of the household" (United Nations, 1995).

Among the objectives of the Programme of Action in this regard are to "achieve equality and equity based on harmonious partnership between men and women and enable women to realize their full potential, and to ensure the enhancement of women's contributions to sustainable development through their full . . . participation in all aspects of production, employment, income-generating activities . . . as active decision makers, participants and beneficiaries" (United Nations, 1995).

Although Thailand is relatively free of a serious bias against females at all stages of life, the increased employment of women in recent decades has not been without cost to women: most married female workers now carry the double burden of work outside the home in addition to work inside the household.

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* By Umaporn Pattaravanich, Researcher, Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, Salaya, Phutthamonthon, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand.

Thai women are entering the labour force in larger proportions than at any point in the country's history, reflecting the important role of women in Thailand's industrial development. The proportion of women in the industrial sector is currently about 49 per cent (National Statistical Office, 1991). Because of the heavy concentration of industrial development activities in the Bangkok metropolitan area (BMA), this study was undertaken to assess some aspects related to the employment of growing number of female industrial workers in that area.

Briefly, it found that, even though women comprise about half of the labour force, the distribution of workers among occupational categories is different for men and women, with women tending to be employed in lower-level, unskilled or semiskilled jobs, and earning less than men. Even after adjusting for the influence of several other factors on workers' earnings, such as education, training received, occupational status, number of job changes and so on, the earnings of female workers have been found to be substantially lower than those of male workers (Tonguthai and Pattaravanich, 1992). Chaplow (1954) has provided reasons for the relegation of women to the bottom of the occupational hierarchy, the major one being that the primary status of women is that of mothers and housewives; they are only secondarily wage-earners. The inferior position of women leads to inequality and the de facto separation of work for males and females in the labour market. As a result, the range of jobs open to women is limited. In this situation, employers tend to hire women on a temporary basis and not to invest in training them, thus limiting them to jobs requiring only low skills.

There is yet another dimension. The changing role of women in Thai society, especially the increase of women in the labour force, generates conflict: most married female workers carry the double burden of work in the labour force and household duties. This could result in their lives being stressful with conflicts posed by both roles. They may be unable to handle both jobs effectively, and thus satisfaction in their work may be reduced. Therefore, in view of these factors, the purpose of the present note is to investigate some of the factors related to career planning, with reference to family and employment, among married women workers.

The data on married women workers are taken from a survey on employment and occupational mobility in urban labour markets in the manufacturing sector undertaken between May and August 1991 by the Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University. The size of the sample was 1,339 workers (633 male and 706 female) from 80 establishments throughout Bangkok and the greater metropolitan area. The objective of the survey was to compare job benefits for male and female workers in terms of living allowances, accommodation or accommodation allowance, transport or transport allowance, meals or meal allowance, education allowance, paid leave, bonus, pension and severance pay.

The present study focuses on aspects of career planning of married women only, because they are the ones who carry the double burden of work outside the home and household duties. Hence, the total sample was reduced in size to 280 married women workers. The definition of career planning was limited to two aspects: intention (a) to carry on with the woman's present job, without seeking to move elsewhere, and (b) to try to seek upward mobility (better wages and working conditions) in the present establishment, or elsewhere by changing jobs. In addition, a score was calculated for each of several job benefits. Percentage distributions have been used to present the respondents' characteristics, with the chi-square test for examining the relationships between career planning and the family and employment variables.

Background characteristics

As shown in table 1, about 23 per cent of the women were under age 25 years, 41 per cent were aged 25-34, and approximately 36 per cent were aged 35 or older; the average age was approximately 32 years. About half of the respondents were educated to a level less than junior high school, i.e. ninth grade.

In terms of occupation, nearly half of the sample was composed of semiskilled and unskilled workers; about a quarter of the women were skilled workers; 20 per cent were clerical, sales and service workers; and only 7 per cent were professionals and managers. As for the occupation of their husbands, 30.3 per cent were clerical, sales and service workers, and 29.5 per cent were skilled workers. Around 25 per cent of the respondents' husbands were semiskilled and unskilled workers, while about 14 per cent were working as professionals and managers.

Table 1 also shows that the average monthly income of the respondents was 5,928 baht (US$1.00 = about 25 baht); nearly three-fourths of the sample earned 6,000 baht or less, whereas the average income of their husbands was 7,069 baht. About 60 per cent of the women said that their husbands earned 6,000 baht or less. The average monthly household income was 17,261 baht.

Nearly 40 per cent earned 9,000 baht or less. The majority (about 58 per cent) of the respondents stated that their husbands encouraged them in their careers. Only 5 per cent stated that their husbands disagreed with them pursuing a career. The same table shows that only 28 per cent of the women had high benefit scores (6 or more). More than 60 per cent of the women worked in non-unionized factories. Half of the women had worked in their current jobs for five years or more. While 26 per cent said that they would try to obtain better wages and working conditions in their present establishments, 15 per cent indicated that they would try to become upwardly mobile by quitting their jobs to get work in other establishments. Nearly 60 per cent of the married women workers expressed satisfaction with their career and said they would carry on with their current jobs.

Characteristic	%	Number
Age (years)
Less than 25	23.2	65
25-34	41.1	115
35 or older	35.7	100
Total	100.0	280
Mean = 31.9	Maximum = 56	Minimum = 17
Education
Not completed junior high school	51.4	114
Completed junior high school (ninth grade) or more	48.6	136
Total	100.0	280
Occupation
Professional and managerial	7.1	20
Clerical, sales and service	20.4	57
Skilled	24.6	69
Semiskilled and unskilled	47.9	134
Total	100.0	280
Occupation of husband
Professional and managerial	13.8	36
Clerical, sales and service	30.3	79
Skilled	29.5	77
Semiskilled and unskilled	26.4	69
Total	100.0	261*
Income (baht per month)
3,000 or less	28.9	81
3,000-6,000	42.9	120
6,001 or more	28.2	79
Total	100.0	280
Mean = 5,928	Maximum = 60,000	Minimum = 200
Income of husband (baht per month)
3,000	26.3	70
3,001-6,000	38.0	101
6,001 or more	35.7	95
Total	100.0	266*
Mean = 7,069	Maximum = 60,000	Minimum = 600
Income of household (baht per month)
9,000 or less	38.0	103
9,001-18,000	29.5	80
18,001 or more	32.5	88
Total	100.0	266*
Mean = 17,261	Maximum = 129,950	Minimum = 1,500
Husband's attitude towards woman's career
Encouraging and cooperative	58.1	157
Tolerant or indifferent	37.0	100
Against	4.8	13
Total	100.0	270*
Benefit score
Low (less than 2)	23.7	54
Medium (3-5)	48.7	111
High (6 or more)	27.6	63
Total	100.0	228*
Mean = 4	Maximum = 9	Minimum = 0
Existence of trade union
Yes	37.4	95
No	62.6	159
Total	100.00	254*
Duration in current job (months)
1-36	38.9	109
37-60	11.1	31
61 or more	50.0	140
Total	100.0	280
Mean = 94	Maximum = 41	Minimum = 1
Career planning
Continue with the current job, without any mobility	58.6	156
Try for upward mobility in the present establishment (to seek better wages and working condition)	26.3	70
Try for upward mobility in other establishments, or plan to quit job	15.0	40
Total	100.0	266*

* Note: Excludes missing cases.

Career planning and individual characteristics

Table 2 shows that more than half of the respondents who were aged 25 or older were satisfied in their current jobs, but about 57 per cent of the women who were aged under 25 were dissatisfied and said they would seek mobility in their careers. They were followed in frequency by those aged 25-34 and 35 or older, respectively. This means that the younger the women, the more likely it is that they would seek mobility in their careers. Among the women who were dissatisfied with their careers, most had attained a junior high school or higher level of education. Moreover, career planning differences were found by age and education, with the differences being statistically significant.

Career planning/characteristics	Plan to continue, with present job	Plan to seek mobility	Total	(N)
Age (years)
Less than 25	43.3	56.7	100.0	(60)
25-34	54.1	45.9	100.0	(111)
35 or older	73.7	26.3	100.0	(95)
Mean	33.6	29.3
Chi-square = 15.63**
Education
Not completed junior high school	65.2	34.8	100.0	(138)
Have attended high school or more	51.6	48.4	100.0	(128)
Chi-square = 5.11*

Notes: ** p<.01; * p<.05.

Career planning and family variables

Although most of the women were satisfied in their current jobs, there were many respondents who expressed dissatisfaction with their careers and said they would seek mobility in their jobs (table 3). In comparing women who planned to carry on with their current jobs and those who planned to seek mobility, it was found that the average income of their husbands was not very different, i.e. 7,577 and 6,981 baht, respectively. Additionally, a comparison of the women who planned to continue in their current position with those who planned to seek upward mobility revealed that the average household income was 17,595 and 16,647 baht, respectively. Thus, the difference in career planning by husband's income and household income was not significant. In addition, women whose husbands were clerical, sales, service, semiskilled or unskilled workers were found to be planning to seek upward mobility in their careers more than others, although the differences were not significant. As might be expected, the women whose husbands were encouraging them in their careers planned to carry on with their current job, while women whose husbands disapproved of their careers were planning to seek mobility in their current job, by taking work in other establishments, or simply by quitting their current job. Differences in career planning were found to be significantly associated with the husbands' attitude towards their wives' career.

Career planning/ characteristics	Plan to continue with present job	Plan to seek mobility	Total	(N)
Income of household (baht per month)
9,000 or less	58.6	41.4	100.0	(99)
9,001-18,000	56.6	43.4	100.0	(76)
18,001 or more	59.8	40.2	100.0	(82)
Mean	17,595	16,647
Chi-square = 0.17
Income of husband (baht per month)
3,000 or less	60.3	39.7	100.0	(60)
3,001-6,000	50.0	50.0	100.0	(111)
6,001 or more	62.5	37.5	100.0	(95)
Mean	7,577	6,981
Chi-square = 3.31
Occupation of husband
Professional and managerial/skilled	63.2	36.8	100.0	(106)
Clerical, sales and service/ semiskilled and unskilled	51.8	48.2	100.0	(141)
Chi-square = 4.01
Husband's attitude towards woman's career
Encouraging and cooperative	64.5	35.5	100.0	(152)
Tolerant or indifferent	52.7	47.3	100.0	(91)
Against	23.1	76.9	100.0	(13)
Chi-square = 10.16*

Note: * p<.01.

Career planning and employment variables

Most of the sample who had a skilled, professional or managerial job were satisfied in their present job, whereas most of clerical, sales, service, semiskilled or unskilled workers were dissatisfied in their career and planned to seek mobility. The difference in career planning by the women's occupation was statistically significant (see table 4). There was a clear difference among women who had been working in their current job for five or fewer years and those who had been in their job for more than five years. The average durations in current job when comparing women who planned to continue with their current jobs with those who planned to seek mobility in their careers were 109 months (around 9 years) and 77 months (around 6 years), respectively. This means that a long duration in the women's current job was related to the women continuing with their careers in that place of employment. Moreover, the difference in career planning was found to be significantly related to duration in the women's current job. The more money the women earned, the more likely it was for them to be satisfied in their current job and to plan to continue working in that job. The average incomes, when comparing women who planned to continue in their current job with those who planned to seek mobility in their careers, were 6,657 and 5,371 baht, respectively. This indicates that high income provides women with an incentive for continuing in their current job, whereas a low income provides an incentive for trying to seek upward mobility in their careers, although the relationship is not significant. A higher proportion of women who had high scores on the benefit measure planned to continue working at their current job compared with women with low scores. However, the average of the benefit scores was not very different between the women who planned to carry on with their present jobs and those who planned to seek mobility in their careers, i.e. 4.2 and 4.0, respectively. Women who worked in non-unionized factories planned to seek mobility more than those who worked in unionized factories. However, the difference in terms of career planning with regard to unionization was found to be not significant.

Career planning/characteristics	Plan to continue with present job	Plan to seek mobility	Total	(N)
Occupation
Professional and manegeria/skilled	67.5	32.5	100.0	(83)
Clerical, sales and service/semiskilled and unskilled	54.6	45.4	100.0	(183)
Chi-square = 3.87**
Income (baht per month)
3,000 or less	59.0	41.0	100.0	(73)
3,001-6,000	56.1	43.9	100.0	(112)
6,001 or more	62.2	37.8	100.0	(81)
Mean	6,657	5,371
Chi-square = 0.68
Benefit scores
Low	56.9	43.1	100.0	(51)
Medium	54.7	45.3	100.0	(106)
High	66.7	33.3	100.0	(60)
Mean	4.2	4.0
Chi-square = 2.33
Existence of trade union
Yes	63.0	37.0	100.0	(92)
No	55.4	44.6	100.0	(148)
Chi-square = 1.36
Duration in present job (months)
1-36	49.0	51.0	100.0	(104)
37-60	57.1	42.9	100.0	(28)
61 or more	66.4	33.6	100.0	(134)
mean	109.1	77.5
Chi-square = 7.32*

Note: * p<0.1

In summary, the study found that the majority of the respondents were in the age group 25-34 years, semiskilled and unskilled workers with limited education. The average income of respondents, their husbands and their households were 5,928, 7,069 and 17,261 baht, respectively. Only one-fourth of the women enjoyed high benefits in their job. Nearly 60 per cent of the women stated that their husbands encouraged them in the pursuit of their careers.

The study revealed that career planning is associated significantly with age and education, i.e. the younger is the woman, the more likely it is that she will seek mobility in her career. Also, other factors related significantly to career planning are occupation and duration in the current job. Women who had clerical, sales, service, semiskilled and unskilled jobs were found to be more likely to seek mobility in their careers than those who had skilled, professional, or managerial jobs. The longer the woman's duration in her current job, the more likely it was that she would carry on with her present career. Among the reasons for this might be that women who have worked a long time in a certain place are likely to be in a relatively high position so they may not want to change their job or, if their salary-benefits package is high, may not be able to find equally remunerative employment in a competitive job market.

A study by Chaplow (1954) on the position of women in the labour market suggested that the range of jobs open to women is limited because of the discontinuous nature of their working life, i.e. they also have status as mothers and housewives. Thus, women are relegated to low-skilled, low-status and low-paid jobs, since employers would not want to invest for the long term in employees who may frequently take off from work for pregnancy or family reasons, actions which would likely have an impact on the employer's competitiveness. Because of strong competition in business, firms are under pressure to keep wages and salaries and other production costs low if they are to continue in business, which leads to dissatisfaction among those employees in low-pay positions.

The study suggests that the attitude of husbands is an important factor regarding women's participation in the labour force. Hicks and others (1983) found that, because women workers fulfil a dual role of work outside the home and in the household, it is difficult to maintain a balance between maternal and occupational roles without the support of husbands. Further, although the attitude of husbands is associated with the career planning of women, it is not an easy matter to change rapidly a husband's attitude if it is a negative one.

Thus, one of the implications for policy purposes is that attitudinal change must be initiated early. For example, educators should begin to train their students how to deal with the problems posed by a dual work-career life-style. Moreover, measures should be taken to socialize children -- boys and girls alike -- so that they will be able to become competent members of a household, being able to perform all household duties.

Employers should perceive that a conflict between women's maternal and occupational roles is associated with their career planning, which has an important impact on them with regard to industrial productivity. Hence, employers could help to reduce the pressure on women by increasing the availability of child-care centres in factories. In this regard, Tonguthai and Pattaravanich (1992) indicated that less than 5 per cent of women workers said that their children were taken care of in such centres, which were not arranged by factories. Thus, the availability of child-care centres is likely to be another important factor in women's career planning. Their availability is likely to relate also to the husbands' favourable attitude towards their wives' careers, because most husbands expect their wives to emphasize maternal and housewife roles over that of work outside the home. If child-care centres were more widely available in factories, they might feel that their wives could remain close to their children and this in turn would help to reduce conflicts about women's maternal role. Furthermore, it is important for new attitudes to be developed at the administrative and managerial level of industry regarding the hiring of women, knowing that married women workers face a double work burden.

With regard to age, occupation and duration in the current job, all of which were found to be significant factors for career planning, it was found that the older the woman or the longer is her tenure in her job, the more likely she would be holding a high position, a situation which would have a positive impact on her wanting to continue working in her current job. Thus, in order to retain capable persons, employers should have a policy on their promotion to higher positions or the provision of merit increments. In view of the fact that less educated married women are more likely to seek mobility, it would be wise for employers also to adopt policy measures that would enable skill improvements through training and the provision of other human resources development opportunities.

A final implication is the need to continue to strive for the full participation of both men and women in the household along with efforts aimed at achieving greater equality in the workplace.

Chaplow, Theodore (1954). The Sociology of Work (New York: McGraw-Hill).

Hicks, W. Mary, Sally L. Hansen and Leo A. Christie (1983). "Dual-career/dual-work families: a systems approach in contemporary families and alternative lifestyles", Eleanor D. Macklin and Rober H. Rubin (eds.) (London: Sage Publications).

National Statistical Office (1991). Report of the Labour Force Survey: Whole Kingdom (round 1) (Bangkok: Office of the Prime Minister).

Tonguthai, Pawadee and Umaporn Pattaravanich (1993). "Employment and mobility in Bangkok labour market with special reference to women in the manufacturing sector", In: Promotion of Diversified Skill Development for Women in Industry, Vol. 2 (New York: United Nations).

United Nations (1995). Population and Development: Programme of Action adopted at the International Conference on Population and Development, Cairo, 5-13 September 1994, Vol. 1 (New York: Department for Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis) ST/ESA/SER.A/149.

For further information on this material please contact: loftus.unescap@un.org