PRODUCTIVE AGEING

     While Asia has made tremendous progress both economically and socially, it also has the majority of the world's poor, around half in South-central Asia and 15 per cent in East Asia (Asian Development Bank, 1993; World Bank, 1995). The number of persons aged 60 years and over presently stands at 8.1 per cent but this is expected to rise to 12.3 per cent in 2020 (United Nations, 1994a). Nevertheless, the ageing population in Asia will form the majority of the world's ageing population; by the year 2000, it will have about 53 per cent of the world's total. For Asia as a whole, the number of persons aged 60 and over is projected to increase from an estimated 281 million persons in 1995 to 585 million persons in 2020.

     While the situation varies across countries in the region, the challenges of population ageing are inevitable, with higher challenges facing the more populous countries. For example, China alone, a country yet to have an ageing population, had an estimated 114 million elderly persons in 1995, and this figure is projected to double to 231 million by the year 2020. In addition, due to continued improvement in life expectancy, persons are living longer upon reaching old age. Consequently, persons aged 70 years and over form more than a third of the elderly persons in quite a number of countries in Asia in 1995. By 2020, this proportion is expected to be about 60 per cent in Japan, indicating that the number of 'old-old' will exceed the 'young-old'. In countries such as Thailand and Hong Kong, about 40 per cent of the elderly population will be over 70 by 2020. The decline in mortality has also resulted in increased female over male longevity such that there is increased feminization of the elderly population. The imbalance is more pronounced in the older age groups. The female advantage in life expectancy is expected to continue to the year 2000 and beyond and this in itself has serious implications in ensuring sufficient social and economic security for the elderly population (Tan, 1995). More elderly persons are found in rural than in urban areas: in the year 2000, about 60 per cent will live in the rural areas (United Nations, 1980). Nevertheless, a more balanced sex ratio is found in the rural areas; a falling sex ratio in the urban areas has been attributed to the migration of widows joining their children in the cities (ESCAP, 1991a).

     With this demographic scenario, it is therefore necessary for Asia to consider ageing issues more seriously now than in the past. The already large number and the impending large number of elderly persons, with progressively more living to very old ages, and a higher proportion being female, highlight the need to attend to and plan early for the ageing of the population. It is necessary to ensure that the elderly, who are amongst the most vulnerable groups in the population, are not increasingly left behind. Many countries still have fairly high fertility rates, which will further compound the size of ageing issues and problems in the future.

     While there seem to be many pressing problems to contend with at the moment, such as provision of infrastructure and services, including education, employment, health, housing and amenities for the growing population, necessary steps should be taken now to make adequate provisions for an ageing population rather than wait for the group to become insurmountably large. With the economic and social progress that is currently being enjoyed, it is timely to set aside some resources to meet the challenges of population ageing and ensure that the elderly are integrated and their needs incorporated in respective development programs. To this end, the developmental aspect of population ageing should be taken more seriously in policies and programs as, due to constraint of resources, developing countries in particular would not be able to afford a welfare approach in caring for the needs of their ageing population. Currently, the rather low priority that ageing receives in official planning and programs, and the general absence of social security provisions and organized services for older persons in quite a few countries, mean that it is necessary to mobilize the population, young and old alike, so that they and the policy makers become aware and sensitive to the issues of population ageing, and take appropriate measures to ensure that older persons are not left behind in the development process. The older persons themselves can become a force to be reckoned with as they not only have a wealth of experience and talents but they have the potential to contribute to society and to their own well-being. This chapter will therefore discuss the many aspects of productive ageing, which is important not only for the continued development of the various countries in the region, but also to the older persons, their families and the community, as due recognition will promote their roles and welfare and ensure that they have a definite place in a rapidly changing society.

2. Perspectives of Productive Ageing

     Productive ageing should be considered from a number of perspectives. According to the Oxford Dictionary, the word 'productive' refers to 'producing commodities of exchangeable values'. At first glance, one would take it to mean only economic activities since this is the most obvious aspect in which there are monetary gains. However, upon further consideration, one sees that there are many activities which are non-economic in nature which also have exchangeable values. Productive ageing should therefore be taken to mean involvement in various activities, be it social or economic, as one grows older. This definition implies that one will have the option of participating in such activities regardless of one's age. In developing societies in particular, this is clearly not the case, and as one grows older there seems to be less choice, unless provisions have been made earlier to enable one to make such choices. Who then should make these provisions? Obviously, each and every person should lay that foundation when they are most able and capable, not only for themselves but for those for whom they care and love. From this perspective, productive ageing therefore does not only concern the older persons but also all groups in society since it is inevitable that everyone grows older and has parents, relatives and friends, who are much older, whose quality of life affects the family and also the society at large. For those who are younger, they should not only become aware and involved in activities that will promote productive ageing for their older relatives and friends but also take a life span perspective of ensuring that they have made adequate provisions for themselves and the generations to come.

     One of the most remarkable achievements of the twentieth century is increased longevity and the distinct probability of leading a healthy, active and creative life right up to very old ages, free of disability. This is, however, not possible unless each and every person, young or old, adopts a united stand in pushing policies and programs to ensure a high quality of life at all ages. Ageing issues are not high on the agenda of national concerns in many countries and it is for this reason that a more proactive approach should be considered and utilized. In this regard, several areas and issues need to be emphasized and highlighted to ensure that appropriate and comprehensive policies and programs would evolve to improve the quality of life of older persons in particular, and the people in the region in general.

3. Issues of Policy Concern

     This section will look at several issues that may affect the quality of life of older citizens, with the aim of highlighting them for serious consideration for immediate implementation in the policies and programs of the countries in the region. Some of these issues may have been discussed elsewhere, in forums, seminars or journal articles, but the fact that they have not been considered seriously means they are not of immediate concern by the society at large in this region, including perhaps the senior citizens themselves.

3.1 Older persons as a valuable resource

     More often than not, older persons are viewed as a burden for the family and the State, and rarely as a valuable resource for development. Common societal perceptions are largely negative stereotypes that lead to a subjective and biased image of older persons. The older person's self-perception is also likely to be negative. These perceptions therefore act as mental blocks such that those older persons who are active do not want to be associated with or considered as 'old' persons for fear that they will also be negatively stereotyped as 'useless, weak or dependent'. It is therefore pertinent that these perceptions be changed to accept that an older person is a human being who can maintain an active life and contribute to society. There is therefore a whole gamut of policies and programs that can be proposed: from educational materials in school and in the media, which are targeted at the society at large, to those targeted specifically at older persons. There is a need to prepare for life in old age via anticipatory role orientation and role transition, and the elderly themselves should consider that they are a valuable resource as this will facilitate their continued participation in an active, productive and creative life. Ageing should therefore be viewed from the perspective of a continuity of roles and functions rather than from the perspective of disengagement or withdrawal. Some roles, such as those related to occupation or parenting, may cease or reduce in importance but these should be substituted or modified by new social and economic activities or roles. In many cases, the performance of new or continuing roles would require education, orientation and counseling. In Indonesia and the Philippines, for example, it is reported that there are programs which provide social guidance, training in simple skills for home industry, farming and the provision of a 'productive package', to enable elderly persons to continue working (ESCAP, 1989d, p. 26; Domingo, 1994, p. 109).

     Some of the new and continuing roles that may require renewed emphasis include re-establishing social contacts, helping with household work, socialization, informal education and care of children, inculcating moral and religious values, acquainting children and young people with local history and sociocultural traditions, resolving intra-family tensions and engaging in various social and economic activities. Due to their wide experience, older persons can effectively perform in such spheres through play and story-telling, and in preventive health care, nutrition and many other spheres. They can also be effective agents of change, such as fighting social evils, promoting improvements in the quality of life for those in disadvantageous positions and promoting care of the environment. In many countries, elderly persons already play this new role, but to a limited extent (see, for example, ESCAP, 1994; ESCAP, 1992b and ESCAP, 1989a). Such roles can only be expanded to include other areas if all parties, family members, young and old alike, and the community at large, emphasize and give new values to the contribution made by elderly persons in these areas. Elderly persons themselves, among others, can assume leadership positions in the political arena, in citizenship development roles and social action groups, and contribute to economic development.

     There is a need to integrate the elderly in development planning and to consider raising the present retirement age. The present official retirement age of 55 years or thereabouts in quite a few countries in Asia (see table 1) sends a signal to society that a person is unable to contribute fully after this age. This age was functionally useful in the past when people in general did not have such long lives. Today, however, this age is definitely too young, particularly as increasing numbers of persons are likely to spend more years in education, marry late and have fewer children. Considering the huge amount of financial resources spent in bringing up and educating each person, all countries would indeed lose a valuable resource if no provision is made to enable older persons to contribute economically after retirement. With an average life expectancy at birth of about 70 years for men and about 4 years older for women in quite a few countries in Asia (table 2), it is pertinent to highlight that, on average, a person is likely to live at least another 15-20 years upon reaching the age of retirement. This means that in effect such countries have only tapped the human resource of one-third of the human life span or half of the adult life. For a number of countries in Asia that are facing severe labour shortages in many areas, such as in Malaysia, it is especially unthinkable that the present resource retirement age is not given the due recognition and priority attention that they so rightly deserve.

     It is imperative to also consider utilizing the resources of this group for other reasons. In some instances, the increased years spent in school may make it necessary for such persons to continue working, otherwise they would not have the necessary accumulation of wealth for old age security. This is especially true, as with increased cost of living, much of their savings are eaten away, and with a later age of marriage, some of their children may still be young and dependent on them when they are forced to retire. With increased longevity, quite a few persons may also have to provide care and support for more than one generation of elderly persons. This coupled with continued inflation and high medical costs may result in quite a few elderly persons not being able to live above the poverty level (see, ESCAP, 1994, for example). A study in the Philippines also found many of those older persons, who were forced to retire, want to return to work (Domingo, 1994, p. 108).

3.2 Education and training

     Older persons should have access to continuing education and learning through formal and informal channels. For certain groups, it may be necessary to offer specialized education and training to enable them to participate in certain activities that they are interested in, or to upgrade their skills accordingly. It is particularly important for the present group of elderly to become more exposed to information and knowledge that they were unable to acquire when young. This is because a high proportion of today's middle-aged and elderly persons, particularly women, have not had the opportunity to benefit from formal education. In 1990, about 33.5 per cent of the adult population were illiterate in Asia, with the female illiteracy rate estimated at 44 per cent, which is very much higher than the male rate of 23.4 per cent (UNESCO, 1991, p. 26).

     The situation varies across the region. For example, in 1990, about 68 per cent of the adult female population in Southern Asia and 34 per cent in Eastern Asia were illiterate. For males, the comparable figures were 41 per cent and 14 per cent, respectively. Within each region, variations also occurred across countries (see table 3). Countries like Afghanistan and Nepal, for example, reported female illiteracy rates of 86 per cent or more. Hence, the educational level of future generations of elderly, in particular women, will remain poor for some time to come. With higher education, male elderly are also likely to be more self-reliant financially than female elderly. While the educational level has improved over time, the female education level still lags behind the male level, reflecting the priority still given to education of boys over girls, especially in the less developed areas.

     Older persons should themselves be motivated to learn new skills and acquire greater knowledge, and should organize such avenues themselves. For example, Universities of the Third Age are run by older persons and are spreading to developing countries.

3.3 Labour force participation

     Pre-retirement training or training courses for older workers should also be emphasized and these should include a wide spectrum of areas, from the financial aspects of retirement to health, leisure and family life. In cooperation with employers and appropriate statutory and political bodies, provisions of activities and opportunities should be made available to ensure that older persons lead meaningful and productive lives. Of high importance is education on health and nutrition, a comprehensive counseling service to deal with various psychological problems and stresses, and an information system covering services and facilities required by older persons. Training of care providers and other related manpower should also be high on many national agendas.

     Current labour force participation rates may be useful in indicating the extent of economic independence and have implications for the well-being of older persons. Available information on activity rates indicate that in Asia in 1990, one out of every five women aged 60-64 was in the active labour force and one-twelfth of those 65 and over were gainfully employed (ESCAP, 1991a, p. 23). Activity rates of less than 20 per cent are found in the 60-64 age group for females in all subregions except South-East Asia, and in the 65+ group, activity rates were below 10 per cent, other than in South-East Asia where the rate was about 18 per cent in 1990. Male activity rates are generally higher. For example, labour force participation rates for men aged 60-64 years in 1990 were reported to be as high as 77 per cent in SouthEast Asia, 74 per cent in South-Central Asia and 66 per cent in East Asia. These rates are substantially higher than in the West due to their higher concentration in agriculture and in the informal sector, both of which do not have a compulsory retirement age.

     This situation is also found at the country level. For example, for those aged 65+ in 1990, male rates were over 50 per cent in countries like Indonesia and India, and over 30 per cent in China, Hong Kong, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Thailand. In contrast, the rates for their female counterparts were below 10 per cent in most countries of the region, except Indonesia, where the rate was 10.5 per cent. The labour force participation rates are, however, expected to fall as the region becomes more developed and urbanized. In the year 2020, the labour force participation rate of women aged 60-64 will be only 10 per cent, and for those 65 years and over, only 5 per cent, while for the men, it will be 59 per cent and 26 per cent, respectively (table 4). Rising literacy among the young population, introduction of the wage economy and mechanization of production, increased financial resources through savings and remittances from children, have been suggested as some factors which are primarily responsible for the projected sharp decline in activity rates (see, for example, Cheung, 1993). Perhaps such labour force statistics cloud the measurement of actual work done by the older population and underestimate their actual economic contribution. They also do not reflect the number of working hours or the working conditions of the elderly. A study done in Malaysia, based on the 1988 Malaysian Family Life Survey (MFLS), found that only 40 per cent of persons aged 50+ worked, and among them, 79 per cent worked full-time and the rest part-time (Tey and Tey, 1995). Elderly male workers are more likely than their female counterparts to work full-time (84 per cent as against 70 per cent). A study carried out in India and elsewhere also showed about 40 per cent of those aged 50+ were still working, and among them, about half were full-time workers (ESCAP, 1994). Hence, available data may not reflect too well the economic position of this group of persons. Nevertheless, they indicate that older prsons may be more vulnerable, women more than men, and the rapidly rising proportion of women living longer and to advanced ages have serious social and economic implications for all countries in the region. This is especially true as women who work are generally found at the lowest rung and are poorly paid and in the informal sector, and older women may be in a worse position and live in poverty (World Bank, 1994: 29-30).

3.4 Health care

     Low income and education have been found to be highly correlated to poor health in many countries. Older persons, especially older women, are disproportionately represented amongst the poor, which has important implications on their nutritional status, access to adequate medical care and their physical well-being. Unlike elderly men, who may have their wives to depend on when they fall ill, older women are quite likely to have to rely on children and other relatives (Tey, 1995: 107).

     Older women face different health problems compared with older men. Evidence from a study carried out in Malaysia seems to indicate that, at a given older age, women may face more health problems than men (Tey, 1995, chapter 3). This has been attributed to differences in lifestyle when young and possibly a lack of suitable regular exercise and sporting activities by women due to a lack of awareness and their many commitments in the home and outside. Hence, health care practices and a healthy lifestyle would have to be inculcated from a young age, or promoted as important for health for persons of all ages.

     The rising cost of health care and the ability of those older persons to support themselves or be supported by members of their families have become issues of concern. These issues will become critical as health care costs rise further and health services increasingly extend beyond the reach of more and more older persons. The health insurance policies of today are generally discriminatory against older persons and there is no reason why contributions at a young age should not benefit a person when he is older and most likely to require such financial assistance. It is time that the insurance industry in many developing countries takes a long and hard look as to how it can contribute to the community. An overall review of its policies, to at least reduce the burden of health costs for those most likely to be in need, will be a step in the right direction.

     While facilities may be available to support elderly persons, many still prefer to be cared for by family members, such as in Japan. For example, there are those older persons who stay for a long time (sometimes longer than a year) in hospitals to avoid the social stigma of being cared for in nursing homes (ESCAP, 1991b, p. 116).

3.5 Family support and financial security

     It has been found that generally in Asia, older persons have a place to live with their children (Chen and Jones, 1989; Andrews and others, 1986; ESCAP, 1992a; World Bank, 1994, p. 52-53). However, the percentage of elderly living alone or not co-residing with adult children has risen (Tey, 1995, p. 97; United Nations, 1991; ESCAP, 1991b; DaVanzo and Chan, 1994), and it is not well-known what percentage are homeless or who live in old folks homes. With high growth and urbanization rates, massive rural-urban migration and changes in family structure, family support of the elderly has shown signs of weakening (World Bank, 1994, pp.52-53, 61-65; Kendig, 1989, p. 65). Many families may find it increasingly difficult to care for their own elderly and they may not have the capacity to cope alone without community support (Tan, 1993).

     Besides basic food and shelter, the extent of financial security is also of critical importance to the well-being and welfare of elderly persons. Such old age security is provided largely by remuneration for current work, contributions from children, provident and other funds, and pension or insurance. Remuneration for current work is a main source of financial security for older persons who work, while those who do not work tend to receive more support from children (Tey, 1995, p.90-92). Nevertheless, the evidence seems to indicate that the amount of contribution from children is not on par with income from work. Support from children is also found to be more important for rural females than other groups (see, for example, Wu, 1994, p. 63-64; Tey, 1995, p. 94). Provident funds and pensions largely cover those working in the formal sector while insurance benefits are only available to those who subscribe. The size of such funds, pension benefits or insurance payments greatly depends on their original contributions, which are determined to a large extent by the amount of remuneration and/or length of service. The provident funds and insurance payments are often paid in a lump-sum upon retirement or upon reaching a certain age and, unless prudently managed or invested, they quickly disappear and rarely provide long-term old age financial security.

     Even then, coverage from such funds is indeed fairly disappointing. For example, in Malaysia, based on the 1988 MFLS, only about 46 per cent of the elderly persons aged 50-79 or those currently working were covered by such funds, and this is substantiated by other data which reported only 46.2 per cent of the labour force being covered by such funds in 1992 (Tey, 1995, p. 88; Asher, 1994). This is also true in other countries where only a small proportion receive pension or provident funds (see, for example, Kirananda and others, 1988; Choe and Lee, 1991, p. 62; ESCAP, 1991b, p. 116; Wu, 1994, p. 64; Bose, 1994, p. 72). Insurance coverage is also fairly low; in Malaysia, only about 22.3 per cent of the population subscribed to insurance coverage in 1994 (Bank Negara Malaysia, 1994), and, considering that some may have taken multiple policies, the percentage of older persons with this benefit is expected to be small.

     Elderly women, due to lower education and labour force participation, are less likely to have savings or to receive benefits from social security than men, since they tend not to be in the formal sector (see for example, Jones, 1990; ESCAP, 1994). In many countries, they also have less access to property and assets than men. Widowhood is more prevalent amongst elderly women than men due to the cultural norms that encourage men to marry younger wives, widowers to remarry, widows to remain unmarried, and the higher life expectancy of women compared with men (ESCAP, 1991a, p. 21). For example, a recent survey in China found that among those age 60-70 years, 50 per cent of the women were widows and twenty-five per cent of the men were widowers, and the widowhood rate was as high as 90 per cent (ESCAP, 1989a). Similar surveys in the Republic of Korea, Sri Lanka, India and a number of countries in Asia also revealed a much higher prevalence of widowhood among elderly women than men (ESCAP, 1989b; 1989c; Concepcion, 1989, p. 42-43; ESCAP, 1994). Upon the death of their husbands, older women may continue to receive their husbands' pensions but these are generally at a much reduced rate. Divorced women would not be covered by their late husbands' pension schemes and they have to rely on their own financial resources. This is also true of single women and those women whose late husbands had no pension coverage, especially those who had been involved largely in informal and unpaid family work. Hence, without adequate provision for their social and economic security in old age, many of the elderly women are likely to lag behind and live in poverty, especially if abandoned by family members.

4. Policy and Programme Implications

     A developmental approach to population ageing will ensure that all persons in the population become fully aware and take an active role to integrate ageing issues and concerns into development planning. Younger persons should take responsibility to maintain a healthy lifestyle and understand the life-long process involved and start providing for their own old age security through various schemes. They should also become the catalyst in promoting policies and programmes on ageing issues and concerns because they affect older relatives and friends, and also because no one can avoid old age. Health status is found to be a major influence on an elderly person's social and economic life. Hence, it is necessary to ensure life-long health care is available and affordable, particularly at older ages. To this end, the elderly should be involved in development and management of such health care services, particularly in view of the fact that increasingly there are fewer care providers within the family system. Women, who traditionally have been the main care providers, are now more involved in work outside the home. Awareness creation of such issues and concerns is needed for the young via educational materials, the media, talks and other forums, as well as for older persons, via more specialized programmes and selected mediums such as recreational clubs, senior citizens clubs or other social clubs, and the mass media. It is indeed an uphill task to convince older persons (and younger persons as well) that a person, regardless of age, should continue to contribute actively to society and become involved in issues and concerns that affect them and their fellow men. Focus should be on three main areas: health maintenance, skills development and income support.

     Official policies should introduce ways to integrate elderly people in the mainstream of the economy. This is being done in the newly industrializing economies where ageing is increasingly becoming a major issue such as in Hong Kong, the Republic of Korea and Singapore, and in some developing countries such as China. It is essential to create an environment that is friendly towards older persons. This would include amenities and services, and housing and transportation, which will assist and enable the older persons to function independently with a high quality of life. Perhaps a central coordinating body should ensure that issues and concerns of the elderly are systematically considered in national policies and programmes.

     It is necessary to carry out systematic research to determine the extent of problems faced by the present cohort of older persons. For the future cohorts, especially women, it is necessary to improve social security coverage and ensure that those who care for the family, parents and other relatives, or who work in the informal sector or as family workers, are also adequately provided for in old age. To the extent possible, comprehensive social service systems should be strengthened as the main mechanism through which elderly persons and others in need may receive psychological and material support. Provision also has to be made for adequate health care and social support within the family and the community. In this regard, appropriate amendments and review of the present health insurance policies are warranted. To resolve some of the social and nutritional problems of older persons, it may also be necessary to set up 'meals on wheels' and day care centres.

     As the society develops, the risk of social isolation will rise. While traditionally, the family provides the main care and support, and older persons have a role in the homes, they may now find themselves increasingly alienated socially. It is therefore necessary for the community and the society to ensure that centres are set up where the elderly would be able to interact with other members of society and make themselves useful. The elderly themselves can play a prominent role in ensuring such centres are set up in their neighbourhood by gathering support of other persons in the community and manning such centres. It should not be beyond the means of any community to start such centres. They will essentially need a pool of voluntary workers and some initial funding. The activities can be varied to include some income-generating activities such that they become self-sustaining in the long run. Alternatively, such centres can be adopted by private and commercial firms as part of their contribution to the community, and such centres can easily cater to other groups, and provide support for families who may need help and assistance in caring for their members. In Hong Kong, for example, there are more than 150 community-support service centres run by NGOs (Chow, 1994, p. 68-69). They include home help services, social centres, multi-service centres and day-care centres.

     Older persons could organize social and other gatherings for themselves and their family members and other members in the community. They can also lead in the organization of leisure activities, including tours and travel and family gatherings, and provide introduction and match-making services for those unable but interested in meeting suitable/prospective partners for marriage, social reasons or business.

     Volunteerism is relatively low especially amongst older persons, and there is a need to tap the valuable resource of these persons. For example, older persons may play an important role in a number of community services, ranging from welfare, religious, cultural, artistic, recreational, leisure and environmental-related activities, to caring for the young and old and providing informal education. Older persons with their rich background of experience can do well to document some of their experiences in books, or documentaries, or be featured in talk shows on radio or television or in articles in the newspapers or magazines. It may be necessary for governmental and non-governmental organizations to facilitate the implementation of some activities. Continuing education and training programmes, particularly for women, many of whom may be isolated due to their poor literacy level by rapid social and economic development, are indeed of high priority. Raising the compulsory retirement age to reflect the needs of today's population or using a flexible retirement age is probably another step that should be considered and implemented immediately. Some countries in the region, such as Thailand, the Philippines and Singapore have already revised their retirement age to 60 years or more (Chen and Jones, 1989; ESCAP, 1993).

     All persons, especially those who are older, should themselves recognize the invaluable human resource of the elderly, and governmental as well as non- governmental agencies should encourage and facilitate their active participation in the mainstream of the economy and society. In doing this, cognizance should be taken of the fact that in the future, the elderly will be more educated than at present. Perhaps some modification of the existing rigid employment practices and institutional setup to involve older workers may be necessary to guarantee their continued participation. For example, in Malaysia, the recent relaxation of recruitment procedures for retired teachers and nurses may well be initiatives in the right direction to involve older workers. Various agencies, both government and private, should set up the necessary machinery to increase the participation of older workers within and outside their employment structures by providing part-time or flexible hours of work and lighter work (such as toll collectors, cashiers) for older workers. It is relevant that such agencies explore and assist older persons by placing them in positions where they can excel by providing them with the knowledge, skills and assistance required to do so. Older persons should also be given expert advice, credit and assistance to start their own or joint business ventures. Besides providing information on job and business opportunities, formal and informal job training programmes should be organized on an on-going basis or provided for in the present educational structure so that older workers may enhance and upgrade their skills and knowledge with up-to-date technology. Training of care providers and other related manpower should also be given a high priority in many national agendas.

     Changing family structure as a result of urbanization and out-migration may make the elderly feel redundant or increasingly unimportant and vulnerable. In such a situation, older persons should learn to adapt and modify the roles they play. While some may continue to play important roles as heads of households and in making major decisions, many more should participate actively in the socialization and the inculcation of moral, religious and cultural values and traditions to the younger members in the family. While they were once too busy with their careers and jobs outside to participate and assist in household functions, many older persons can learn to carry out household duties and take care of small children and participate in the family business or farm. Many elderly can, and in fact do, help their children in household chores, child-care and the family business or farm (Tey, 1995; Chow, 1994, p. 67). They should, in addition, initiate and participate in family and other social activities with their friends and relatives, otherwise they will feel increasingly isolated and alone. It may be necessary to have counseling and other support groups to enable older persons to return to the family fold. Family development programs may need to focus on this aspect, and perhaps, with less sex discrimination in household functions. As society develops, such dysfunctioning will receive early and high attention.

     Various measures and legislation need to be initiated and expanded in many countries to perpetuate values which uphold family responsibility for care of the elderly as well as to reduce the government burden. Among them are tax rebates, such as those implemented in Japan, the Republic of Korea and in Hong Kong, and special housing benefits and arrangements as in Singapore and Hong Kong, and the holding of Family Day and Elderly Day, as in Thailand, Malaysia and a number of other countries. Laws have also been enacted in countries such as China and India to ensure that the young undertake the responsibility of caring for their elderly folks within the confines of the family.

     Research on ageing issues in this region has yet to be given a high priority. It is necessary for official data to accord due recognition to this group of older persons, who are, more often than not, ignored or considered as a homogeneous group. Older persons differ in characteristics and they have different needs and demands. Future cohorts of elderly persons are already born and they can be studied to provide fairly reliable information in planning policies and programmes. It is easy enough to create a data bank of their expertise and match them with specific jobs vacancies. Their potential contribution should be explored with more research and accorded a high priority on the research agenda.

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