INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MINE CLEARANCE TECHNOLOGY 2-4 July 1996 Copenhagen, DENMARK STANDARDS FOR HUMANITARIAN MINE CLEARANCE OPERATIONS SAFETY STANDARDS FOR MINE CLEARANCE OPERATIONS Matt Matulewicz Introduction 1. The term "demining" does not adequately describe what is in reality an inherently dangerous occupation involving a number of activities which lead to the location, identification and destruction of not only land mines, both anti-personnel and anti-tank but also other items of manufactured and locally produced ordnance. 2. Each type of mine or ordnance has its own attendant hazards and potential dangers, depending on the nature and method of operation. Demining operations may be further complicated by the presence of various types of booby traps, the construction of which may be limited only by the ingenuity of the designer and the time and materials available. The hazards inherent in mines or other ordnance may also be compounded by a number of other factors such as faulty design or manufacture, inefficiency in laying, age and environmental conditions and so on. 3. Demining may be defined, in a simplistic way, as the application of a number of activities carried out under strict procedural control (or discipline), which leads to the discovery and identification of mines. Following identification of a mine, its specific hazards may be determined, leading to the informed choice of an appropriate method of disposal. 4. In the context of military mine clearance, or minefield breaching, clearance is usually undertaken in pursuit of a military objective. The urgency or attractiveness of the objective will often dictate the extent and degree of clearance possible under time and manpower constraints and thus the level of casualties which are acceptable during the clearance operation. Regrettably, in many areas of the world, consideration is rarely given to the casualty rate later occurring among civilians forced to use cleared or semi-cleared areas in the aftermath of military clearance operations. In reality, military minefields in many countries are simply left, uncleared and unmarked, as the tide of battle moves on. 5. In humanitarian terms, minefield clearance is defined as the safe, effective and cost-effective clearance of mines from land in order that life can return to normal. Under these circumstances a zero rate of casualties is highly desirable, both during the clearance operation and afterwards. This may appear to be a difficult objective. 6. But the casualty rate to deminers in a formal humanitarian demining programme (such as CMAC in Cambodia), appears to be rather less than that which occurs to civilians living in mined areas, even though the former are engaged in actively seeking mines. The conclusion is that the hazards and therefore risk of injury to deminers from mines and other items of ordnance, can be mitigated by good training in sound operational procedures with the use of appropriate equipment of good quality. 7. Operational procedures may vary according to country, cultural and environmental conditions and types of mines and ordnance dealt with. The safety of deminers during mine clearance operations and of the public during the operations and afterwards will depend on the technical standards to which such work is undertaken and the safety standards upheld while work is ongoing. There is therefore a need for the establishment of minimum safety standards in all aspects of demining, from which standard operating procedures may be derived, relevant to the circumstances under which the mine clearance is being undertaken. 8. Demining operations across the globe depend on the introduction of modern technology, such as mine detectors and methodologies, derived from the many years of experience of more developed countries. Developed nations have embraced the concept of safety standards in the home, in public and at work, for many years. To install demining technology and methodologies in less developed countries without proper regard to minimum safety standards would be to avoid an inherent responsibility. MINEFIELD MARKING PROCEDURES DURING CLEARANCE 9. For maximum safety to deminers and to the public during mine clearance operations, it is usual and necessary to mark the operational area with clarity and a high degree of visibility. This is important for the following reasons: (a) Minefields may cover large areas of ground with complex topography and vegetation cover; (b) Areas of cleared and uncleared ground must be physically separated to avoid the possibility of human resources straying into uncleared ground; (c) Clear and consistent marking gives demining personnel confidence in their surroundings; (d) Well marked, clearly laid out sites are easier to control, manage and administer; (e) Clear, visible and consistent marking enhances public confidence in demining operations; (f) Casualty extraction during clearance is made quicker and easier; (g) Clear and precise marking on the ground is essential for accurate record keeping, which is of paramount importance. DATUM POINT 10. Standardization of minefield layout is a precursor to minefield marking during clearance operations. The clearance operation and thus the marking must start from a clearly identifiable point on the ground. This is known as the Datum Point. 11. The Datum Point is a predetermined point on the ground, accurately surveyed from a minimum of three fixed landmarks and semi-permanently installed for the duration of the clearance operation by means of a post or cairn of stones. All measurements and dimensions of the minefield are related to the Datum Point, which is located in known safe ground close to the minefield edge and is clearly and accurately marked on a map. If accurate maps of the area in which the minefield is located are not available, it will be necessary to produce a local plan of the minefield which will develop as the clearance continues.1 DATUM LINE 12. To allow for multiple incursions into the mined area by demining teams, in a logical, progressive manner consistent with maximum safety, it is necessary to identify the boundary at which such incursions will take place. This is facilitated by the installation of a Datum Line. 13. The Datum Line is a line drawn on a predetermined bearing through the datum point. This will normally be along the longest axis of the area to be cleared, but may alternatively be aligned with an access route, or an existing natural or man-made boundary. The datum line is fixed in a known safe area and is recorded on the map or plan. START POINTS 14. The points at which demining teams will commence penetration of the mine field are located along the Datum Line and are known as Start Points. 15. For safety reasons, the Start Points will be positioned at 50-metre intervals (or other distances commensurate with safety and control) along the Datum Line, as measured from the Datum Point. Start Points are numbered and allocated to individual demining teams. Start point numbers are recorded on the map or plan and team allocation is recorded on a supporting document, together with the date of starting. MINEFIELD MARKING PROCEDURES DURING CLEARANCE Start Line and Lane 16. Clearance then commences into the minefield along a straight line at right angles to the Datum Line from the Start Point. This line is known as the Start Line. 17. Clearance continues along a path, the width of which is determined by the equipment being used (usually 1 metre), to a distance of 50 metres (or less, depending on visibility) from the Start Point, marking both left and right limits of the cleared area with tape or line. The cleared path is known as a Lane. Intermediate Line 18. At the 50-metre point, or a lesser distance depending on visibility, a temporary marker (peg or line) is installed. This is known as the Intermediate Line. 19. When the Intermediate Line is reached, clearance in that lane ceases and a new adjacent lane is commenced parallel to the first. It is safe practice to overlap the search lanes by an appropriate distance on each side. MARKING UXO 20. In the event that a mine or other item of UXO is found in a lane, there are several courses open to the clearance team following identification of the item: (a) Mark the item clearly and carry on progressing the lane; (b) Destroy the item in situ and continue clearance in that lane; (c) Mark the item clearly, return to the start line and begin a new lane adjacent to the lane in which the item was found. 21. Choice (a) has some implications with regard to safety in that clearance personnel will have to step over or around the article in order to continue clearance of that lane. Choice (b) is a safer choice, but is very time-consuming, in that items found will have to be destroyed on an individual basis. Choice (c) is the course of action usually chosen because: (i) The item concerned may be left undisturbed until a convenient time is chosen for it to be destroyed; (ii) Adjacent lanes will have to be cleared anyway, so little time is lost in demolition procedures for individual items; (iii) The destruction of a number of mines or other items, in a number of adjacent lanes, may be achieved simultaneously at the end of the working day, or whenever convenient; (iv) Accurate measurements of the distances between the mines found can be taken and accurate assessments of mine densities, mine mixes and laying patterns can be made. MARKING THE APPROACHES TO A MINEFIELD Access Point 22. In addition to the operational minefield marking equipment, there is also a requirement to ensure that equipment, staff and visitors are kept out of danger areas while moving in and out of the area of operation. All demining staff, equipment and visitors should only access the minefield via a clearly defined route. This means that advance warning should be given at least 500 metres before arrival at the access point, by means of a sign which clearly states the minefield designation (number or name) and the distance to the access point.2 Vehicle Park and Safe Lanes 23. At the access point, there should be a clearly marked vehicle park situated within cleared ground to a minimum of 100 metres from the working area. The vehicle park should be marked and fenced in the same manner as the minefield proper. Access from the vehicle park towards the minefield should be via a clearly defined path known as a Safe Lane with a minimum width of 1 metre. The path should be clearly marked on both sides with the same fencing as the minefield and sign posted with warning signs.3 Briefing Area 24. Before entry into the minefield, the Safe Lane should lead into a briefing area. The briefing area is fenced in the same manner as the minefield and should be within view of at least part of it. The briefing area contains a plan of the minefield at its current level of clearance, at a scale large enough for briefing purposes and a safety brief. The plan should show clearly the location of the vehicle park, the briefing area, the areas where demining work is progressing. 25. The briefing area is also the point at which safety equipment is issued to visitors before entry into the minefield. The briefing area will contain a sign to the effect that all visitors are to remain in the box until briefed on safety procedures and issued with safety equipment. Movement out of the briefing area by visitors, other than back to the vehicle park, is prohibited unless escorted by minefield staff. The briefing area should be located no closer to the minefield working area than 75 metres. Control Points 26. It will also be necessary to install control points for stores and equipment dumps, an explosives store, a scrap metal dump, a medical treatment point and safe rest areas at convenient places in cleared areas outside of the minefield. These points are to be accessed only via clearly marked and fenced paths or Safe Lanes. The size of these areas will be commensurate with the number of personnel involved in the operation. MINIMUM SAFETY DISTANCES For personnel working in the minefield 4 Situation Distance between(m) More than one working section 20 Men working in the same lane 7 Acess route and any safe area 20 Two safe areas 20 Vehicle park and active mine clearnace sites 100 Briefing area and active mine clearance site 75 Explosive storage point and active mine 50 clearance sites Bulk storage and any building 200 * Safety distances may be increased if circumstances require. MINEFIELD MARKING ON THE GROUND 27. As previously stated minefield marking needs to be of high visibility. In many areas of the world, minefield marking materials may represent desirable building and other materials, such is the poverty encountered. With this in mind, minefield marking materials need to be of low value and locally obtainable. The marking system must be logical, clear and consistent and everyone in the area, including visitors, must be familiar with it. DEALING WITH MINES FOUND DURING CLEARANCE OPERATIONS 28. There is currently a great deal of debate surrounding the issues of the demolition of mines in situ, versus neutralization and removal of mines for bulk disposal later. In humanitarian mine clearance operations undertaken by indigenous personnel, the preferred method of dealing with mines is to destroy the mine where it is rather than subject demining operators to the greater hazards of neutralization. In principle the greatest risk to personnel arises when working on or very close to a mine, depending on what is actually being done. It would appear logical that the shorter the time spent working with a mine and the less disturbance caused, the less the risk. An examination of the actions involved in each procedure should reveal the comparative risks, in terms of exposure: Sequence No. Disposal in-situ Actions Neutralisation Actions 1 Find the mine; Find the mine 2 Identify the mine Identify the mine 3 Mark the mine Examine the mine for booby-traps 4 Place an explosive charge Neutralise the mine 5 Detonate the mine Remove the mine from the ground 6 Take the mine components to a secure area for storage 7 Maintain security until time for disposal 8 Take mine(s) to disposal site 9 Place an explosive charge(s) 10 Detonate the mine(s) 29. In terms of number of actions and length of exposure time involved, destruction in situ seems to be indicated as the safer method of disposal of mines. There are other factors to be taken into account: (a) Neutralized mines have been known to have been stolen and re-used by farmers or dissidents; (b) Teaching mine neutralization to indigenous deminers increases the training requirement and the time required for training, the more diverse natures of mines involved the more training time needed; (c) Teaching mine neutralization techniques may not be an attractive option on the grounds that the knowledge might be used for other than humanitarian purposes; (d) Mines destroyed in situ are generally destroyed on the day of finding (or should be). The need for careful transportation; separate storage of components (detonators, main charge etc.); segregation of mine components from demolition stores and enhanced security needs are thus avoided. 30. There are some arguments against the use of destruction in situ as a disposal method for mines: (a) Destruction in situ may contaminate the minefield with metal from the mine(s) so destroyed. Mines destroyed in situ are very often of the minimum metal variety and contain very small amounts of metal capable of contaminating the surrounding area. In the case of metal cased mines and directional mines, the amount of contamination caused by detonation of the mine can be largely directed into the cleared area by selective charge placement. This reduces the amount of metal landing in the forward area to be searched. The few metal fragments which do land in forward area rarely penetrate the ground and are easily located on the surface with a standard mine detector. Metal fragments which land in highly contaminated areas will only add a minute amount of contamination to an already existing problem. In such areas, it is likely that the detection of mines will be achieved using prodders rathers than metal detectors, so the point is irrelevant; (b) Destruction in situ may sensitize other mines which have been placed in close proximity. While it is true that mines do sometimes react adversely (sensitization or, in extreme cases, sympathetic detonation) to detonations occuring very close by, the following points are relevant. As far as is known no death or injury has so far been recorded to demining personnel as a direct result of sensitization or sympathetic detonation of nearby mines following destruction of mines in situ. While "sympathetic detonation" is often blamed for the inadvertent detonation of other mines close to mines being destroyed in situ, this is unlikely to be the real cause. 30. All things considered, demolition in situ should be the standard method of disposal for mines and other ordnances during humanitarian mine clearance operations. Neutralization and removal of mines should be considered only in exceptional circumstances: (a) When human life is in grave danger and the person or persons concerned cannot be moved out of the danger area; (b) To preserve a vitally needed asset, which, if damaged or destroyed, would inflict further damage or injury to others. 31. An example of an occasion when neutralization might be acceptable is where there is a need to remove mines to allow the urgent treatment and evacuation of a casualty from a minefield. THE USE OF EXPLOSIVES IN MINE CLEARANCE OPERATIONS 32. While explosives are a valuable tool for use in the fight against land mines, there are hazards; and not only explosive hazards. For example, TNT is degraded by prolonged exposure to ultraviolet light and poorly made TNT may produce exudation. At the same time, TNT, like most explosives, is poisonous and may also cause dermatitis. So great care is needed to be exercised in the handling and use of such powerful substances. 33. Military explosives are designed to be extremely powerful and are stable in storage and transportation. They are also very expensive. Explosives used for civilian engineering applications, such as quarrying, are often cheaper, but may be lower in power (as measured by VOD). They may also be hygroscopic and not designed to be stored for long periods in humid conditions. There may also be maintenance requirements, eg., some nitroglycerine-based explosives need regular rotation in storage to avoid gravitation of the explosive medium. Nitroglycerine also suffers from slow chemical deterioration. STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF EXPLOSIVES 34. Explosives need to be handled, stored and transported with care and attention to detail. They may become uncomfortably sensitive, or just unserviceable through bad handling and storage. Key storage factors are as follows: (a) Avoid excessive heat, dampness and rough handling; (b) Store explosives in a cool dry place, sheltered from the elements with good ventilation; (c) Protect from the light; (d) Keep explosives off the floor, on duck boards or shelves; (e) Segregate explosives by type (some explosives give off vapour, which will react with other explosives in a confined space); (f) Keep detonators in a separate place from other explosives. If this is not possible then they must be isolated by blast proof sand bag partitions; (g) Never store unexploded munitions with bulk explosives; (h) Keep explosives in their packaging until required for use; (i) Explosives may react with other materials such as paint, oil, petroleum and diesel etc. All such materials must be stored in separate places remote from the explosive store. No inflammable materials such as packaging waste should be allowed to accumulate in the store; (j) Explosives must not be stored near radioactive materials; (k) Any explosive store must be located a minimum of 200 metres from any building; (l) Smoking or open fires must not be allowed within 50 metres of the explosive store; (m) Radio transmission is prohibited within 50 metres of an explosive store; (n) Fire fighting media must be located within easy reach and prominently marked and subjected to regular inspection and maintenance; (o) Foliage must be kept short around the store to a distance of 10 metres radius; (p) No Smoking and No Open Fires signs must be installed at clearly visible points at 50 metres radius from the store; (q) Entry to the store must be limited to authorized personnel; (r) Accurate issue and return records must be kept; (s) A system of regular stock checks should be put in place, together with regular routine inspections. EXPLOSIVES STORE CONSTRUCTION 35. While it would be inappropriate and costly to fully impose Western explosive storage construction regulations on demining operations in post conflict emerging nations, some common sense design criteria are easily achievable: (a) The construction should be light, but capable of being secured; (b) The roof should be made of low density material which would not be projected a great distance in the event of a major explosion; (c) The roof should have a thermal shield to assist in keeping the contents of the store cool. This may be achieved, for example, by installing a canvas cover over the roof in such a way as to allow air to circulate between the cover and the roof. The cover also prevents sunlight from impinging directly on the roof; (d) In the case of a high capacity storage facility in (relatively) close proximity to other buildings, a bund, or retaining wall may be constructed at a suitable distance from and surrounding the store. Such a bund or wall should, of course, be constructed outside the crater area of any explosion at the site and be as high as the storage structure; (e) The structure should be well ventilated. TRANSPORTATION OF EXPLOSIVES 36. While explosives are relatively easy to control when in a storage environment, the transportation of explosives, if not controlled effectively, may allow circumstances to develop which may have disastrous consequences. 37. Vehicles used for the bulk transportation of explosives must be: (a) Adequate in capacity and type for the intended use; (b) Reliable in all aspects; (c) Clean and carry no other cargo, particularly passengers. 38. Drivers of explosives carrying vehicles should have received adequate training in both hazardous load handling and emergency procedures. 39. Explosives carrying vehicles should be fitted with adequate fire fighting equipment. 40. Each explosives carrying vehicle should carry brief but comprehensive Standard Operating Procedures to be compiled with in the event of an accident or unusual occurrence. Drivers should be well versed in these procedures as well as normal operating safety procedures. 41. Common safety standards should be applied to all organizations involved in the carriage of explosive stores. This will involve the setting up of standard operating procedures which should be coordinated and enforced by the central mien clearance organization. THE USE OF EXPLOSIVES FOR THE DESTRUCTION OF MINES AND OTHER UNEXPLODED ORDNANCE 42. The use explosives is not the only means of destroying mines and UXO. Most of the other means of dealing with explosive ordnance, however, require some specialist knowledge, training and equipment. Explosive destruction is the preferred method of destruction in mine and UXO clearance because: (a) It is quick, irrevocable and certain; (b) Relatively simple procedures are involved; (c) The use of in-country explosives reduces the total amount of explosives in circulation. 43. Unfortunately it is often the case that the only explosives that can be used for this purpose are those that are already available in the country in which the demining is taking place, at least in the early stages. From experience it can be said that such materials are often old and may have suffered from adverse or uncertain storage conditions. It will be important for the safety of those ultimately using the explosives, that all such materials are subjected to inspection by suitably qualified persons prior to selection for use. The inspectors should not only access the viability of the materials under inspection in terms of quality and safety, but also in terms of quantity and effectiveness. 44. Whatever types of explosives are used, there are two main methods by which the desired detonative effect is achieved: (a) Instantaneous, using electrical initiation; (b) Time delay using safety fuze. 45. Of the two methods, electrical initiation allows better control in that the explosion will occur almost instantly once the electric charge is released to the detonator (assuming correct functioning of all components). The time delay method is less acceptable under some circumstances owing to security constraints and the difficulties sometimes encountered in keeping local people out of the demolition danger area during the time delay period. Both methods have their uses. 46. The electrical method of initiation requires an electrical firing device, a suitable low resistance cable and an electrical detonator to detonate the main charge. Detonating cord may be used to carry the detonative effect from the detonator to a number of charges for simultaneous detonation. 47. Probably the best electrical firing device for use in demining operations is the type which operates independently of batteries and thus does not require any form of battery charger or external power supplies. This type of firing device contains a small hand driven generator which, when operated, charges a storage capacitor with an appropriate level of charge. The most useful and safest of these devices incorporates a status light, which shows when the correct level of charge is reached and a switch or button to release the charge to the detonator. There are a number of low-cost electrical firing devices available commercially at the present time, but not all are suitable for the applications discussed here. Selection of a firing device should be based on robustness, hand portability, cost and the ability to fire multiple detonators simultaneously through up to 1,200 metres of cable. There will obviously be a trade-off in terms of power, weight and cost. The use of batteries, as the sole means of firing a charge, must be forbidden. 48. In developed countries the explosive destruction of explosive ordnance may be achieved by the application of minimum amounts of explosive power to achieve the maximum effect. This can involve some fairly sophisticated procedures and calculations. In post conflict emerging nations, the explosive destruction of ordnance is achieved by the overkill method, which involves the use of sufficient explosive power to destroy the mine, or whatever, without the need for sophisticated procedures or calculations. The method can be reduced to a simple set of drills, is extremely effective, but uses relatively large amounts of explosives. SAFETY DISTANCES FOR EXPLOSIVE DEMOLITIONS 49. The details given in the table below are not comprehensive and the distances shown do not provide for every possible situation. The information, therefore, can be used only as a general guide by the supervisor who must deal with each case on its merits in the light of his technical knowledge and experience of ammunition and explosives. it should be expanded to include more types of UXO and input will be welcome. 50. The danger areas given in the table are those from which all personnel, animals and easily damaged movable equipment should be removed. 51. The firing point must be sited outside the danger area and should still be behind protection. Danger Area Radius in metres Type of UXO Item on surface Item in a hole adequately sandbagged adequately sandbagged Shell below 76mm 100 100 Shell between 76mm and 126mm 250 200 Shell above 127mm 500 400 Mortar up to 76mm 100 100 Mortar above 76mm 300 200 Rockets up to 88mm 250 200 Hand grenades & rifle grenades 100 100 Anti-personnel mines 75 75 Anti-tank mines 300 300 HE in bulk up 10kg 50 50 HE in bulk from 10-20kg 75 75 Pyrotechnics natures 40 40 Notes 1 The use of Global Positioning System (GPS) equipment is not recommended unless absolute accuracy can be guaranteed. Many pieces of GPS equipment work to an accuracy of about 30 metres and this is not accurate enough. 2 Visitors to minefields should be limited to groups of four persons or less. Each group should be escorted by a member of the mine clearing organization. 3 The access route into the minefield will follow the progress of the cleared area closely and be realigned, if necessary, daily. The vehicle park and access route is cleared each and every working day, before commencing demining work. No persons other than the clearance team is to enter the minefield until the access route to each mine clearance lane is declared safe. 4 When visitors approach a lane where searching is ongoing, the search should cease until the visitors have left the vicinity.